Covalent bonding
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This document discusses covalent bonding and how to draw dot and structural formulas to represent covalent compounds. It explains that covalent bonds form when two atoms share a pair of electrons and provides examples of drawing dot diagrams for carbon and oxygen atoms. It also demonstrates how to draw dot and structural formulas for the compounds H2 and CH4 by showing the shared electrons between the bonded atoms.
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Electron configuration refers to the distribution of electrons in an atom's orbitals and energy levels. There are three main principles that determine electron configuration: 1) Electrons have higher energy further from the nucleus and in higher principal quantum shells, 2) Orbitals within a shell have set ordering of energies (s < p < d < f), and 3) Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons of opposite spin. The Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule further define how electrons fill the orbitals in atoms.
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Introduction to bonding theories in molecules - ionic and covalent bonds, Lewis Structures, VB Theory, VSEPR, Hybridization
VSEPR
The document discusses the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model, which uses the number of electron pairs around an atom to predict the geometry of molecules. It can be used to predict structure by considering the number of bonded atoms and lone pairs on the central atom. The model works well but is an oversimplification in some cases, failing to accurately describe resonant or planar structures.
Lewis structures
The document provides instructions for building dot structures to represent the molecules ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2):
1) Identify the central atom which is usually the least electronegative. For NH3, nitrogen is central.
2) Add up the valence electrons of each atom. NH3 has a total of 8 electrons from nitrogen and hydrogen. CO2 has a total of 16 electrons from carbon and oxygen.
3) Form single bonds between the central atom and surrounding atoms, using two electrons per bond. Remaining electrons form lone pairs to complete the octet rule.
Chapter 8 Powerpoint.pptx
This document provides information about molecular and ionic compounds, including:
- Molecular compounds are formed by covalent bonds between nonmetal atoms, while ionic compounds involve metal and nonmetal atoms bonded by ionic bonds.
- Molecular formulas show the actual number and type of atoms in a molecule, while ionic formulas use the lowest whole number ratio.
- Covalent bonds are represented by electron dot structures that show how atoms share electrons to achieve stable configurations. Multiple and coordinate covalent bonds are also discussed.
- Polarity arises in polar covalent bonds due to unequal electron sharing. Polar molecules have dipole moments while intermolecular forces include hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, and
Chemistry - Chp 8 - Covalent Bonding - PowerPoint
1. The document discusses covalent bonding and molecular compounds. It defines covalent bonds as the sharing of electrons between nonmetal atoms.
2. Molecular compounds are formed from covalent bonds between atoms. They have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds.
3. Molecular formulas show the number and type of atoms in a molecule, but not their arrangement. Water's molecular formula is H2O.
Bonding
This document discusses different types of chemical bonds including ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding. It explains how ionic bonds form through the transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals, resulting in ions. Covalent bonds form through the sharing of electron pairs between nonmetals. Metallic bonding occurs through the interaction of positively charged metal ions in a "sea" of delocalized electrons. The properties of compounds formed by different bonding types are also summarized.
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Solution concentration
This document discusses different units for expressing concentration of solutions, including percent, parts per hundred (pph), and parts per million (ppm). It provides an example of calculating the concentration in percent by mass of a solution containing 25 g of sucrose dissolved in 175 g of water.
Digestion acids
Acids have a pH between 1 and 7, with stronger acids having a lower pH. They are able to break down chemicals into smaller parts through chemical reactions. Our bodies use acid in digestion to break down food. Hydrochloric acid in the stomach has a very low pH of 2.0 and helps break down food, though the stomach is lined with mucus to protect it from this strong acid. Heartburn occurs when stomach acid rises into the esophagus, and is often treated by neutralizing the acid with products containing calcium carbonate like TUMS.
Acids & bases
Acids have H+ ions dissolved and are corrosive to metals, with a sour taste and pH below 7. Bases have OH- ions dissolved, feel soapy or slippery, have a bitter taste, and pH above 7. The pH scale measures if a substance is acidic, basic, or neutral, with 0-7 being acidic, 7 being neutral, and 7-14 being basic. A change of one pH unit is a 10 times difference in acidity or basicity, so a pH of 2 is 100 times more acidic than a pH of 4. Water that is too acidic or basic can harm fish development, increase toxic metals, or dissolve organic materials like skin and scales. Drinking water should have a
Reaction rates
The document discusses chemical reactions and factors that affect their rates. It explains that reactions can be exothermic, releasing energy, or endothermic, absorbing energy. All reactions require a minimum amount of energy called the activation energy to initiate the rearrangement of reactants into products. The rate of reactions can be increased by raising the temperature, increasing the concentration or surface area of reactants, using catalysts to lower the activation energy, or through mechanical means like stirring. An experiment is described that shows reaction rates increase as particle size decreases due to greater surface area exposure.
Major molecule properties
The four major molecules in food are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water. Carbohydrates provide the body's main source of energy and are found in grains, rice, bread and other foods. Fats also provide energy and are important for health, though eaten in excess they are stored in the body. Proteins are made of amino acids and are essential for many processes in the body. Finally, water makes up 70% of the body and is necessary for transport and chemical reactions.
The water cycle
The water cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. Water evaporates from surfaces like oceans, lakes, and rivers and rises into the air as vapor. The vapor cools and condenses to form clouds and precipitation falls back to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail, completing the cycle.
Solubility
Something dissolved in the Snake River could have caused the fish kill. Polar molecules and ionic compounds can dissolve in water due to the attractions between the water molecules and these substances. The rule is that "like dissolves like," so polar substances dissolve in polar water, while nonpolar substances do not. As temperature increases, the solubility of solids and gases generally increases and decreases, respectively, as shown by solubility curves.
Symbols & formulas
Chemical formulas have three parts: symbols, subscripts, and coefficients. Symbols represent elements with the first letter capitalized. Formulas show what elements are connected and subscripts indicate the number of each atom. Coefficients show how many copies or molecules there are and atoms are separate, not connected. Examples are given of formulas such as CO2, C12H22O11, and MgCl2 to demonstrate how to read the subscripts and coefficients.
Properties of metals and nonmetals
Metals are found on the left side of the periodic table, have properties such as luster, malleability, conductivity, and react with acids. Nonmetals are found on the right side, have properties such as being dull, brittle, not conducting electricity, and usually being gases. Metalloids are in between metals and nonmetals on the periodic table and have some properties of both.
Physical & chemical properties
This document discusses the physical and chemical properties of matter. It defines matter as anything that has mass and takes up space. Physical properties can be observed without changing the material and include characteristics like color, hardness, and melting point. Chemical properties involve a change in the material's composition through reactions with other substances, such as rusting or burning. Some examples provided assess whether various phenomena are physical or chemical properties.
Mixtures
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances that can be physically separated and where the substances retain their own properties. Mixtures can be either homogeneous, where the substances are evenly distributed throughout so it appears to be one substance, or heterogeneous, where the distinct substances can be seen separated into more than one phase. Examples of mixtures include solutions, suspensions, and alloys.
Elements & compounds
The document discusses the differences between elements and compounds. It explains that elements are pure substances made of only one type of atom, while compounds contain two or more different types of atoms that are chemically bonded together. It provides examples of common elements like carbon, oxygen, and neon, as well as examples of compounds, including water (H2O) and sodium chloride (NaCl).
Density
Density is a measurement of how much mass is contained within a given volume, calculated by dividing the mass of an object by its volume. A document provides instructions on how to calculate the density of a substance with a mass of 17.63g and volume of 43cm3, which equals 0.41 g/cm3, identifying the substance as the least dense compared to others.
Density
Density is a measurement of how much mass is contained within a given volume, calculated by dividing the mass of an object by its volume. A document provides instructions on how to calculate the density of a substance with a mass of 17.63g and volume of 43cm3, which equals 0.41 g/cm3, identifying the substance as the least dense of those listed.
Temperature & Volume
Gay-Lussac's Law states that pressure and temperature are directly related for a gas at constant volume: if temperature increases, pressure increases; if temperature decreases, pressure decreases. This is because temperature affects the kinetic energy of gas particles - higher temperature means more kinetic energy and more frequent and energetic particle collisions, resulting in higher pressure. The law can be expressed as P1/T1 = P2/T2, allowing calculations of pressure changes with temperature changes when volume is held constant and temperatures are in Kelvin.
Pressure & Volume
This document discusses the kinetic molecular theory and Boyle's law. It explains that gases are made of molecules that are far apart from each other and move randomly, colliding with the container walls. According to Boyle's law, if the volume of a container decreases, the pressure increases because the molecules collide with the walls more frequently. The document provides the formula for Boyle's law, P1V1 = P2V2, and gives examples of using it to calculate pressure and volume.
Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It can be measured in units such as pounds per square inch, atmospheres, or pascals. Air pressure in the atmosphere is caused by gas molecules constantly colliding with surfaces and exerting force. Standard air pressure at sea level is approximately 101 kPa or 14.7 psi. Pressure calculations involve dividing the total force by the area over which that force is applied.
Matter notes
Matter comes in four forms: solids have a definite shape and volume, liquids have a definite volume but not shape, gases have no definite shape or volume, and plasmas are charged particles with no definite shape or volume. The document introduces the basic properties and states of matter, including solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, atoms, and examples of things made of plasma like flames, nebulae, and stars.
Volume notes
The document discusses volume, which is the amount of space an object occupies. It describes how to measure volume using beakers or graduated cylinders and notes units like liters and milliliters. For liquids, a graduated cylinder should always be used to measure volume and the meniscus read from the bottom. For solids, regular objects use the formula of length x width x height while irregular objects use water displacement by finding the difference in water level before and after the object is added.
Mass vs. weight
Mass is the amount of matter in an object and is measured using a balance with units of grams or kilograms. Weight is a measure of the force of gravity on an object and is measured using a spring scale with units of Newtons or kilograms. Unlike weight, mass stays the same no matter where an object is located in the universe, while weight can change depending on the gravitational pull of different locations.
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Covalent bonding
- 2. COVALENT BONDS Bonds formed between two atoms that share a pair of electrons. A single covalent bond = a pair of shared electrons
- 3. DRAWING DOT DIAGRAMS Step 1: Determine the number Example: Draw the dot of valence electrons for the diagram for Carbon… atom Step 2: Starting at the top, and working your way around clockwise place a dot for each valence electron singly first, Example: Draw the dot and then double up if needed. diagram for Oxygen… REMEMBER: Electrons want to be alone so they will spread out first before they pair up.
- 4. H2 1) Draw dot diagrams for each atom 2) Draw an electron dot diagram for compound showing shared electrons
- 5. CH 4 1) Draw dot diagrams for each atom 2) Draw dot diagram for compound showing shared electrons
- 6. STRUCTURAL FORMULAS Instead of dots draw lines to represent bonds. Shows arrangement of atoms