Copyright law protects original works fixed in a tangible medium, including software code and website content. For software, the source code itself and elements beyond functional aspects like screen outputs may be protected. APIs specifying functionality are generally not protected. Website registrations must include generated page content. Social media terms often grant hosts broad rights over user-posted content. Copyright holders must actively monitor for infringement online due to the vast digital landscape.

1. Copyright Issues Related to
Software and Websites
Practice Group Meeting
1-17-2013

2. Copyright: Protecting Expression
• “Works of authorship fixed in a tangible medium of
expression”
• Software
– What is protectable? Just the code?
– How is it protected? Do I have to deposit my secret
code?
– Is an algorithm “expressive” in some way? Or is it just a
method for doing something?
– What about my APIs? Can I protect those?
• Internet/Websites:
– What is protectable?
– How is a page changing every day protected under rules
written for books that never change?
– Digital explosion = lots of copying! What protection can I
get?
– What about social media?

3. Software Copyright: Source Code
• Can register as literary work
– Update registration with new versions
– However: Copyright is an automatic right
 Acquired upon fixation
 Do not need to register to hold a copyright
 However: MUST register to sue for infringement

4. Software Copyright: Source Code
• What if code contains trade secrets?
• Options:
– Deposit only object code: Registration issues
under “rule of doubt” = benefit of doubt being
unable to verify copyrightable authorship
– Deposit sections of the source code blocked out

5. Software Copyright: Hiding Code
• First 25 and last 25 pages of source code with
portions containing trade secrets blocked out, or
• First 10 and last 10 pages of source code alone, with
no blocked out portions, or
• First 25 and last 25 pages of object code plus any 10
or more consecutive pages of source code, with no
blocked out portions, or
• For programs 50 pages or less in length, entire
source code with trade secret portions blocked out
• However:
– Blocked out portions must be proportionately less than
the material remaining; and
– Visible portion must represent an appreciable amount of
original computer code.

6. Software Copyright: Substantial Similarity
• Deposit used in “substantial similarity”
analysis
• Choose carefully: Deposit enough to prove
infringement later without giving up the secret
• Example from trade secret world:
– Obfuscate the images
– Show enough to show substantial similarity
– Hide enough to preserve the secret
• Must indicate by cover letter (software) or
petition (trade secret)

7. Trade Secret Deposit Example: As Authored
Note: This is Fig. 14 from issued
U.S. Patent 8,000,000

8. Trade Secret Deposit Example: As Filed
Note: This is Fig. 14 from issued
U.S. Patent 8,000,000

9. Software Copyright: More than Source Code
• Cannot copyright functional aspects
• Possibly patentable as e.g. a process, system
and method for performing a process, etc.
• Protection may be available for “structure,
sequence and organization”
– Protection even if infringer wrote in another
language/platform
– Things not necessary to the utilitarian function
might be considered protectable expression
– E.g. file structures, screen outputs, data input
formats, flow/sequencing of screens.
– Especially if there is more than one way to
achieve the same result.

10. Application Programming Interfaces?
• Oracle v. Google NDCA case says no
copyright
• Google copied structure and names of 37
packages from Oracle’s Java API into the
Android platform
• Key issue: Whether the API specification is
protected, not the implementation

11. Example Java API and Method
• API defines a library of method (function) calls:
public boolean java.lang.String.startsWith(String prefix, int
offset)
• Source code for a particular implementation of
the method (function) determines how the
computer behaves when the method is called:
public boolean startsWith(String prefix, int toffset) {
char ta[] = value;
int to = offset + toffset;
char pa[] = prefix.value;
. . . .
return false;
}
}
return true;
}

12. Software API’s: Judge’s Ruling
• Judge relied on these points of law:
– If there is only one way to express it, then no
one can claim ownership by copyright (merger
doctrine)
– Names and short phrases not copyrightable
– No protection for ideas, procedures, systems,
methods of operation or concepts
– Don’t get protection just because you worked
hard to produce it

13. Software APIs: Judge’s Ruling
• Not Protected: Method specification defined in
the API = idea
• Protected: Actual code in methods as
implemented by Oracle, Google, or anyone
else = expression
• To be interoperable across platforms, the API
must match exactly
• Only one way to express the idea of having a
Java API
• Therefore API is not protected: Anyone can
write their own implementation
• Appeals in progress. . .

14. Software Copyright: User Interfaces
• Copyright Office: Single registration can
protect programs and related screen displays
– Don’t need a separate registration for screen
displays
– Don’t need a specific reference to them in the
application
– Includes video games!
• NOT true for websites! More later. . .
• Courts: Set of UI operations alone not
copyrightable
– Must indicate specific infringing elements

15. Software Copyright Ownership
• First sale doctrine: Owners of copies have the
right to resell their copy . . .
• Software copies are rarely “sold”
• Software copies are “licensed” for use
• Additional copies may be made
– For archival purposes “as an essential step in
the utilization of the computer program”
– For maintenance purposes
• Fair use: Some copying/distribution of
protected elements may be allowed – but fact
sensitive!

16. Open Source and “Copyleft”
• Copyright law not just a constraint on copying
• Protects right to maintain free distribution
• Sometimes referred to as “Copyleft” licensing
• Best example: GNU General Public License
• Common in Open Source Software Projects
• Various Permutations: You can copy and
distribute as long as you allow others to.

17. Websites: Special Kind of Software+
• Similar protectable elements: text, images,
audio files, movies (including any sounds).
• Unique problems:
– Digital = Easy to copy/distribute
– Web = Must copy to distribute and very fast!
– Users/Consumers = Billions in blink of an eye
– Providers = Who has rights?
– Registering = Web sites change . . .

18. Website Protection
• Registration:
– As with any other copyright, registration is not
required to retain rights.
– Is required to sue for infringement
– Website source code like other software
protected as a literary work and can be
registered
• Marking:
– Websites commonly marked with a copyright
notice
– Mark source as well

19. Website Registration
• Can register the HTML, CSS, Javascript, and other
source code like any other literary work.
• Appearance: Registering only the code is not
enough! (Not like other software)
– Registering code (like HTML) that formats text and
graphics on the screen when a website is viewed does
not cover the appearance of the generated page.
– Registration must include any website content generated
by the program source
– Not included in the submitted material received or not
referred to in the application = not registered!
– Must reregister page renditions if they change.(!)

20. From Books to Bytes: Not just Software
• Digital content + WWW = Easy distribution
• LOTS of copying, some necessary: Routers,
firewalls, ISPs, search engines, etc.
• DMCA limits liability of online service
providers relating to:
– Transitory digital network communications
– System caching
– Information residing on systems or networks at
user direction
– Search engines

21. What Providers Must Do
• Adopt policies for terminating accounts of
repeat infringers
• Agree to remove or block access to content
upon receiving notice of alleged infringement
from the copyright owner
• Make these policies publicly available
• Provide contact information on the website
and to the copyright office for a designated
agent to handle these matters

22. What Copyright Holders Must Do
• Monitor websites for infringing content and
report it to the designated agent for takedown
• This presents a few challenges:
– 48 hours of video are uploaded to YouTube
every minute. . .
– About 185,000,000 active websites in the world
today . . .
– About 630,000,000 hostnames . . .
– No international copyright law: Removing
infringing material from a foreign server can be
hard

23. Social Media (Lite)
• Terms and Conditions:
– You get to post content
– Host often takes a nonexclusive license in
anything posted: Best not to create poetry on
your friend’s blog. . .
– Has right to filter/block access/take down
infringing material
• Tests the limits of fair use:
– E.g. Playing music in the background of an
online home movie not fair use
– Like to share: Not just sharing with friends! It’s a
a very big world!