Fishermen depend on Lake Inle in Myanmar for their livelihood. However, the lake has been undergoing environmental degradation over the year. Adding to the long-term decrease in the catch because of this degradation, these fishermen faced extremely low water level in 2010, which they had previously not experienced.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Fluctuation of NO3-N and PO4 Elements in The Traditional Pond Area at TidesIJAEMSJORNAL
Traditional pond technology depends on nature in management, such as filling and disposal of pond water utilizing the time of low and high tides. The food for traditional pond technology comes from nature. The availability of nutrients such as N and P greatly determines the productivity of pond. The study was aimed to determine the fluctuations of N and P elements in traditional pond areas at tides. This research was conducted with purposive sampling method and laboratory analysis for several water parameters. The results showed that pH ranged from 7 to 8 both at low tide and high tide. The average value of nitrate (NO3) from five locations was extended from 0.106 to 1.495 mg/l. The value of silica (Si) ranged from 5,287 to 10,876 mg/l in low tide. Orthophosphate at low tide ranged from 0.027 to 0.090 mg/l, the highest value was in the coast station and the lowest was in the sea station. Whereas the value of nitrate (NO3) and orthophosphate in high tide ranged from 0.830 to 1.495 mg/l and 0.039 to 0.090 mg/l. Nutrients were abundant enough to support the growth and development of primary producers. So, the waters in this region include fertile waters.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Fluctuation of NO3-N and PO4 Elements in The Traditional Pond Area at TidesIJAEMSJORNAL
Traditional pond technology depends on nature in management, such as filling and disposal of pond water utilizing the time of low and high tides. The food for traditional pond technology comes from nature. The availability of nutrients such as N and P greatly determines the productivity of pond. The study was aimed to determine the fluctuations of N and P elements in traditional pond areas at tides. This research was conducted with purposive sampling method and laboratory analysis for several water parameters. The results showed that pH ranged from 7 to 8 both at low tide and high tide. The average value of nitrate (NO3) from five locations was extended from 0.106 to 1.495 mg/l. The value of silica (Si) ranged from 5,287 to 10,876 mg/l in low tide. Orthophosphate at low tide ranged from 0.027 to 0.090 mg/l, the highest value was in the coast station and the lowest was in the sea station. Whereas the value of nitrate (NO3) and orthophosphate in high tide ranged from 0.830 to 1.495 mg/l and 0.039 to 0.090 mg/l. Nutrients were abundant enough to support the growth and development of primary producers. So, the waters in this region include fertile waters.
A Major Irrigation Project (Accelerated Mahaweli Programme) and the Chronic K...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— The Mahaweli River is the longest river in Sri Lanka. In 1978, the government of Sri Lanka launched the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme, under the purview of Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, the largest irrigation program in the country. It is a multi-purpose development scheme designed for the generation of hydroelectricity, irrigation, and water for domestic consumption. Since the mid-1990s, a major, non-infectious epidemic of chronic kidney disease of multifactorial origin (CKDmfo) has been reported in Sri Lanka for which no cause has been identified. This disease predominantly affects dry zonal, agricultural regions, particularly the North Central Province (NCP). During the past two decades, thousands of people have died due to this disease. This article assesses whether there is a relationship between this environmental impact from this major irrigation project and the deadly disease of CKDmfo. Water in the Mahaweli River is known to be polluted with various compounds, including phosphates coming from the excessive use of fertiliser in the hill country. However, the levels of phosphate in the Mahaweli River and in the NCP reservoirs are less than 0.15 mg/L. Such levels can cause ecological harm but are not a threat to human health nor causes renal failure. In addition, there are large regions outside the Mahaweli-fed localities where people are affected with CKDmfo. Thus, it is unlikely that water from the Mahaweli River itself is directly related to the occurrence of CKDmfo, but its harmful environmental impact is noticeable. Nevertheless, excess phosphates can cause algae blooms and cyanobacterial growth in water bodies, which harm aquatic lives and the ecology. Thus, governments and society must take responsibility and initiate actions to minimise environmental harm, protect and preserve the watersheds, curb the overuse of agrochemicals, and preserve water quality and the environment for current and future generations.
Estuaries are a type of wetland that contains brackish water. These are areas that are covered with water during parts of the year and are very biodiverse areas (contain many different species).
Estuaries and their surrounding wetlands are bodies of water usually found where rivers meet the sea. Estuaries are home to unique plant and animal communities that have adapted to brackish water—a mixture of fresh water draining from the land and salty seawater.
A study on the biodiversity of snake island in South Andaman - JBESInnspub Net
Snake Island is an uninhabited small rocky islet off Carbyn’s Cove in Port Blair, Andaman. The biodiversity of this rocky island is its distinctive feature as it becomes a small habitat for various organisms close to the open sea. During this present study a total no. of 217 species were recorded out of which 205 has been identified. Pisces was the dominant group, followed by cnidarians, molluscs, arthropods etc. The island is highly influenced by sea water as during high tides nearly 75 % of the island is submerged by seawater. This is the reason of dominance of marine organisms (94 %) over terrestrial organisms (6 %) in the island. Another characteristic feature of the island is the formation of numerous rocky and sandy water channels and the presence of a ‘coral pool’ at the end of one such channel on the north-eastern part of the island. During high tide these channels are filled with water and exchange of seawater takes place in the coral pool, where highest diversity of species was observed. Lack of intertidal species in the island is evident due to the high action of waves from the open sea and lack of hiding areas other than rocky crevices. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-4-april-2015-jbes/
Interface change of seawater and freshwater on Asam – Asam Watersheds, South ...Innspub Net
Temporal change of seawater and fresh water interface in the watershed area needs scientific study on dynamics of ecosystem parameters in different seasons and analysis of satellite imagery. This research aims to assess the change of interface seawater and freshwater from the temporal estuary upstream. The study used four methods: (1) Interviews with local community respondents; determined with snowball method. (2) Secondary data obtained from the Report of Environmental Monitoring Result of Power Plant Operations of Asam – Asam in 2014 (3) Observed parameters include pH, salinity, electrical conductivity in the dry season (August), transition (October) and rainy season (December). (4) Temporal observations with the use of satellite imagery analysis with Nipah (Nypa fruticans Wurmb) as indicator. According to the respondent, seawater intrusion has occurred extremely from the estuary of Asam-Asam river to the upstream. Secondary data shows significant differences in the intake value of DHL Asam-Asam power plant (546 μ mhos/cm) with upstream intake (231 μ mhos/cm) which means the intrusion of sea water is moderate to high level. Field observations show the dry season (August 2013) interface was 12.86 miles from the estuary, whereas in transitional season (October 2013) was 12.53 miles from estuary, and rainy season (December 2013) is 5.24 km from the estuary. Satellite imagery showed the interface in 1991 was 8.13 miles from the estuary and increase upstream from 0.03 to 1.86 per year. In 2014, the interface becomes 12.88 miles from the estuary. This shows that the sea water increasingly moving toward the river. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-4-april-2015-jbes/
Plankton diversity and aquatic ecology of a freshwater lake (L3) at Bharti Is...GJESM Publication
The Larsemann Hills range is an ice-free oasis on the Ingrid Christensen Coast of Princess Elizabeth
Land, East Antarctica, which includes Bharti Island, Fisher Island, McLeod Island, Broknes Peninsula, Stornes
Peninsula, and several other islands, promontories, and nunataks. The Larsemann Hills is an ice-free area of
approximately 50 km2, located halfway between the Vestfold Hills and the Amery Ice Shelf on the south-eastern
coast of Prydz Bay, Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica. The ice-free area consists of two major peninsulas (Stornes and Broknes), four minor peninsulas, and approximately 130 near shore islands. The Larsemann Hills area contains more than 150 lakes at different Islands and peninsulas. Bharti Island of Larsemann Hills in east Antarctica was selected as a sampling site for the present study. Water sample was collected from a freshwater lake during XXXth Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica (ISEA) and analyzed for the physico-chemical parameters, major elements, trace metals and major plankton diversity in surface lake water by following standard methodology. The concentrations of metals Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn and Cr were measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Phytoplankton and zooplankton were also assessed in the aquatic ecosystem of Lake L3 at Bharti Island, Larsemann Hills over east Antarctica. Psychrophillic bacteria were found 71 cfu in lake water, while total bacterial count was found to be 5.4 × 102cfu.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
the suitability of groundwater for domestic and irrigation purposesIJEAB
Shallow groundwater in Ikere-Ekiti was assessed for potability and irrigation employing chemical and bacterial analyses. Twenty two groundwater samples were collected and analyzed using Atomic absorption spectrometer for cations and ion chromatographic method for anions determinations (˚C), pH and electrical conductivity (EC) (µS/cm) were measured in the field using pH Testr meter. The bacteriological analysis was carried out using nutrient agar medium to obtain plate count of living bacteria. Results of the analysis revealed that all EC values were less than 1000µS/cm indicating fresh water. The pH with average values of 9.48, 7.82 and 7.44 in migmatite, granite and charnockitic terrains respectively exceeded the approved standard (6.5 – 8.5) for drinking water in two samples from migmatite, one sample from granitic terrain and none from the charnockites. Sodium was the dominant cation with average concentrations (mg/L) of 95.65, 38.33 and 6.61 in migmatite, granite and charnockite respectively while K+ ions in the same order of rock units have average concentrations (mg/L) of 60.49, 32.33 and 15.77. The average concentrations (mg/L) of Ca2+ ions in groundwater located on migmatite, granite and charnockitic terrains were 36.67, 24.63 and 10.98 respectively while those for Mg2+ were 9.94, 7.48 and 4.57. The order of cation abundance was Na+> K+ > Ca2+> Mg2+. In respect of the major anions, Cl- was dominant with average concentrations (mg/L) in charnockites (187.20) within approved standard of 250mg/L while the average values (mg/L) in migmatite (475.2) and granite (340.62) exceeded the standard value. Following the same sequence of rock units, HCO3- average concentrations (mg/L) were 34.6mg/L, 27.07mg/L and 25.7. Sulphate and nitrate were less dominant ions and the order of anions abundance in the groundwater was Cl- > HCO3-> SO42-> NO3-. Bacteria evaluation revealed that all sampled groundwater tested positive to bacteria with TBC values (CFU/100ml) ranging from 1.76X108 to 1.78X109 in migmatite, 5.3x105 to 8.9x108 in granite and 2.55x107 to 8.2x108 in charnockite. Gibb’s diagram revealed that chemical weathering of rock-forming minerals has contributed to solute source in the groundwater of the area. Water type on migmatite was mainly NaCl while granite and charnockite had NaCl and CaCl types revealing lithologic effects. Irrigation water quality assessment employing Sodium absorption ratio (SAR), Soluble sodium percent (SSP), Residual sodium bicarbonate (RSBC) and Permeability index (PI) revealed that the groundwater is suitable for irrigation purpose. Groundwater in the study area is low mineralized, chemically potable, suitable for irrigation but infected by bacteria pollutants. Differences in rock types affected the chemistry of the groundwater as reflected in their physico-chemical compositions, water facies and irrigation quality.
The most important challenges the world faces today is Water Resources management. Humans in meeting their demand for water, extract vast quantities from rivers, lakes, wetlands, and underground aquifers to supply the requirements of cities, farms, and industries by disturbing the environment and eco balance. Freshwater is a finite, vulnerable and essential resource. As water is an economic good, its development and management should be based on a participatory and sustainable approach, involving all relevant stakeholders. Accordingly peoples must involve themselves and play a central role in the provision, management and safeguarding of water in conjunction with the surrounding environment.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceresearchinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Assessment of sanitation levels of sources of water in Osun State Capital, Ni...IJERA Editor
A study of the physicochemical and bacteriological analysis including BOD and COD was carried out for sources of water in Oshogbo the Capital of the State of Osun. Seven water sampling areas were selected to cover the low, medium and high population density areas of the State Capital. Water samples were collected from five sources of water, namely, shallow well, borehole, stream, rain and river. Water samples were collected from the well, borehole and stream water sources from Dada Estate and Isale Oshun for low density population, Ayetoro, Ogo-Oluwa and Oke-Ayepe for medium density, and Oke-Bale and Igbona for high density population areas. Three sampling points were undertaken for the rain water source while River Oshun source at Isale-Oshun was the 25th water sampling point. A total of 25 water quality parameters were analyzed for each of the 25 water sources sampled using the facility at the Rural Water And Environmental Sanitation Agency, RUWESA in Osun State Government Secretariat in Abere. Results indicated that 8 of the water quality parameters, pH, Turbidity; Magnesium hardness, Free Chlorine, Nitrite, Bacteriological, BOD and COD were not within Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) permitted water quality standards and are of concern to sanitation of potable water in the State Capital. The level of each parameter differs from source to source as well as from level of population densities. The sources that were adjudged polluted were Ogo-Oluwa and Oke-Ayepe well sources; Ogo-Oluwa, Oke-Bale and Igbona stream sources Oke-Bale Rain source.R and the River source at Isale-Oshun. The polluted sources are all within the medium and high population density areas of the State Capital.
Scenario of Water Bodies (Lakes) In Urban Areas- A case study on Bellandur La...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Environment is made up of natural factors like air, water and land. Each and every human activities
supports directly/indirectly by natural factors. India is facing a problem of natural resource scarcity, especially
of water in view of population growth and economic development. Due to growth of Population, advancement in
agriculture, urbanization and industrialization has made surface water pollution a great problem and decreased
the availability of drinking water. Many parts of the world face such a scarcity of water. Lakes are important
feature of the Earth’s landscape which are not only the source of precious water, but provide valuable habitats
to plants and animals, moderate hydrological cycles, influence microclimate, enhance the aesthetic beauty of
the landscape and extend many recreational opportunities to humankind .For issues, perspectives on pollution,
restoration and management of Bellandur Lake Falls under Bangalore Metropolitan city is very essential to
know their status but so far, there was no systematic environmental study carried out. Hence now the following
studies are essential namely Characteristics, Status, Effects (on surrounding Groundwater, Soil, Humans
health, Vegetables, Animals etc.,), resolving the issues of degradation, preparation of conceptual design for
restoration and management.
Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cam...ijtsrd
This study carried out in BarombiKotto was aimed at assessing ecosystem services provided by Lake BarombiKotto and its riparian vegetation and to determine the level of awareness of this community to threats to degradation of water quality and riparian vegetation. Two hundred semi structured questionnaires were administered to the inhabitants of BarombiKotto village using the purposive sampling method. The Likert rating method was used to derive quantitative data that was further analysed using SPSS version 17. Results revealed that, respondents depended on the lake and vegetation for the provision of water for drinking, domestic purposes, irrigation, transport, recreational and cultural activities and also on forest benefits like wood for fuel, construction and medicinal plants. Significant associations were found between age group, level of education and respondentsawareness about the threats to water quality and sustainable practices. Agriculture, harvest of wood for construction, high fishing rates, increasing abundance of aquatic weeds were identified as major threats to Lake BarombiKotto and its surrounding vegetation. Water quality attributes like reduced transparency, lake depth, and other parameters such as aquatic weeds and fish stocks have changed in Lake BarombiKotto. The absence of conventional waste management facilities in BarombiKotto community and poor sanitary conditions of toilets could be responsible for the contamination of this lake and hence the high prevalence of typhoid, dysentery and other gastrointestinal infections among respondents. Awo Miranda Egbe | Beatrice Ambo Fonge | Pascal Tabi Tabot ""Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cameroon"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23529.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/ecology/23529/ecosystem-services-and-perception-of-water-quality-of-lake-barombi-kotto-cameroon/awo-miranda-egbe
A Major Irrigation Project (Accelerated Mahaweli Programme) and the Chronic K...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— The Mahaweli River is the longest river in Sri Lanka. In 1978, the government of Sri Lanka launched the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme, under the purview of Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, the largest irrigation program in the country. It is a multi-purpose development scheme designed for the generation of hydroelectricity, irrigation, and water for domestic consumption. Since the mid-1990s, a major, non-infectious epidemic of chronic kidney disease of multifactorial origin (CKDmfo) has been reported in Sri Lanka for which no cause has been identified. This disease predominantly affects dry zonal, agricultural regions, particularly the North Central Province (NCP). During the past two decades, thousands of people have died due to this disease. This article assesses whether there is a relationship between this environmental impact from this major irrigation project and the deadly disease of CKDmfo. Water in the Mahaweli River is known to be polluted with various compounds, including phosphates coming from the excessive use of fertiliser in the hill country. However, the levels of phosphate in the Mahaweli River and in the NCP reservoirs are less than 0.15 mg/L. Such levels can cause ecological harm but are not a threat to human health nor causes renal failure. In addition, there are large regions outside the Mahaweli-fed localities where people are affected with CKDmfo. Thus, it is unlikely that water from the Mahaweli River itself is directly related to the occurrence of CKDmfo, but its harmful environmental impact is noticeable. Nevertheless, excess phosphates can cause algae blooms and cyanobacterial growth in water bodies, which harm aquatic lives and the ecology. Thus, governments and society must take responsibility and initiate actions to minimise environmental harm, protect and preserve the watersheds, curb the overuse of agrochemicals, and preserve water quality and the environment for current and future generations.
Estuaries are a type of wetland that contains brackish water. These are areas that are covered with water during parts of the year and are very biodiverse areas (contain many different species).
Estuaries and their surrounding wetlands are bodies of water usually found where rivers meet the sea. Estuaries are home to unique plant and animal communities that have adapted to brackish water—a mixture of fresh water draining from the land and salty seawater.
A study on the biodiversity of snake island in South Andaman - JBESInnspub Net
Snake Island is an uninhabited small rocky islet off Carbyn’s Cove in Port Blair, Andaman. The biodiversity of this rocky island is its distinctive feature as it becomes a small habitat for various organisms close to the open sea. During this present study a total no. of 217 species were recorded out of which 205 has been identified. Pisces was the dominant group, followed by cnidarians, molluscs, arthropods etc. The island is highly influenced by sea water as during high tides nearly 75 % of the island is submerged by seawater. This is the reason of dominance of marine organisms (94 %) over terrestrial organisms (6 %) in the island. Another characteristic feature of the island is the formation of numerous rocky and sandy water channels and the presence of a ‘coral pool’ at the end of one such channel on the north-eastern part of the island. During high tide these channels are filled with water and exchange of seawater takes place in the coral pool, where highest diversity of species was observed. Lack of intertidal species in the island is evident due to the high action of waves from the open sea and lack of hiding areas other than rocky crevices. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-4-april-2015-jbes/
Interface change of seawater and freshwater on Asam – Asam Watersheds, South ...Innspub Net
Temporal change of seawater and fresh water interface in the watershed area needs scientific study on dynamics of ecosystem parameters in different seasons and analysis of satellite imagery. This research aims to assess the change of interface seawater and freshwater from the temporal estuary upstream. The study used four methods: (1) Interviews with local community respondents; determined with snowball method. (2) Secondary data obtained from the Report of Environmental Monitoring Result of Power Plant Operations of Asam – Asam in 2014 (3) Observed parameters include pH, salinity, electrical conductivity in the dry season (August), transition (October) and rainy season (December). (4) Temporal observations with the use of satellite imagery analysis with Nipah (Nypa fruticans Wurmb) as indicator. According to the respondent, seawater intrusion has occurred extremely from the estuary of Asam-Asam river to the upstream. Secondary data shows significant differences in the intake value of DHL Asam-Asam power plant (546 μ mhos/cm) with upstream intake (231 μ mhos/cm) which means the intrusion of sea water is moderate to high level. Field observations show the dry season (August 2013) interface was 12.86 miles from the estuary, whereas in transitional season (October 2013) was 12.53 miles from estuary, and rainy season (December 2013) is 5.24 km from the estuary. Satellite imagery showed the interface in 1991 was 8.13 miles from the estuary and increase upstream from 0.03 to 1.86 per year. In 2014, the interface becomes 12.88 miles from the estuary. This shows that the sea water increasingly moving toward the river. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-6-number-4-april-2015-jbes/
Plankton diversity and aquatic ecology of a freshwater lake (L3) at Bharti Is...GJESM Publication
The Larsemann Hills range is an ice-free oasis on the Ingrid Christensen Coast of Princess Elizabeth
Land, East Antarctica, which includes Bharti Island, Fisher Island, McLeod Island, Broknes Peninsula, Stornes
Peninsula, and several other islands, promontories, and nunataks. The Larsemann Hills is an ice-free area of
approximately 50 km2, located halfway between the Vestfold Hills and the Amery Ice Shelf on the south-eastern
coast of Prydz Bay, Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica. The ice-free area consists of two major peninsulas (Stornes and Broknes), four minor peninsulas, and approximately 130 near shore islands. The Larsemann Hills area contains more than 150 lakes at different Islands and peninsulas. Bharti Island of Larsemann Hills in east Antarctica was selected as a sampling site for the present study. Water sample was collected from a freshwater lake during XXXth Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica (ISEA) and analyzed for the physico-chemical parameters, major elements, trace metals and major plankton diversity in surface lake water by following standard methodology. The concentrations of metals Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn and Cr were measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Phytoplankton and zooplankton were also assessed in the aquatic ecosystem of Lake L3 at Bharti Island, Larsemann Hills over east Antarctica. Psychrophillic bacteria were found 71 cfu in lake water, while total bacterial count was found to be 5.4 × 102cfu.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
the suitability of groundwater for domestic and irrigation purposesIJEAB
Shallow groundwater in Ikere-Ekiti was assessed for potability and irrigation employing chemical and bacterial analyses. Twenty two groundwater samples were collected and analyzed using Atomic absorption spectrometer for cations and ion chromatographic method for anions determinations (˚C), pH and electrical conductivity (EC) (µS/cm) were measured in the field using pH Testr meter. The bacteriological analysis was carried out using nutrient agar medium to obtain plate count of living bacteria. Results of the analysis revealed that all EC values were less than 1000µS/cm indicating fresh water. The pH with average values of 9.48, 7.82 and 7.44 in migmatite, granite and charnockitic terrains respectively exceeded the approved standard (6.5 – 8.5) for drinking water in two samples from migmatite, one sample from granitic terrain and none from the charnockites. Sodium was the dominant cation with average concentrations (mg/L) of 95.65, 38.33 and 6.61 in migmatite, granite and charnockite respectively while K+ ions in the same order of rock units have average concentrations (mg/L) of 60.49, 32.33 and 15.77. The average concentrations (mg/L) of Ca2+ ions in groundwater located on migmatite, granite and charnockitic terrains were 36.67, 24.63 and 10.98 respectively while those for Mg2+ were 9.94, 7.48 and 4.57. The order of cation abundance was Na+> K+ > Ca2+> Mg2+. In respect of the major anions, Cl- was dominant with average concentrations (mg/L) in charnockites (187.20) within approved standard of 250mg/L while the average values (mg/L) in migmatite (475.2) and granite (340.62) exceeded the standard value. Following the same sequence of rock units, HCO3- average concentrations (mg/L) were 34.6mg/L, 27.07mg/L and 25.7. Sulphate and nitrate were less dominant ions and the order of anions abundance in the groundwater was Cl- > HCO3-> SO42-> NO3-. Bacteria evaluation revealed that all sampled groundwater tested positive to bacteria with TBC values (CFU/100ml) ranging from 1.76X108 to 1.78X109 in migmatite, 5.3x105 to 8.9x108 in granite and 2.55x107 to 8.2x108 in charnockite. Gibb’s diagram revealed that chemical weathering of rock-forming minerals has contributed to solute source in the groundwater of the area. Water type on migmatite was mainly NaCl while granite and charnockite had NaCl and CaCl types revealing lithologic effects. Irrigation water quality assessment employing Sodium absorption ratio (SAR), Soluble sodium percent (SSP), Residual sodium bicarbonate (RSBC) and Permeability index (PI) revealed that the groundwater is suitable for irrigation purpose. Groundwater in the study area is low mineralized, chemically potable, suitable for irrigation but infected by bacteria pollutants. Differences in rock types affected the chemistry of the groundwater as reflected in their physico-chemical compositions, water facies and irrigation quality.
The most important challenges the world faces today is Water Resources management. Humans in meeting their demand for water, extract vast quantities from rivers, lakes, wetlands, and underground aquifers to supply the requirements of cities, farms, and industries by disturbing the environment and eco balance. Freshwater is a finite, vulnerable and essential resource. As water is an economic good, its development and management should be based on a participatory and sustainable approach, involving all relevant stakeholders. Accordingly peoples must involve themselves and play a central role in the provision, management and safeguarding of water in conjunction with the surrounding environment.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceresearchinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Assessment of sanitation levels of sources of water in Osun State Capital, Ni...IJERA Editor
A study of the physicochemical and bacteriological analysis including BOD and COD was carried out for sources of water in Oshogbo the Capital of the State of Osun. Seven water sampling areas were selected to cover the low, medium and high population density areas of the State Capital. Water samples were collected from five sources of water, namely, shallow well, borehole, stream, rain and river. Water samples were collected from the well, borehole and stream water sources from Dada Estate and Isale Oshun for low density population, Ayetoro, Ogo-Oluwa and Oke-Ayepe for medium density, and Oke-Bale and Igbona for high density population areas. Three sampling points were undertaken for the rain water source while River Oshun source at Isale-Oshun was the 25th water sampling point. A total of 25 water quality parameters were analyzed for each of the 25 water sources sampled using the facility at the Rural Water And Environmental Sanitation Agency, RUWESA in Osun State Government Secretariat in Abere. Results indicated that 8 of the water quality parameters, pH, Turbidity; Magnesium hardness, Free Chlorine, Nitrite, Bacteriological, BOD and COD were not within Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) permitted water quality standards and are of concern to sanitation of potable water in the State Capital. The level of each parameter differs from source to source as well as from level of population densities. The sources that were adjudged polluted were Ogo-Oluwa and Oke-Ayepe well sources; Ogo-Oluwa, Oke-Bale and Igbona stream sources Oke-Bale Rain source.R and the River source at Isale-Oshun. The polluted sources are all within the medium and high population density areas of the State Capital.
Scenario of Water Bodies (Lakes) In Urban Areas- A case study on Bellandur La...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Environment is made up of natural factors like air, water and land. Each and every human activities
supports directly/indirectly by natural factors. India is facing a problem of natural resource scarcity, especially
of water in view of population growth and economic development. Due to growth of Population, advancement in
agriculture, urbanization and industrialization has made surface water pollution a great problem and decreased
the availability of drinking water. Many parts of the world face such a scarcity of water. Lakes are important
feature of the Earth’s landscape which are not only the source of precious water, but provide valuable habitats
to plants and animals, moderate hydrological cycles, influence microclimate, enhance the aesthetic beauty of
the landscape and extend many recreational opportunities to humankind .For issues, perspectives on pollution,
restoration and management of Bellandur Lake Falls under Bangalore Metropolitan city is very essential to
know their status but so far, there was no systematic environmental study carried out. Hence now the following
studies are essential namely Characteristics, Status, Effects (on surrounding Groundwater, Soil, Humans
health, Vegetables, Animals etc.,), resolving the issues of degradation, preparation of conceptual design for
restoration and management.
Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cam...ijtsrd
This study carried out in BarombiKotto was aimed at assessing ecosystem services provided by Lake BarombiKotto and its riparian vegetation and to determine the level of awareness of this community to threats to degradation of water quality and riparian vegetation. Two hundred semi structured questionnaires were administered to the inhabitants of BarombiKotto village using the purposive sampling method. The Likert rating method was used to derive quantitative data that was further analysed using SPSS version 17. Results revealed that, respondents depended on the lake and vegetation for the provision of water for drinking, domestic purposes, irrigation, transport, recreational and cultural activities and also on forest benefits like wood for fuel, construction and medicinal plants. Significant associations were found between age group, level of education and respondentsawareness about the threats to water quality and sustainable practices. Agriculture, harvest of wood for construction, high fishing rates, increasing abundance of aquatic weeds were identified as major threats to Lake BarombiKotto and its surrounding vegetation. Water quality attributes like reduced transparency, lake depth, and other parameters such as aquatic weeds and fish stocks have changed in Lake BarombiKotto. The absence of conventional waste management facilities in BarombiKotto community and poor sanitary conditions of toilets could be responsible for the contamination of this lake and hence the high prevalence of typhoid, dysentery and other gastrointestinal infections among respondents. Awo Miranda Egbe | Beatrice Ambo Fonge | Pascal Tabi Tabot ""Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cameroon"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23529.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/ecology/23529/ecosystem-services-and-perception-of-water-quality-of-lake-barombi-kotto-cameroon/awo-miranda-egbe
Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cam...ijtsrd
This study carried out in BarombiKotto was aimed at assessing ecosystem services provided by Lake BarombiKotto and its riparian vegetation and to determine the level of awareness of this community to threats to degradation of water quality and riparian vegetation. Two hundred semi structured questionnaires were administered to the inhabitants of BarombiKotto village using the purposive sampling method. The Likert rating method was used to derive quantitative data that was further analysed using SPSS version 17. Results revealed that, respondents depended on the lake and vegetation for the provision of water for drinking, domestic purposes, irrigation, transport, recreational and cultural activities and also on forest benefits like wood for fuel, construction and medicinal plants. Significant associations were found between age group, level of education and respondentsawareness about the threats to water quality and sustainable practices. Agriculture, harvest of wood for construction, high fishing rates, increasing abundance of aquatic weeds were identified as major threats to Lake BarombiKotto and its surrounding vegetation. Water quality attributes like reduced transparency, lake depth, and other parameters such as aquatic weeds and fish stocks have changed in Lake BarombiKotto. The absence of conventional waste management facilities in BarombiKotto community and poor sanitary conditions of toilets could be responsible for the contamination of this lake and hence the high prevalence of typhoid, dysentery and other gastrointestinal infections among respondents. Awo Miranda Egbe | Beatrice Ambo Fonge | Pascal Tabi Tabot ""Ecosystem Services and Perception of Water Quality of Lake Barombi Kotto, Cameroon"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23529.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/ecology/23529/ecosystem-services-and-perception-of-water-quality-of-lake-barombi-kotto-cameroon/awo-miranda-egbe
Trends in Social and Environmental Responsibility - The Challenges of Transbo...Klangpanya
The Mekong River is essential to the livelihoods of more than 260 million people in China and Southeast Asia and supports plentiful and varied ecosystems. However, Southeast Asia’s decades long period of economic growth has increased the demand on water and energy resources in the region. This has put the Mekong River on the spot as a primary water and hydropower source in the region. Consequent construction of dams and other interventions in the river’s ecosystem has led to physical changes in the Mekong River Basin over the last five to ten years. These Interventions in the river system has raised various concerns for policy makers and environmental conservationists alike. However, there is little agreement among experts and policy makers on the primary causes of these changes and the transboundary nature of the Mekong River complicates the search for sustainable solutions. This report aims to shed light on the impact of the changing Mekong River on Thailand and the intricate causes for its change through interviews with experts and locals in affected areas. Based on this analysis the report further makes recommendations for ways forward that ensure the inclusive and sustainable development of the Mekong River basin.
Wetlands sustainability report3 -South Africa EditionNET Africa
Special edition: South Africa Regional Report Did you know that Botswana pioneered water accounting in the late 1990s and early 2000s?
This week we focus on Botswana, the South African country that pioneered water accounting in the late 1990s and early 2000s. We look at the progress they have made and how they have changed the way, we account for water all over the world.
We also feature Lake Malawi, which is a freshwater lake in the Africa Great Lakes region. It is rich in biodiversity with over 800 species of cichlids. Part of this lake due to its scenic beauty and outstanding universal values is a World Heritage Site. However, since 2011, the oil industry has explored Lake for oil. According to a number of leading environmental experts, including Godfrey Mfiti, any oil drilling in this Lake is detrimental to the survival of wildlife and available freshwater from this Lake. We review a book discussing the argument against oil exploration.
Running head: LAKE CHAD CASESTUDY 1
LAKE CHAD CASESTUDY 4
Lake Chad Casestudy
Name:
Institution:
Lake Chad Casestudy
Lake Chad is one of Africa’s fresh water bodies. This water resource is shared by Chad,Nigeria,Niger and Cameroon. This important ecosystem has been experiencing degradation because of natural factors and human activities. This research focuses on the role of human factors in the degradation and the management plans that have been put in place to manage the resource.The unfortunate situation at the lake has been called an ecological catastrophe by the Food and Agricultural Organization, FAO. Some of the human factors that have contributed towards the degradation include damming and irrigation. These two human activities have contributed to the shrinkage of the lake. The growing number of irrigation projects have diverted water sources from the lake, hence the massive degradation. A series of dams constructed across rivers in Nigeria and Chad have also affected the lake because they have interruption the natural flow of water that originally drained in Lake Chad (Kolawole,Omali&Daniel, 2012).
Livestock staging, and overgrazing, has been witnessed in the surrounding areas. There is a lot of competition for greener pastures in the area. It is this competition for resources from the surrounding herders (e.g. to keep them fed and healthy) and current occupants struggling to keep their livelihood alive, that has made the lake vulnerable to further degradation. Human factors have indirectly contributed to drastic climatic changes that have resulted in droughts and high rates of evaporation at the lake (Kolawole,Omali&Daniel, 2012).
The increasing human population has put pressure on this natural resource. The growing population has contributed to unsustainable exploitation and pollution of the Lake. Over 30 million people live within the water catchment area around lake Chad (Kolawole,Omali&Daniel, 2012). With this size population, the water resource is being thwarted into extinction if conservation measures are not implemented. The population has also resorted to intensive fishing in the lake for survival. This overfishing is a major threat to the ecological biodiversity within Lake Chad itself Kolawole,Omali&Daniel, 2012).
Ecological Principles Ignored In The Degradation
Disturbance Principle
According to the disturbance ecological principle, the extent and type of disturbance, determines the characteristics of the ecosystem. In the case of lake Chad, human activities were carried out in total disregard of the potential effects they had on the ecosystem. The population around the lake, exploited resources and disturbed the water balance in the area, therefore furthering the rate of the lake’s deterioration.
The landscape ecological principle was also ignored. The human activitie.
Assessment of seasonal variations in surface water quality of Laguna Lake Sta...Open Access Research Paper
Laguna Lake is one of the lakes that largely contribute to the socio-economic and environmental needs of the Philippines as it supports fisheries and aquaculture, recreation, power generation, and industries. In this study, the two-year (2018-2019) water quality monitoring data from Laguna Lake Development Authority was subjected to multivariate factor analysis. Initially, the dataset was divided into two categories, representing the dry and wet seasons. Factor analysis was then performed in order to identify major contributing factors that significantly influence the water quality of the lake during dry and wet seasons. Factor analysis for the two data sets (dry and wet) was able to identify three factors, namely, nutrient pollutants, influential water quality and nitrification. Results showed that the nutrient factor constitutes the biggest impact with a variance of 23.6% on the lake’s water quality during dry season, following influential water quality (22.2%) and nitrification (20.3%). However the nutrient factor contributes the least impact with a variance of 15.1% on the quality of water during wet season while the influential water quality contributes the highest amount of variance (29.4%). Significant changes on BOD and pH were also observed between seasons. Hence, it can be recommended to have strategies for regular monitoring and maintenance of water quality in Laguna Lake. In addition, environmental programs, and policies concerning water, air, and land protection by stakeholders must be realized to ensure sustainability, and conservation of all forms of life particularly aquatic life species.
Impacts of Climate Change in Coastal Aquaculture in Bangladesh : A Seminar Paperihn FreeStyle Corp.
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather over periods of time that range from decades to millions of years. It can be a change in the average weather or a change in the distribution of weather events around an average. Climate change may be limited to a specific region, or may occur across the whole Earth. Climate change may be qualified as anthropogenic climate change, more generally known as "global warming" or "anthropogenic global warming”. Climate change has both direct and indirect impacts on fish stocks which are exploited commercially. Direct effects act on physiology and behavior and alter growth, reproductive capacity, mortality and distribution. Indirect effects alter the productivity, structure and composition of the marine ecosystems on which fish depend for food. However, even though the year-on-year rate of anthropogenic climate change may seem slow, this is very rapid compared with previous natural change and the accumulative value produces a significant difference from the "natural" state quite quickly. Climate change impacts such as more frequent and severe floods and droughts will affect the food and water security of many people.
Bangladesh is thought to be one of the most vulnerable countries of the world to climate change and sea level rise (CCSLR). IPCC estimates predict that due to the impact of climate change, sea level in Bangladesh may rise by 14 cm by 2025, 32cm by 2050 and 88 cm by 2100. There are a number of environmental issues and problems that are hindering development of Bangladesh. Salinity is a current problem, which is expected to exacerbate by climate change and sea level rise. Salinity intrusion due to reduction of freshwater flow from upstream, salinization of groundwater and fluctuation of soil salinity are major concern of Bangladesh. Cyclones and tidal surge is adding to the problem. Tidal surge brings in saline water inside the polders in the coastal area. Due to drainage congestion, the area remains waterlogged, increasing the salinity (Abedin, 2010).
Bangladesh in general is highly vulnerable to predicted climate changes that are already occurring and are expected to continue over the next century. Bangladesh is recognized worldwide as one of the most vulnerable to the impact of global warming and climate change.
Developing Australia's Tropical Water ResourceseWater
As Australia looks increasingly to its tropical northern lands as a prospective ‘food-bowl for Asia’ we should reflect on two important questions:
(i) Have we gained sufficient knowledge and wisdom from a century of unsustainable irrigation practices in southern Australia to do things differently in the future?
(ii) Is Northern Australia really the agricultural utopia that some in the community argue, and do the potential rewards justify the risks to our largely pristine and biodiverse tropical river basins?
Part one of this series describes the environmental consequences of water resources development in Australia’s south – in the Murray-Darling Basin.
The offshore fishery for large pelagic in Myanmar has initiated and developed gradually during the last decade, and is currently producing nearly 200 tons of fish per annum. The target species for thisfishery is Yellowfin tuna, even swordfish,marlin and sharks are caught as bycatch.
Fishery resources in Myanmar’s waters are typical of southeast Asia. There are large quantities of fish and shrimp in the EEZ. The unpolluted sea along the Rakhine and Tanintharyi coasts is ideal for pearl culture. Myanmar pearls are internationally known for their quality.
Many fishers and aquaculturists are poor and ill-prepared to adapt to change, making them vulnerable to impacts on fish resources. Nature of the climate change threat. Fisheries and aquaculture are threatened by changes in temperature and, in freshwater ecosystems, precipitation. Storms may become more frequent and extreme, imperilling habitats, stocks, infrastructure and livelihoods.
Sustainable management of the bay of the bay of bengal large marine ecosystemLashio University
Myanmar as coastal country of the Bay of Bengal is fully aware of the trans-boundary effects on the health of the coastal and marine environment, its living resources and realizes that the problem must be solved by a regional cooperation effort.
Myanmar is one of the most forested countries in mainland South-east Asia. These forests support a large number of important species and endemics and have great value for global efforts in biodiversity conservation.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
"Protectable subject matters, Protection in biotechnology, Protection of othe...
Coping and adaptation against decreasing fish resources
1. INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPING ECONOMIES
IDE Discussion Papers are preliminary materials circulated
to stimulate discussions and critical comments
Keywords: coping, adaptation, resource, fishermen
JEL classification: Q2,Q13,Q22
* Senior Research Fellow, Southeast Asia Study Group II, Area Studies Center, IDE
IDE DISCUSSION PAPER No. 329
Coping and Adaptation against
Decreasing Fish Resources :Case Study of
Fishermen in Lake Inle, Myanmar
Ikuko OKAMOTO*
March 2012
Abstract
Fishermen depend on Lake Inle in Myanmar for their livelihood. However, the lake has been
undergoing environmental degradation over the years. Adding to the long-term decrease in
the catch because of this degradation, these fishermen faced extremely low water levels in
2010, which they had previously not experienced. Based on field surveys, this paper aims to
reveal how fishermen adapted and coped with the changing environment as well as the
sudden shock of the abnormally low water levels.
3. 1
Introduction
Lake Inle, the second largest lake in Myanmar in Southern Shan State (Map 1), has long been a
major tourist destination in Myanmar. The tourists are attracted by the picturesque beauty of
this calm lake surrounded by mountains, villages comprised of clusters of small houses
standing on stilts in the lake and the Intha fishermen in their tiny wooden boats. The lake is a
“big water pot ”1
(Ohno 1978) in Shan Plateau, which stands at an elevation of 1000 m above
sea level. Because of the beautiful scenery and tranquility, as well as the traditional lives of the
local people, tourists assume that life has continued unchanged for hundreds of years.
However, in reality, the lives of the people, especially those of the Intha fishermen who
depend on the lake for their livelihood, have been changing steadily and most probably at a
much faster pace in recent years, due to the ongoing environmental changes of the lake. First
of all, the lake is reported to be shrinking. According to one estimate, the open water surface2
has decreased by 32.4% between 1935 and 2000 (Sidle et al. 2007). One of the major causes of
the shrinkage is the sedimentation caused by deforestation in the mountains as well as the
banks of the lake. Forests are disappearing partly because of agricultural encroachment,
including shifting cultivation (Myint Su and Jassby 2000, 53, Aye Thiha 2005) and wood
collected as fuel by local residents. The other reason is the expansion of floating gardens (Sidle
et al. 2007). Tomato cultivation on the floating gardens has been practiced for a long time on
the lake, but because of the transition to a market economy from the early 1990s, the number
and size of tomato floating gardens have expanded rapidly. The second change of the lake is
the water quality. Again, this is mainly due to tomato cultivation, which uses various
agrochemicals (Akaishi et al.). The unregulated usage of pesticide affects the transparency of
the lake water.3
These changes have reduced the fishermen’s catch, especially that of species
unique to the lake (Myint Su and Jassby, 2000).
In addition to this long-term trend, 2010 was a traumatic year for local people. The late
arrival of the monsoon and the extraordinary summer heat made part of the lake dry up in April
and May 2010. The water level of the lake fell to an unprecedented level. The exact reasons for
this phenomenon are yet to be investigated scientifically, but local people blame the continuous
1
The lake actually functioned as a source of water for the very first hydro power plant built in
the 1950s by the Japanese government.
2
The lake forms part of Salween River basin. The lake’s center is at 20/ 30’N and 96/ 55’E. Lake
Inle is 18 km long and 11 km wide and the open water area is estimated as 43.5 km2
(Furuichi
2007).
3
According to Myint Su and Jassby (2000, 53), 80-160 kg ha of triple superphosphate is used in
one growing season. Furthermore, unskillful usage of pesticides, especially refractory
organochlorine compounds, was also pointed out as a cause of water quality deterioration.
5. 3
sedimentation and sporadic rainfall caused by the deforestation in the surrounding mountains.
People considered that a threshold in the changing environment was reached in that year. The
low level of water had a huge effect on local fishermen, who were already suffering from the
decreasing catch. We do not know yet whether the weather in 2010 was just an abnormal year,
or the beginning of long-term climate change to which the local residents need to adapt.4
This paper aims to reveal how the fishermen of the lake have been responding to the
deteriorating environment and the sudden shock of the extraordinary low water level in 2010,
based on a field survey conducted in September 2009, March 2011 and March 2012.
Environmental degradation has been reported in various parts of the country, along with the
economic transformation since the end of the 1980’s. However, no in-depth study has been
conducted, in terms of the adaptation and coping strategy of the local people within the
environment. This paper does not go beyond a case study; it is initial research on adaptation
strategies against the changing climate and environment in Myanmar.
First, we need to define adaptation and coping. Following Agrawal (2008, 5) we define
adaptation as “actions and adjustments undertaken to maintain the capacity to deal with stress
induced as a result of current and future external changes.” By its nature, this is not a single
response, but action taken over time. We define coping as the “use of existing resources to
achieve various desired goals during and immediately after unusual, abnormal, and adverse
conditions of a hazardous event or process.” Clearly, this is a collection of short-term responses.
However, it is important to note that a short-term response (coping) can overlap and develop into
long-term strategies (adaptation) over time (Berkes and Jolly 2001).
Which strategy is chosen depends on the available options as well as the cost for each
individual / local community in taking that option. Therefore, examination of the adopted
strategy, would clarify the state of the environment and the economic conditions of the specific
area in question; Lake Inle and its fishermen in this case.
The paper is composed as follows. The next section provides the background of the study,
including basic information on the study site. Section 2 describes the fishing conducted in the
lake. Section 3 is the main part of the study, which analyzes the coping and adaptation
strategies of the fishermen in the lake. Section 4 examines these coping and adaptation
strategies compared to possible alternatives. And the final section presents the conclusion.
4
In contrast to 2010, the lake flooded in 2011. Some houses and fields were damaged by this flood.
This might also suggest that the climate in the area is unstable.
6. 4
1. Overview of the Study Site- Nyaung Shwe Township and Lake Inle
1.1 People, Economy and Environment
Nyaung Shwe Township 5
was home to 168,551 people in 2009.6
The population of the
township, as is true for Shan States, is comprised of various nationalities. The latest population
figures are not available, but based on the figures in 2001 (Table 1), the Intha people make up
the majority in the township. “In” stands for “lake,” while “tha” means “people” in Burmese.
Thus, the name literally means “lake people.” (Ohno 1978, Robinne 2001, Takatani 1995)7
. As
the name indicates, the lives of the Intha people center on the lake. They live on the shore or
on the lake, and make a living by fishing, cultivating vegetables (mainly tomatoes) on floating
gardens, and cultivating rice on the delta formed by the river pouring into the lake. As their
houses are located on or by the edge of the lake, boat is the main means of transportation. They
use tiny wooden boats without engines to go to school, market or even to neighboring houses.
The way they row their boats is unique in the country. The rower stands on the boat on one leg,
and hooks the other leg round the blade. In recent years, long tail boats with engines came to
be utilized, carrying local passengers, agricultural products to and from Nyaung Shwe Town,
or to show tourists around the lake. But for Intha households, the main means of transport is
the small boat they depend on for their daily activities.
Table 1: Population Breakdown of Nyaung Shwe Township (2008)
Intha 70
Pa-O 10
Shan 15
Bamar 3
Taung Yo/Others 2
Total 100
Source: UNDP (2008).
5
There are 10 townships in Taunggyi District and Nyaung Shwe is the 2nd
largest township.
Taunggyi District and two other districts make up Southern Shan State.
6
Based on the figures of the Department of Fishery, Shan State.
7
Judging from the language, Intha people are close to Burmese. Some says that Intha people are
originally from Tavoy, which is located in Tanintharyi Division, since both speak in similar
Burmese dialects (Woodlthorpe 1897, Ohno 1976). However, the way of life and mode of thinking
has many common aspects to that of Shan people (Takatani 1995, 13).
7. 5
Nyaung Shwe Township consists of 35 village tracts8
and there are 451 villages in total.
About 78% of the villages are located either to the eastern or western sides of the lake (Aye
Thiha 2005, 602).
Shan State, including Nyaung Shwe Township, is famous for its five-day market. The
market is held in rotation in Lake Inle area every five days. The market starts in the very early
morning and ends around 9 or 10 o’clock. It is a vital opportunity for local people to exchange
commodities and information. This is also where people of the lake (Intha) and the people of
the mountain (such as Pa-O, Taung Yo) can meet and exchange. For example, Intha sell fish,
tomatoes, rice and purchase wood for fuel. The market offers a wide range of goods. On
market day, the village at which the market is held is filled with boats and finding a parking
place is not easy. People chat with friends over tea and breakfast in the market. Almost all the
villagers attend nearby markets.
The weather in the lake area is tropical monsoon, and as in other parts of the country, there
are three seasons; rainy season, dry season and hot season. The mean air temperature of the
area is between 16.9 to 31.5 degree Celsius, while the mean annual rainfall is 920 mm (Sidle
et.al. 2007, 57). However, as noted earlier, 2010 was a very peculiar year in terms of the
weather pattern. Table 2 shows the rainfall data (Nyaung Shwe Township only). The annual
rainfall of the previous year (2009) was not particularly low. The problem was that it did not
rain from November 2009 to March 2010 and there was far less rain in April than normal. With
the unusual heat (data for monthly temperature for this year is not available, but the summer in
2010 was one of the hottest over all the country), the water level of the lake went down rapidly.
Table 2: Changes in Rainfall in Nyaung Shwe Township
Source: Department of Meteorology and Hydrology, Myanmar.
8
Village tract is the lowest unit of administration.
(mm)
Month 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Jan 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 11 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16
Feb 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 0
Mar 0 0 43 17 0 0 16 0 27 1 0 0 0 26 0 0 10 15 0 20
Apr 27 100 9 5 14 37 36 59 60 0 33 26 87 47 83 0 72 35 24 110
May 71 135 55 99 67 90 90 61 183 335 175 81 419 31 87 140 92 118 53 162
Jun 108 116 154 61 129 58 49 130 51 72 41 103 113 95 97 80 105 89 59 79
Jul 167 58 61 83 103 185 89 43 84 132 27 40 130 242 109 75 87 55 151 114
Aug 371 126 233 109 173 121 106 172 194 208 160 144 140 107 232 126 198 309 247 -
Sep 198 207 248 180 147 104 123 335 144 117 162 225 245 230 328 71 289 240 221 -
Oct 193 173 91 180 42 22 46 99 131 300 155 91 28 136 184 159 232 30 113 -
Nov 28 4 23 73 76 45 50 126 0 23 101 0 21 61 24 77 18 0 5 -
Dec 15 0 5 0 0 2 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 63 0 0 0 0 20 -
Total 1180 919 923 807 776 665 605 1026 875 1198 866 766 1182 1039 1144 744 1103 892 892 -
8. 6
Figure 1 shows the water level of the lake. The Irrigation Department monitors the water
level at the very north edge of the lake (Nande Village) and the location is recorded as 882.85
m a.s.l. Thus the figure is shown taking 882.85m a.s.l. as zero. As shown, the water level was
low throughout 2010, and fell dramatically from March to July 2010. This is a measurement of
only one specific location, thus in other locations within the lake, the water might have dried
up completely. In that case, people could not use their boats, even to visit nearby houses.
Walking on the bottom of the lake is not easy because the soil is too soft to walk on. It is not
difficult to imagine the serious effect that this extreme event has had on the livelihood of
Inthas, especially that of the fishermen.
2. Fishing in the Lake
Lake Inle9
is not an open access fishing ground. The lake is supposed to be managed as “open
fisheries,” where the government collects license fees according to the gear each fisherman
uses. However, since it was difficult to collect these fees because of a shortage of human
9
Lake Inle is divided in Inle Inn and Sakar Inn, which is downstream of Lake Inle. This paper only
deals with Inle Inn.
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
m
Figure 1: Changes in Water Level of Lake Inle (1990-2011)
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011Source: Irrigation Department. Taunggyi District.
9. 7
resources and institutional backup, the management of the lake was entrusted to Mr. K since
around 1999/2000.
Mr. K is 70 years old in 2012 and he is Intha.10
Since he has been working in the fishery
business since the early 1990s (he started aquaculture in 199111
) and has a good local social
network, he was granted the right to manage Lake Inle (both Inle Inn and Sakar Inn). The right
was granted by paying a lump sum for each Inn to the Department of Fisheries, and he was
allowed to collect the fishing fees from the fishermen. Later this grant was formalized to be
awarded to the local Myanmar Fishery Federation (in this case, Myanmar Fishery Federation,
Taunggyi District). Since Mr. K has been the chairman of the local federation, he continued to
be in charge of the lake until 2009/2010, up until the grant was awarded to the State Federation
level12
. Virtually everybody living in the lake knows his name, even if they do not necessarily
know his face.
This grant took a similar form to leasable fisheries.13
Under leasable fisheries,
according to the regulations, the fishing right is given exclusively to the individual who wins
the bid (leaseholder) and only the leaseholder has the right to exploit the resource. However, in
many cases, “discretionary power” affects the process and a “good leaseholder” may be
awarded the right continuously (FAO 2003). The lease fee would be increased annually, by
around 10 %. The leaseholder normally subleases the fishing right to individual fishermen in
the area. At the same time, the lessee is responsible for stock enhancement and sustainable
usage of the resource.
In the case of the grant of the management right of Lake Inle, Mr. K paid the lease fee to
the Department of Fisheries (300,000 kyat14
for Inle Inn in 2009/10) and he needed to provide
seed stock to the value of 30% of the lease fee (90,000 kyat in 2009/10). He subleased the right
to the fishermen of Lake Inle and collects an annual fee of 3,000 kyat (2009/10) per
fisherman15
. Out of the 3,000 kyat, 500 kyat is paid to his agents as a collection fee. Agents are
generally village headmen, who have good knowledge of the villagers. The fishermen can fish
10
He is originally from Nyaung Shwe, but spent ten years in the mountains, in the resistance army
of Pa-O, before he came down to settle in Nyaung Shwe again. He understands the Pa-O and Shan
language, but cannot speak them.
11
He started hatchery in 2004. His fingerlings are sold in the local area, while some have been
marketed to other area such as Ayeyarwady, Bago, Yangon, Mandalay, Kayar and Eastern Shan
State since 2006.
12
Currently the chairman of the State MFF is the taking the responsibility.
13
For the detailed framework of leasable fisheries, see FAO (2003). Because of the similarities, the
author assumes that FAO (2003) treats the case of Lake Inle as one of the leasable fisheries.
14
The average exchange rate was 887 kyat per US dollar in 2010 (Source: JETRO-Yangon Office).
15
Under the management of open fisheries, the license fee is supposed to be collected according to
the gear. However, since it is too cumbersome to do so, he decided to make the collection as a lump
sum, regardless of the number of gear used.
10. 8
with any legal gear for the whole year after paying this fee. There were about 1,500 fishermen
operating in Lake Inle16
in 2009/2010, according to Mr. K.
As described earlier, Intha fishermen use small wooden boats without engines17
and they
use several types of gear when fishing. There are four main types of gear: set gillnet (Htaung
pyite), hook and line (Nga Myar Than), Saung and fish trap (Myone).18
The gear most widely used is the set gill net and hook and line. With the set gill net, Intha
fishermen can fish in the day or at night. The fishermen say that the catch is better during the
night, but some prefer fishing during the day because at night there is a risk of their fishing net
being stolen while they are asleep on the boat. The main fish species currently caught by gill
net are tilapia, featherbacks (ngape, Notopterus spp.), and snakehead (ngayan, Channa spp.).
The catch of some local species (type of carps) that are unique to the lake such as Inle carp
(ngaphaine, Cyprinus intha ) and ngalu (Crossocheilus latius) is said to be decreasing year by
year. Tilapia came to account for a large share of the catch, compared to other species, but its
market value is generally much less per unit (the price of tilapia was 700-800 kyat per viss19
while other fish is 2500-4000 kyat per viss).
Hook and line uses small shrimp as bait and its target is high value fish such as ngape,
ngaphaine. The fishermen go out to the lake in the morning (8 or 9 o’clock) and come back the
following morning. They might return for a quick meal during a day, but stay over the night at
the lake. On the way back home the next morning, they collect small shrimp for bait for an
hour or two. The fishermen rest on that day and the next day go out again. Thus, the long-line
fishermen normally fish 12 times a month.
The Saung is an icon of the Intha fishermen, which can be found in various pictures of
Lake Inle. Ironically, however, the Saung is no longer in common use because its catch is low.
Fishermen normally start fishing in the morning (around 8’ o’clock) and finish in the evening.
The use of fish traps is relatively new in this area. These traps are generally adopted as a
response to the overall decreasing catch. The main target of the traps is tilapia. Fishermen set
the traps in the morning and collect them in the evening. Some leave the traps for 24 hours.
The number of traps determines the catch, but is limited by how many traps each fisherman
can afford. Some fishermen replace the traps every two months, while others use them for a
year by repairing them whenever necessary.
Fishermen combine the gear they use and use different gear depending on the season or the
16
The number of fishermen in Sakar Inn is also around 1500.
17
In 2012, the author observed some fisherman started to use small engines on these boats.
However, the number seemed to be not large.
18
Other gear is used especially in small streams around the village, such as main, cast net.
19
Viss is a unit used in Myanmar and it is equal to 1.6 kg.
11. 9
expected catch. The most common combination at the time of the survey was set gill net and
fish traps, as the fishermen can just leave the traps while they fish by set gill net. The other
combination is set gill net and hook and line. In this case, the fishermen divide the season, for
example 8 months for set gill net and 4 months for hook and line. A fisherman learns how to
row the boat and fish with each type of gear as a child.
Fishermen can fish throughout the year if they wish.20
However, generally, the catch in the
rainy season is larger than that in the dry or hot season. Furthermore, the actual fishing period
varies according to the earning opportunities available to each household. For example, those
who farm (such as paddy and tomato cultivation) go fishing only after the completion of
agricultural work (from around September). If they do not have other income sources, they
depend on fishing throughout the year. The number of days they spend fishing also varies
widely among households, but the maximum is 24 or 25 days per months, as they normally rest
on the five nearby market days.
Most of the catch from the lake is sold either within the village (including the village
brokers) , buyers who buy fish on the boat, or on the five nearby market days or Nyaung Shwe
Town, while some is eaten at home. The sale in the five-day markets is important, as these
markets are the major center for exchanging products. Some portion of the fish is sold in
Nyaung Shwe Town and marketed to other parts of Southern Shan State. Considering their
methods of fishing and the marketing, these Intha fishermen are not “commercial fishermen”
but rather “subsistence” or “artisan” fishermen, whose market is local and income sufficient
only for subsistence.
3. Fishermen’s Adaptation and Coping Strategy
3.1 The Study Villages and its Fishermen
Village A and Village P were selected for the interviews of individual fisherman. Both villages
are located within the lake. Village A is part of Nande Village Tract and Village P is part of
Nam Pan Village Tract (Map 2)21
. There were 307 households in Village A and 253 households
in Village P in 2011, and the inhabitants were all Intha.
A breakdown of the main occupation by household was not available.22
However,
20
The law prohibits fishing in the breeding period, which is around June to August. However, this
law is not strictly enforced. Those who have farmland or a floating garden may be able to abide by
the law, but others without any means may break the law in order to survive.
21
Nande Village Tract has 8 villages and Nam Pan Village Tract has 11 villages, which is large
compared to the number of villages in a tract in the rest of Myanmar.
22
Unlike agriculture (especially as found in the rice sector), there has been less government
interest in individual employment. Thus, there is no formal system of recording the occupation of
12. 10
according to the village chairmen, about 60% engage in fishing in Village A, and 80% in
Village P. Some cultivate tomatoes on their own floating gardens (about 30% of the households
in Village A, but only about 10% in Village P). The fishermen use the major four types of
fishing gear described in Section 2.
In Village P, fish farming started around 2006. There were about 60 households engaged in
fish farming in 2009. The first person started farming on the recommendation of Mr. K, who
has his own hatchery besides his house.23
The farming method is quite unique. The Intha
people live in stilt-houses on the lake and fish in the water beneath their houses. They circle
the stilts with nets and release the fingerlings purchased from the hatchery. The species they
most commonly breed is grass carp (Myet sa nga mi chin- Ctenopharyngodon idella)24
. Except
for the initial few months when the fish are fed with rice bran (until the fish grow to about 12
cm in length), the feed is weed collected in the lake. Considering that the cost of feed is often a
burden in aquaculture, farming grass carp is cost-saving as they do not have to pay for the feed.
The fishermen normally collect the weed for about one hour every day. The fish are breed for
almost one year under the house and then they are sold in the nearby market.
There is no fish farming in Village A, even in a normal year, due to the lower water
availability (both in terms of quality and depths) around and under the house. Other income
opportunities are limited. The most common type of work is casual daily labor (the majority
work in tomato cultivation), but there are other skilled jobs such as carpentry. The dominant
type of work for females in both villages is cheroot making at home. Some households may
have family members who work in hotels or other tourist services, but these opportunities are
still few. There is little immigration to other cities or other countries. In summary, the scope of
the household economy is still confined within/surrounding the village.
The fishermen were selected from these two villages for two reasons. The first reason is the
commonality: these two villages are typical Intha villages, where the people’s livelihoods
heavily depend on the lake, especially on fishing. The other reason lies in their difference. As
noted earlier, fish farming is possible in Village P, but not in Village A. Generally, farming is
being adopted as an alternative strategy as the natural catch decreases. Therefore, including
those fishermen who are also engaged in farming should show whether fish farming is a valid
adaptation strategy for Intha fishermen’s households.
each household.
23
He had already passed away when the author visited for the intensive interview in 2011.
24
In the interviewed sample, there were two households out of 16 households who also tried to
farm common carp and Inle carp together with grass carp. The rest of the households farmed grass
carp only.
13. 11
Map 2: Nyaung Shwe Township and Location of Study Village.
Source:Department of Forestry, Myanmar.
14. 12
The interview was conducted on 50 fishermen, 23 from Village A, and 27 from Village P.25
As it was not possible to have a complete list of households by occupation, we requested the
village chairmen to invite anyone who was engaged in fishing and was available on that
particular day (interviews were conducted for three days in Village A and two days in Village
P). In this sense, the fishermen were not randomly selected. However, given that we covered
different livelihood patterns and a wide range of income levels, the interviewed samples are
not biased to specific segments of village people. The interview was conducted by local
enumerators in Burmese, using the questionnaire prepared by the author. The author was at the
interview and checked the questionnaire each time to clarify points that needed further
explanation in direct conversations.
Table 3 shows basic information on fishermen households in two villages. Since there is no
statistically significant difference in the samples between the two villages (number of
households, age, educational level of household head and household income) the discussion
proceeds without dividing the samples according to village.
Table 3: Characteristics of Sample Fishermen
Number
of
Samples
Age of
Household
Number
of family
members
Education
(Completed
Years)
Average
Income
(kyat)
Village A 23 46.6 4.9 3.6 1,186,286
Village P 27 43.1 5.1 4.0 1,279,691
Source: Author's Survey.
Table 4 shows the interviewed sampled households categorized by their major income
source. These households had five different livelihood patterns.
Table 4: Number of Households According to Main Income Source
Fishing
Fishing+
Fish
Farming
Fishing+
Tomato
Fishing +Fish
Farming+
Tomato
Fish
Farming
Total
21 10 13 4 2 50
Source: Author's Survey.
25
Originally, we planned to interview 28 households in Village A, but it turned out that five
households did not engage in any fishing activities.
15. 13
Before moving on to the adaptation /coping strategy of fishermen, we examined the
composition of household income. The households were classified into five according to their
income level and the average incomes are shown in Table 5. The column “other “includes
income from casual labor, cheroot making and carpentry, etc. As shown in the table, the level
of both fishing and tomato farming income determines the overall level of household income.
Those well-off households (Class V) earned sufficient income from both fishing and tomato
farming.
Table 5: Composition of Household Income (kyat)
Fishing
Fish
Farming
Tomato Others Total
I 247,428 -30,000 -236,667 192,500 173,261
II 368,049 -41,600 17,800 267,889 612,138
III 525,322 54,733 -110,000 425,644 895,700
IV 1,021,957 -6,000 81,333 357,033 1,454,324
V 1,307,593 -44,167 2,310,000 539,017 4,112,443
(%)
I 142.8 -17.3 -136.6 111.1
II 60.1 -6.8 2.9 43.8
III 58.6 6.1 -12.3 47.5
IV 70.3 -0.4 5.6 24.5
V 31.8 -1.1 56.2 13.1
Source: Author's Survey.
For fishing, the following gear is used (Table 6). Note that this is the gear used in 2010, so
this would also include households that have already taken adaptation action. The set gill net is
used widely, with a combination of other gear as well. On the other hand, usage of the Saung is
limited.
16. 14
Table 6: Fishing Gear Used in 2010 in Two Villages
Set
Gill
Net
Set
Gill
Net+
Trap
Set Gill
Net+Hook
& Line
Set Gill
Net+Saung+
Trap
Hook
&
Line
Hook &
Line+
Trap
Saung
Saung+
Trap
Trap
19 10 9 1 3 2 1 1 2
Source: Author's Survey.
The abnormal weather in 2010 affected tomato cultivation as well as fishing. Depending on
the location of floating gardens, water was scarce and the harvest was much lower than that of
normal years for some households. Some farmers gave up cultivation early in the season
because of the water shortage (none of those sampled). Since the initial cost of tomato
cultivation is large (seed, fertilizer, and pesticide cost account for a large share of the total
production cost) once the crop fails, it can result in severe financial damage. That makes the
tomato income of Group I, II and III negative. One household said their harvest in 2010 was
one-third that of 2009.26
However, as is obvious from Group V, if the harvest is at normal
levels, a very high income can be achieved that far surpasses the income from fishing (seven
households cultivating tomatoes in Group V earned a positive net income, ranging from 1
million to 5 million kyat).
The reason for the negative income from fish farming is the same as that for tomato
cultivation. The purchased fingerlings died before they got big enough to sell, affected by the
lack of water. The normal survival rate of the fingerlings is reported to be about 80%. However,
in 2010, the average of the survival rate (16 households) was only 34%. Some harvested the
fish before they were big because they feared that the fish would die. The average fish farming
income fell to – 15,250 kyat. If the normal survival rate is assumed and the level of cost is the
same, the income would have been 98,180 kyat. Compared to the initial cost of tomato
cultivation, that of fish farming is relatively small and thus the income loss is less in scale.
At least for 2010, the sample fishermen households had to make up the loss from tomato
cultivation and fish farming with their income from catching fish (plus some other income
such as cheroot making).
26
As the number of farmers cultivating tomatoes was less and the overall harvest was not good,
the market supply was naturally less than in the previous year, 2009. Therefore, the market price
was two or three times higher in 2010. Thus, if a farmer was fortunate not to be affected by the low
level of water, the income from tomato cultivation could be very high.
17. 15
3.2 Trend of Catch, Adaptation and Coping
3.2.1 Decreasing Catch
The income composition in the previous section shows that fishing remains the core income
source, though tomato cultivation is the leading boost to household income. However, as noted
in the introduction, the fish catch is steadily decreasing in Lake Inle. Table 7 shows the year
that each fisherman felt that the catch decreased. More than 70% of fishermen perceived a
decrease of catch after 2006 (There were six fishermen who responded that the decrease was
from 2010.
Table 7: Year That Each Fisherman Perceived Decrease in Catch
Year Number of Fishermen
Before 2000 1
2000-05 10
2006 6
2007 10
2008 7
2009 6
2010 6
Total 46
Source: Author's Survey.
Note: Two fishermen who could not respond to the question were excluded.
3.2.2 Adaptation
This section examines the adaptation strategy of fishermen against the decreasing catch. Table
8 summarizes their response.27
The total number is 48, as two households who engage in fish
farming only were excluded here.
The most common strategy is to increase the number of hours spent fishing, i.e. the
fisherman decides to spend more time using specific gear. Twenty-two fishermen adopted this
strategy. Nineteen fishermen used set gill nets, while one fisherman used Saung (increased by
27
Fourteen households out of 48 did not take any measures. There are two possible reasons for
this: those households with sufficient income may not need to take any action or the
households might have also been suffering but they might be on the edge of collapse, in terms
of labor and capital availability. We were not able to obtain information at the interview. One
way to examine this is to check the interrelationship between income and response. However,
data is available only for 2010, which show the incomes after the shock, and that may include
the effect of a response, thus this is not good data for examining the correlation.
18. 16
2 hours) and two fishermen used fish traps (3 hours and 15 hours). All of them started to
increase their hours spent fishing after 2006 (except one who could not provide the exact year).
Table 8 : Adaptation Strategy by Household
Increase hours 9
Increase hours + Fish farming 5
Increase hours + Other income source 5
Increase hours+ Gear+ Fish farming 1
Increase hours+ Fish farming + Other income source 2
Increase gear 5
Increase gear + Fish farming 1
Increase gear+ Other income source 1
Fish farming 4
Other income source 1
None 14
Total 48
Source: Author's survey.
Next we examine the changes in time spent fishing with set gill net, as most time spent
fishing is by this type (Table 9).
Even before they increased their time spent fishing, fishermen spent between 8 and 16
hours fishing per time (average of the sample fishermen is 11 hours). After they increased their
time spent fishing, it ranged from 10 to 22 hours (average increased time was 5 hours). This
shows that the fishermen spend very long hours on the lake. Out of the 18 fishermen whose
year of starting to increase their time spent fishing is known, 10 fishermen increased their time
spent fishing in 2010, and 3 in 2011. However, it is difficult to discern whether these responses
were adaptation strategies or one-off coping strategies for the dramatic decrease of catch in
2010 (see Table 10 below). As pointed out in the introduction, a coping strategy may overlap
and develop into an adaptation strategy. As fishermen started to fish for long hours after 2010
and continued to do so in 2011, we regard it as an adaption strategy.
No fisherman increased their time spent on hook and line fishing because most fishermen
already spend the whole day fishing when using this gear.
Three fishermen changed the time they spent fishing with set gill net from night time to
day time. Strictly speaking, this is not to increase the catch. As noted earlier, there are many
cases in which fishing nets are stolen at night. Some fishermen reported that their nets were
20. 18
stolen from one to five times a year. Purchasing fishing gear several times within a year is a
heavy economic burden for some fishermen. This might be an extreme case, but one fisherman
had to stop sending his daughter to school because he needed to purchase a fishing net again
and could not afford the cost of schooling. Changing the time of fishing to day time is a
measure that minimizes the risk of unexpected cash outflow, by sacrificing the (slightly) higher
level of catch he can expect from fishing at night.
The second strategy is to increase the fishing gear by using an additional type of gear or
using additional traps. Fishing gear was increased for set gill net, hook and line and fish trap.
In order to increase the fishing gear used, unlike the fishing hours, the fishermen bear a
financial cost.
Fish farming has already been explained in the previous section. There are 15 sampled
households that engaged in fish farming. The year of starting fish farming was as follow: one
fisherman in 2008, five fishermen in 2009 and nine fishermen in 2010. The majority stated that
they started fish farming quite recently in response to the decreasing catch. However, as
already discussed, the water shortage in 2010 had a devastating effect on fish farming against
their high expectations. As a result of this bad experience, at the time of the interviews, two
households decided not to start fish farming again in 2011.
The increase of other income source included engaging in agricultural labor (six cases
mostly working on tomato gardens, and one case each for carpenter, own tomato cultivation
and working in a hotel). This includes the work of the fishermen and their family members.
Judging from the number of cases, intensification of fishing (increasing fishing hours,
number of fishing gear) surpassed the diversification of income source (fish farming and doing
other jobs). The reasons are as follows: The fishermen take the response that incurs the least
(financial) cost. From this point of view, increasing fishing hours requires only more labor
(i.e. does not bear any financial cost). If there were ample alternatives that would make the
opportunity cost of labor high, they would not have taken this choice to invest more labor on
this scale. However, in reality, as described earlier, the available income earning opportunities
are limited and those opportunities available do not generally yield a high level of income.
Subsequently, fishermen spend extremely long hours on a small boat, trying to exploit the
decreasing resources further. Fishermen who have the money invest in more gear, but this
option is not open to every fisherman. This choice also obviously leads to further exploitation
of the fish resources.
21. 19
3.2.3 Coping Strategies
In addition to the decreasing catch, fishermen faced a marked decrease in catch in 2010. Table
10 shows changes in catch according to fishing gear and fish species between 2009 and 2010.
Again, this is only the subjective figures of the fishermen. Regardless of the gear or fish
species, and despite their efforts to respond to the decreasing catch, Intha fishermen
experienced a huge decrease in catch in 2010.
Table 10: Catch in 2010 Compared to 2009, According to Fishing Gear and Species
Gear
Set Gill Net
Longl Line and
Hook
Trap Saung
Fish Cases Cases Cases Cases
Tilapia 71% 20 − − 50% 6 50% 2
Ngape 61% 4 55% 5 − − − −
Ngayan 62% 8 47% 3 − − − −
Ngaphein 80% 3 − − − − 47% 3
Source: Author’s Survey.
What was their response to this decreasing catch? This is coping action, which is basically a
collection of short-term responses. Table 11 lists the action taken by the sampled households,
together with the adapting strategy they had been taking before the shock.
The table shows that the most common form of response is the liquidizing of assets, i.e. the
sale of gold. Even with liquidizing of assets, some households needed to reduce consumption
or stop their children from going to school. All but three households were already taking action
against the decreasing catch, but they had to sell what they had saved from their meager
income.
If they have no gold to sell these households might take out loans. Table 12 indicates the
debt situation of sampled households in 2010. This table contains both the loans from informal
sources and microfinance. Microfinance programs have been run by the United Nations
Development Program (UNDP) in Nyaung Shwe Township since the late 1990s, and Village A
is in the program. On the other hand, Village P used to be in the program, but it ended in 2008,
because of a default problem by the lender-villagers. And even for Village A, some households
decided to stop taking the loans. Thus, the very right column of Table 10 indicates the way the
loan was spent if the households were in the scheme before, but not in 2010. The interest rate
charged for microfinance credit is 3.75% per month, so it is definitely lower than the prevailing
informal rates, considering collateral is not needed for microfinance credit.
22. 20
Table 11: Coping Strategies after Adopting Adaptation Strategy
Sr
Gold
Sale
Reduce
Consumption
Stop
Schooling
Adapting Strategy
1 600,000 ○ Increased hours + Fish Farming
2 500,000 ○ Increased gear
3 320,000 Increased gear
4 300,000 Increased hours
5 250,000 ○ ○ Increase hours + Other Income source
6 150,000 Increased hours + Gear+ Fish Farming
7 80,000 ○ Increased hours + Fish farming+ Other income source
8 80,000 Increased hours
9 50,000 Increased hours
10 30,000 Increased hours + Fish Farming
11 15,000 Increase hours + Other Income source
12 10,000 Increased hours + other income source
13 600,000 None
14 250,000 None
15 20,000 None
Source: Author’s survey.
About half of the sampled households (52%) were taking out informal loans on various
scales. Some were taking both informal and microfinance credit. When we look at the usage or
purpose of the informal loans, the share of consumption loans is small, in terms of the
frequency as well as the scale. Rather, the share of production credit (especially those for
tomato cultivation) is outstanding. Although households had to take out loans because of the
shock in 2010, with the extent of microfinance used for production purposes, a good portion of
households would be in debt regardless of the shock, in order to continue their cultivation or
fishing. Thus, with the prevailing high interest (some are charged 10% per month with
collateral), it might be difficult for fishermen to seek further credit in response to the
emergency situation in 2010. Finding a credit provider is difficult, and the burden repayment is
high.
Therefore, to cope with the shock in 2010, the fishermen households had to liquidize their
assets, namely gold, while some also had to reduce consumption or stop their children going to
school. With their maximum efforts spent on intensify fishing (both in terms of hours and gear),
and limited availability of other income sources, these are the only means that they were able
24. 22
4. Discussion on the Adaptation and Coping Strategies of Intha Fishermen
To understand and contextualize the adaptation and coping strategies of Intha fishermen, the
framework of Agrawal (2008, 19-21) is useful. Agrawal classifies the possible
adaptation/coping strategy into five options; mobility, storage, diversity, community pooling
and market exchange. Mobility applies to pooling the risks across space. Migration is one
option. Pastoralists in dry regions are a good example, as they move around searching for
better places. Storage applies to pooling and reducing risks over time. If the producers have the
capacity to store their products over time by processing or freezing, these products can be
stored until required. Diversity applies to production, consumption and employment, such as
cropping different varieties, seeking other income opportunities, and eating different kinds of
food. Communal pooling applies to the joint ownership and/or usage of assets and resources.
When an individual alone cannot cope with the changing environment and resources, collective
action may be required. And finally, market exchange applies to risk pooling based on market
institutions. According to Agrawal, this is a versatile strategy that can cover the functions of
the four other strategies, but it requires highly developed institutions.
Next we consider the strategies of Intha fishermen in the light of these five options.
Fishermen in Lake Inle cannot apply mobility with a decreasing catch. As it is a closed system
under leasable fisheries, their fishing grounds cannot be changed. People’s migration (both
domestic and abroad) is also not gaining momentum in this area, if compared to other parts of
the country28
.
Storage is also not a feasible option at the moment. They do not process the fish, but just
sell them fresh in the market. It is primitive in terms of marketing, but as fishing in the lake has
no large-scale commercial prospects, it is highly likely to continue in this way.
Diversification also has little prospect at present. Diversification in the fishery sector would
be fish farming. On a stable basis, it can supplement income (but as it is small-scale farming
underneath the houses, the expected income is not high as indicated in Section 3.1), and there
is little scope for expansion. Furthermore, not all villages are suitable for this type of fish
farming; as it requires a certain depth and good water quality (Village A is not suitable in this
context). Diversification in livelihood is also very limited. Tomato cultivation provides an
attractive income for local residents. However, the formation of new floating gardens was
prohibited in the late 1990s, due to environmental concerns. To purchase a garden, requires
100,000-400,000 kyat per unit (100 alan =0.32 acres), which poor households normally cannot
28
The dry zone, one of the most poverty stricken areas in the country, has seen an outflow of the
rural population, especially to Malaysia in recent years.
25. 23
afford, even if there were a floating garden for sale. Agricultural wage labor (average wage
was 1,500 kyat per day) is also not stable, especially if it is only for tomatoes whose labor
demand is concentrated in just three months. The opportunities for females are confined to
cheroot making. Cheroot making earns only 500-800 kyat a day. Of the sampled households,
85% had female laborers engaged in cheroot making. One young woman who had graduated
from university (Taunggyi University) came back to the village and engaged in cheroot making.
Since cheroots are mostly favored by the older generations in rural areas, it is highly doubtful
that demand will continue to grow in future. Thus, dependency on cheroot making has low
prospects.
No mechanism for community pooling of risks has been established against the decreasing
fish resources either on a village level or lake level, though all residents are aware of the
phenomena.
What is the reason for this? Ostrom (1990, 42-45) points out three problems in realizing
collective action for sustainable management of a common pool resource. First is the problem
of supplying a new set of institutions. Second is the problem of making a credible commitment.
Third is mutual monitoring. These problems allow little scope for success in the case of Lake
Inle.
At the village level, the interests of the villagers do not necessarily coincide. For example,
the usage of agrochemicals for tomato cultivation is blamed for deterioration of the water
quality, but controlling agrochemical usage would be against the interests of tomato farmers.
Furthermore, some fishermen are also tomato farmers, that allows them to have a much higher
income than by fishing alone. Thus, it would be very difficult to obtain consensus even within
the village. Thus, it is difficult to gain the momentum to create new institutions and make a
credible commitment among the fishermen.
The other difficulty lies in the scale of the resource, i.e. the lake. One way of sustaining the
fishery resources may be controlling the fishing period. As noted earlier, fishing is officially
prohibited for three months in the rainy season (June to August), which is the spawning season.
Nevertheless, as we saw, fishermen continue to fish throughout the year if they need to do so to
survive. They have no other option. The scale of the lake makes it difficult to reach any
consensus as well as to place an enforcement mechanism among fishermen. If one fisherman
starts fishing in the prohibited period, others would follow. The fact that there were many cases
of fishing nets being stolen is as much a reflection of their hardship as their morals. Only
competition exists among the fishermen. Even if the government tried to enforce the rule, it is
not pragmatic given the size of the lake, and the fact that the majority of fishermen go fishing
at night. The other problem that has been occurring, but is not clear from the individual
26. 24
interviews, was the usage of illegal fishing gear, i.e. fishing with battery shocks (fishermen
would be reluctant to admit this in interview). With such a battery, it would be possible to catch
2-3 viss per hour (note some fishermen find it difficult to catch 1 viss per trip even though they
spend long hours on the lake). The grant holder, the Myanmar Fishery Federation, which is
supposed to be the organization responsible for the resource management of the lake seems to
have little capacity to do so29
.
The final option, market exchange, is probably the most remote strategy for Intha
fishermen. There is no momentum or institution that would enhance risk pooling through a
market exchange mechanism in the local economy of Lake Inle.
Conclusion
Lake Inle and Nyaung Shwe Township is not only a major tourist destination but also an area
where various kinds of official assistance are provided by international organizations and
NGOs. Besides the microfinance programs, several projects, including some small-scale
infrastructure and watershed management programs, have been implemented to improve the
economic welfare of the local people.
For the last 10 years, Myanmar government has also been keen to halt the environmental
degradation of the area. They set up a greening project of 20 miles radius of Lake Inle
(Conservation of agriculture, forestry, land, water, birds and animals) in 1997. All the related
authorities are in the committee, and they prohibited the establishment of new floating gardens.
A stock enhancement program to the lake was also initiated in 2005/06. Nevertheless, it seems
that the deterioration of the environment and decreasing fish resources has accelerated. They
have not found any effective measures to stop sedimentation (i.e. deforestation) or to maintain
the water quality. Moreover, the abnormal weather caused a huge shock in 2010.
The current adaptation strategy of Intha fishermen is to exploit the resources through
intensified fishing, involving longer hours fishing and the use of more efficient fishing gear.
Some fishermen use illegal gear or steal other fishermen’s nets. If abnormal weather patterns
such as those in 2010 occur again soon, some households may be devastated, without any
means of support. The prospects of the fish resources of Lake Inle and those dependent on the
fish resources for their livelihood are gloomy and drastic measure are required in the near
future.
29
Mr. K used to arrest 40-50 fishermen per year who used illegal gear. He made them
sign that they would not use illegal gear again, in front of the village headman. If any
continued, he had to take official action and hand them over to the police.
27. 25
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Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank the Department of Fisheries, Myanmar for supporting this study. In
particular, I would like to thank Dr. Than Than Lwin and Dr. Nilar Shein for their valuable
assistance conducting the field survey. I am also grateful to U Kyaw Zaw and U Khin Maung
Soe and Dr. Takahisa Furuichi for providing valuable information.
29. No. Author(s) Title
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