We propose in this paper a connectivity-aware routing algorithm and a set of related theorems. This algorithm allows nodes in Mobile Adhoc and Sensor Networks (MASNets) to provide the highest connectivity life time to a specific destination since the issuance of data becomes a necessity for MASNets. In the proposed Solution, nodes in MASNets are able to specify the disjointness degree of the available paths allowing the discovery of the optimal set of backup routes and consequently enhance the survivability of the connectivity. These nodes perform an on-demand discovery and a generation of a set of routes, by specifying a disjointness threshold, representing the maximal number of nodes shared between any two paths in the set of k established paths. The proposed multipath routing algorithm, is adaptive, secure, and uses labels to carry the disjointness-threshold between nodes during the route discovery. A set of security mechanisms, based on the Watchdog and the digital signature concepts, is used to protect the route discovery process.
ENERGY EFFICIENT MULTICAST ROUTING IN MANET ijac journal
In this paper, we have presented the Modified Multicasting through Time Reservation using Adaptive
Control for Excellent Energy efficiency (MMC-TRACE). It is a real time multicasting architecture for
Mobile Ad-Hoc networks to make their work an energy efficient one .MMC-TRACE is a cross layer design
where the network layer and medium access control layer functionality are done in a single integrated
layer design. The basic design of the architecture is to establish and maintain an active multicast tree
surrounded by a passive mesh within a mobile ad hoc network. Energy efficiency is maximized by enabling
the particular node from sleep to awake mode while the remaining nodes of the same path are maintained
at sleep mode. Energy efficiency too achieved by eliminating most of the redundant data receptions across
nodes. The performance of MMC-TRACE are evaluated with the help of ns-2 simulations and comparisons
are made with its predecessor such as MC-TRACE. The results show that the MMC-TRACE provides
superior energy efficiency, competitive QoS performance and bandwidth efficiency.
A novel routing technique for mobile ad hoc networks (manet)ijngnjournal
Actual network size depends on the application and the protocols developed for the routing for this kind of
networks should be scalable and efficient. Each routing protocol should support small as well as large
scale networks very efficiently. As the number of node increase, it increases the management functionality
of the network. Graph theoretic approach traditionally was applied to networks where nodes are static or
fixed. In this paper, we have applied the graph theoretic routing to MANET where nodes are mobile. Here,
we designed all identical nodes in the cluster except the cluster head and this criterion reduces the
management burden on the network. Each cluster supports a few nodes with a cluster head. The intracluster
connectivity amongst the nodes within the cluster is supported by multi-hop connectivity to ensure
handling mobility in such a way that no service disruption can occur. The inter-cluster connectivity is also
achieved by multi-hop connectivity. However, for inter-cluster communications, only cluster heads are
connected. This paper demonstrates graph theoretic approach produces an optimum multi-hop connectivity
path based on cumulative minimum degree that minimizes the contention and scheduling delay end-toend.
It is applied to both intra-cluster communications as well as inter-cluster communications. The
performance shows that having a multi-hop connectivity for intra-cluster communications is more power
efficient compared to broadcast of information with maximum power coverage. We also showed the total
number of required intermediate nodes in the transmission from source to destination. However, dynamic
behavior of the nodes requires greater understanding of the node degree and mobility at each instance of
time in order to maintain end-to-end QoS for multi-service provisioning. Our simulation results show that
the proposed graph theoretic routing approach will reduce the overall delay and improves the physical
layer data frame transmission.
Evaluation of Energy Consumption using Receiver–Centric MAC Protocol in Wirel...IJECEIAES
At present day’s wireless sensor networks, obtain a lot consideration to researchers. Maximum number of sensor nodes are scattered that can communicate with all others. Reliable data communication and energy consumption are the mainly significant parameters that are required in wireless sensor networks. Many of MAC protocols have been planned to improve the efficiency more by enhancing the throughput and energy consumption. The majority of the presented medium access control protocols to only make available, reliable data delivery or energy efficiency does not offer together at the same time. In this research work the author proposes a novel approach based on Receiver Centric-MAC is implemented using NS2 simulator. Here, the author focuses on the following parametric measures like - energy consumption, reliability and bandwidth. RC-MAC provides high bandwidth without decreasing energy efficiency. The results show that 0.12% of less energy consumption, reliability improved by 20.86% and bandwidth increased by 27.32% of RC-MAC compared with MAC IEEE 802.11.
EFFICIENT MULTI-PATH PROTOCOL FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKSijwmn
Wireless sensor networks are useful for streaming multimedia in infrastructure-free and hazardous environments. However, these networks are quite different from their wired counterpart and are composed of nodes with constrained bandwidth and energy. Multiple-path transmission is one of the methods for ensuring QoS routing in both wired and wireless environment. Directed diffusion, a well known wireless sensor network protocol, only routes packets through a single path, which barely meets the throughput requirement of multimedia data. Instead, we propose a multipath algorithm based on directed diffusion that reinforces multiple routes with high link quality and low latency. This algorithm retains the merits of the original directed diffusion algorithms, including its energy efficiency and scalability. A hybrid metric of link quality and latency is used as the criterion for path selection. In order to select disjoint paths, we propose a scheme for reinforced nodes to respond negatively to multiple reinforcement messages. We use the NS-2 simulation tool with video trace generated by Multiple Description Coding (MDC) to evaluate the performance. The results show that our algorithm gives better throughput and delay performance, i.e higher video quality, than standard directed diffusion that transmits over a single path, with low overheads and energy consumption.
Abstract The Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) based Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol uses a short request-to-send (RTS) and clear-to-send (CTS) control packets prior of actual data packet transmission. The function of the CSMA/CA based MAC protocol in wireless communication is to facilitate wireless nodes (i.e. laptop, PC, smart phones and etc) to access a wireless medium efficiently. Besides, it is also efficiently manage the wireless medium when more wireless nodes involving in transmission activity in the network. This protocol allows all wireless nodes in the network to communicate between each other without collision. Since collisions may only occurred on the RTS control packets thus it can reduce the actual data collision on the medium. The RTS/CTS control handshake provides better performance and reduce the duration of collision especially when long data packets are transmitted over wireless medium. However, even though the CSMA/CA based MAC protocol working effectively and provides better throughput performance over single hop communication but it performance degrade significantly when directly applied in multihop Wireless Mesh Network (WMN). The reason behind this poor performance is due to the inefficient packet delivery of CSMA/CA based MAC protocol in multihop network. The exchange of RTS and CTS signaling that required at each hop throughout the multihop network eventually will cause the large overheads and subsequently degrade network throughput. Therefore, in this paper, an enhancement of RTS/CTS handshake has been proposed in order reduces the signaling overheads and ultimately allows a smooth packet delivery in the multihop network without any collision. In this work, the multihop network performances are evaluated analytically in terms of throughput and overhead. It is proven that the new method of RTS/CTS handshake provides significant improvement in throughput and overhead. Keywords: Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol; Signaling; Overheads; Multihop communication
ENERGY EFFICIENT MULTICAST ROUTING IN MANET ijac journal
In this paper, we have presented the Modified Multicasting through Time Reservation using Adaptive
Control for Excellent Energy efficiency (MMC-TRACE). It is a real time multicasting architecture for
Mobile Ad-Hoc networks to make their work an energy efficient one .MMC-TRACE is a cross layer design
where the network layer and medium access control layer functionality are done in a single integrated
layer design. The basic design of the architecture is to establish and maintain an active multicast tree
surrounded by a passive mesh within a mobile ad hoc network. Energy efficiency is maximized by enabling
the particular node from sleep to awake mode while the remaining nodes of the same path are maintained
at sleep mode. Energy efficiency too achieved by eliminating most of the redundant data receptions across
nodes. The performance of MMC-TRACE are evaluated with the help of ns-2 simulations and comparisons
are made with its predecessor such as MC-TRACE. The results show that the MMC-TRACE provides
superior energy efficiency, competitive QoS performance and bandwidth efficiency.
A novel routing technique for mobile ad hoc networks (manet)ijngnjournal
Actual network size depends on the application and the protocols developed for the routing for this kind of
networks should be scalable and efficient. Each routing protocol should support small as well as large
scale networks very efficiently. As the number of node increase, it increases the management functionality
of the network. Graph theoretic approach traditionally was applied to networks where nodes are static or
fixed. In this paper, we have applied the graph theoretic routing to MANET where nodes are mobile. Here,
we designed all identical nodes in the cluster except the cluster head and this criterion reduces the
management burden on the network. Each cluster supports a few nodes with a cluster head. The intracluster
connectivity amongst the nodes within the cluster is supported by multi-hop connectivity to ensure
handling mobility in such a way that no service disruption can occur. The inter-cluster connectivity is also
achieved by multi-hop connectivity. However, for inter-cluster communications, only cluster heads are
connected. This paper demonstrates graph theoretic approach produces an optimum multi-hop connectivity
path based on cumulative minimum degree that minimizes the contention and scheduling delay end-toend.
It is applied to both intra-cluster communications as well as inter-cluster communications. The
performance shows that having a multi-hop connectivity for intra-cluster communications is more power
efficient compared to broadcast of information with maximum power coverage. We also showed the total
number of required intermediate nodes in the transmission from source to destination. However, dynamic
behavior of the nodes requires greater understanding of the node degree and mobility at each instance of
time in order to maintain end-to-end QoS for multi-service provisioning. Our simulation results show that
the proposed graph theoretic routing approach will reduce the overall delay and improves the physical
layer data frame transmission.
Evaluation of Energy Consumption using Receiver–Centric MAC Protocol in Wirel...IJECEIAES
At present day’s wireless sensor networks, obtain a lot consideration to researchers. Maximum number of sensor nodes are scattered that can communicate with all others. Reliable data communication and energy consumption are the mainly significant parameters that are required in wireless sensor networks. Many of MAC protocols have been planned to improve the efficiency more by enhancing the throughput and energy consumption. The majority of the presented medium access control protocols to only make available, reliable data delivery or energy efficiency does not offer together at the same time. In this research work the author proposes a novel approach based on Receiver Centric-MAC is implemented using NS2 simulator. Here, the author focuses on the following parametric measures like - energy consumption, reliability and bandwidth. RC-MAC provides high bandwidth without decreasing energy efficiency. The results show that 0.12% of less energy consumption, reliability improved by 20.86% and bandwidth increased by 27.32% of RC-MAC compared with MAC IEEE 802.11.
EFFICIENT MULTI-PATH PROTOCOL FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKSijwmn
Wireless sensor networks are useful for streaming multimedia in infrastructure-free and hazardous environments. However, these networks are quite different from their wired counterpart and are composed of nodes with constrained bandwidth and energy. Multiple-path transmission is one of the methods for ensuring QoS routing in both wired and wireless environment. Directed diffusion, a well known wireless sensor network protocol, only routes packets through a single path, which barely meets the throughput requirement of multimedia data. Instead, we propose a multipath algorithm based on directed diffusion that reinforces multiple routes with high link quality and low latency. This algorithm retains the merits of the original directed diffusion algorithms, including its energy efficiency and scalability. A hybrid metric of link quality and latency is used as the criterion for path selection. In order to select disjoint paths, we propose a scheme for reinforced nodes to respond negatively to multiple reinforcement messages. We use the NS-2 simulation tool with video trace generated by Multiple Description Coding (MDC) to evaluate the performance. The results show that our algorithm gives better throughput and delay performance, i.e higher video quality, than standard directed diffusion that transmits over a single path, with low overheads and energy consumption.
Abstract The Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) based Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol uses a short request-to-send (RTS) and clear-to-send (CTS) control packets prior of actual data packet transmission. The function of the CSMA/CA based MAC protocol in wireless communication is to facilitate wireless nodes (i.e. laptop, PC, smart phones and etc) to access a wireless medium efficiently. Besides, it is also efficiently manage the wireless medium when more wireless nodes involving in transmission activity in the network. This protocol allows all wireless nodes in the network to communicate between each other without collision. Since collisions may only occurred on the RTS control packets thus it can reduce the actual data collision on the medium. The RTS/CTS control handshake provides better performance and reduce the duration of collision especially when long data packets are transmitted over wireless medium. However, even though the CSMA/CA based MAC protocol working effectively and provides better throughput performance over single hop communication but it performance degrade significantly when directly applied in multihop Wireless Mesh Network (WMN). The reason behind this poor performance is due to the inefficient packet delivery of CSMA/CA based MAC protocol in multihop network. The exchange of RTS and CTS signaling that required at each hop throughout the multihop network eventually will cause the large overheads and subsequently degrade network throughput. Therefore, in this paper, an enhancement of RTS/CTS handshake has been proposed in order reduces the signaling overheads and ultimately allows a smooth packet delivery in the multihop network without any collision. In this work, the multihop network performances are evaluated analytically in terms of throughput and overhead. It is proven that the new method of RTS/CTS handshake provides significant improvement in throughput and overhead. Keywords: Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol; Signaling; Overheads; Multihop communication
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
A secure qos distributed routing protocol for hybrid wireless networksAAKASH S
The succeeding wireless network is Hybrid Wireless Networks. It can provide Quality of Service
(QoS) requirements in real time transmission for wireless application. But it stream including critical mission
application like military use or emergency recovery. Hybrid wireless networks is unified mobile ad-hoc network
(MANET) and wireless infrastructure networks. It inherits invalid reservation and race condition problem in
Mobile ad-hoc network (MANET). Whereas open medium and wide distribution of node make vulnerable to
malicious attackers in Hybrid wireless networks. How to secure the Quality of Service (QoS) routing in Hybrid
wireless networks. In this paper, we propose a Secure QoS-Oriented Distributed routing protocol (SQOD) to
upgrade the secure Quality of Service (QoS) routing in Hybrid wireless networks. SQOD contain two
contrivances: 1.QoS-Oriented Distributed Routing Protocol (QOD)-to reduce transmission delay, transmission
time. And also increase wireless network transmission throughput. 2. Enhanced Adaptive ACKnowledgment
(EAACK)-implement a new intrusion-detection system for Hybrid wireless networks. It protect Hybrid wireless
networks from attacks that have higher malicious behavior detection rate. Analytical and simulation result
based on the real human mobility mode. SQOD can provide high secure performance in terms of Intrusion detection,overhead, transmission delay.
Hybrid networks is integrate MANETs and infrastructure wireless networks
It have proven to be a better network structure for the next generation networks
It can act Base station and Ad hoc according to the environment conditions
The widespread use of mobile devices the increasing demand for mobile multimedia streaming services
The future of real time need of high Quality of Service (QoS) support in wireless and mobile networking environments
The QoS support reduces end to end transmission delay and enhances throughput to guarantee the seamless communication between mobile devices and wireless infrastructures
Specifically, infrastructure networks improve the scalability of MANETs, while MANETs automatically establish self-organizing networks, extending the coverage of the infrastructure networks
A comparative study in wireless sensor networksijwmn
Sensor networks consist of a large number of small, low-powered wireless nodes with limited computation,
communication, and sensing abilities, in a battery-powered sensor network, energy and communication
bandwidth are a precious resources. Thus, there is a need to adapt the networking process to match the
application in order to minimize the resources consumed and extend the life of the network. In this paper,
we introduce a comparative study in different routing algorithms that propose vital solutions to the most
important issues that should be taken into account when designing wireless network which are reliability,
lifetime, communication bandwidth, transmission rand, and finally the limited energy issue, so we will
introduce their algorithms and discuss how did they propose to solve such of these challenges and finally
we will do some evaluation to each approach.
Adaptive QoS Multicast Routing with Mobility Prediction in MANETs ijasuc
A Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) is a collection of wireless mobile hosts that form a temporary network
without a centralized administration or wired infrastructure. Due to the high mobility of nodes, the network
topology of MANETs changes very fast, making it more difficult to find the routes that message packets use.
Network control with Quality of Service (QoS) support is a key issue for multimedia applications in MANET.
Most of the real time applications have stringent requirements on bandwidth, delay, delay-jitter, packet loss
ratio, cost and other QoS metrics. This paper proposes a Multi-constrained QoS routing with mobility
prediction protocol. If the node has enough resources to transmit data packets, it uses the Global
Positioning System (GPS) to get the location information of the mobile nodes and selects the routing path
with the maximum Route Expiration Time (RET). A set of static and mobile agents are used to find the
multicast routes and transmit the packets. Extensive simulations have been conducted to evaluate the
performance of MC_MAODV using Network Simulator (NS-2). The simulation results show that the
proposed protocol achieves good performance in terms of improving packet delivery ratio and minimizing
end-to-end delay.
A CELLULAR BONDING AND ADAPTIVE LOAD BALANCING BASED MULTI-SIM GATEWAY FOR MO...pijans
As it is well known, the QoS(quality of service) provided by mobile Internet access point devices is far from
the QoS level offered by the common ADSL modem-router due to several reasons: in fact, mobile Internet
access networks are not designed to support real-time data traffic because of several drawbacks
concerning the wireless medium such as resource sharing, traffic congestion, radio link coverage etc.,
which impact directly such parameters as delay, jitter, and packet loss rate that are strictly connected to
the quality of user experience. The main scope of the present paper is to introduce a dual USIM HSPA
gateway for ad hoc and sensors networks thanks to which it will be possible to guarantee a QoS suitable
for a series of network-centric application such as real-time communications and monitoring, video
surveillance, real-time sensor networks, telemedicine, vehicular and mobile sensor networks and so on. The
main idea is to exploit multiple radio access networks in order to enhance the available end-to-end
bandwidth and the perceived quality of experience. The scope has been reached by combining multiple
radio access with dynamic load balancing and the VPN (virtual private network) bond technique.
ENERGY LOCATION AWARE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ELARP) FOR WIRELESS MULTIMEDIA SENSOR...ijcsit
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)have sensor nodes that sense and extract information from surrounding
environment, processing information locally then transmit it to sink wirelessly. Multimedia data is larger in
volume than scalar data, thus transmitting multimedia data via Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks
(WMSNs) requires stick constraints on quality of services in terms of energy, throughput and end to end
delay.Multipath routing is to discover multipath during route discovery from source to sink. Discover
multipath and sending data via these different paths improve the bandwidth and decrease the end to end
delay. This paper introduces an Energy Location Aware Routing Protocol (ELARP) which is reactive
multipath routing protocol establishing three paths with awareness of node’s residual energy and distance.
ELARP has experimented with NS2 simulator. The simulation results show that ELARP enhances QoS for
multimedia data in terms of end to end delay and packet delivery ratio.
IMPROVING PACKET DELIVERY RATIO WITH ENHANCED CONFIDENTIALITY IN MANETijcsa
In Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET), the collection of mobile nodes gets communicated without the need of any customary infrastructure. In MANET, repeated topology changes and intermittent link breakage
causes the failure of existing path. This leads to rediscovery of new route by broadcasting RREQ packet.The number of RREQ packet in the network gets added due to the increased amount of link failures. This result in increased routing overhead which degrades the packet delivery ratio in MANET. While designing
routing protocols for MANET, it is indispensable to reduce the overhead in route discovery. In our previous
work[17], routing protocol based on neighbour details and probabilistic knowledge is utilized, additionally
the symmetric cipher AES is used for securing the data packet. Through this protocol, packet delivery ratio
gets increased and confidentiality is ensured. But there is a problem in secure key exchange among the
source and destination while using AES. To resolve that problem, hybrid cryptographic system i.e.,
combination of AES and RSA is proposed in this paper. By using this hybrid cryptographic scheme and the
routing protocol based on probability and neighbour knowledge, enhanced secure packet delivery is
ensured in MANET
DETERMINING THE NETWORK THROUGHPUT AND FLOW RATE USING GSR AND AAL2Rijujournal
In multi-radio wireless mesh networks, one node is eligible to transmit packets over multiple channels to different destination nodes simultaneously. This feature of multi-radio wireless mesh network makes high throughput for the network and increase the chance for multi path routing. This is because the multiple channel availability for transmission decreases the probability of the most elegant problem called as interference problem which is either of interflow and intraflow type. For avoiding the problem like interference and maintaining the constant network performance or increasing the performance the WMN need to consider the packet aggregation and packet forwarding. Packet aggregation is process of collecting several packets ready for transmission and sending them to the intended recipient through the channel, while the packet forwarding holds the hop-by-hop routing. But choosing the correct path among different available multiple paths is most the important factor in the both case for a routing algorithm. Hence the most challenging factor is to determine a forwarding strategy which will provide the schedule for each node for transmission within the channel. In this research work we have tried to implement two forwarding strategies for the multi path multi radio WMN as the approximate solution for the above said problem. We have implemented Global State Routing (GSR) which will consider the packet forwarding concept and Aggregation Aware Layer 2 Routing (AAL2R) which considers the both concept i.e. both packet forwarding and packet aggregation. After the successful implementation the network performance has been measured by means of simulation study.
Control Channel Dilemma (CCD) is still an open problem for Cognitive Radio Network (CRN). In this
article, we investigate and present a novel solution of Distributed Coordination in CRN to mitigate the
necessity for a common control channel. This scheme is based on the fact that a group of nearby nodes
almost detects the same frequency spectrum. That will allow every group of close nodes to choose a node
called coordinator, which in its turn chooses a reliable control channel for the group, then the reaming
nodes become slaves. Furthermore, the nodes that belong to two or more groups have an important role in
maintaining the network connectivity since they act as bridges to relay data between different groups. The
proposed approach carries potentials to provide robust operation under network dynamics conditions.
Finally, several simulation experiments are presented to validate the proposed approach.
Design and implementation of new routingIJCNCJournal
Energy consumption is a key element in the Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) design. Indeed, sensor nodes are really constrained by energy supply. Hence, how to improve the network lifetime is a crucial and challenging task. Several techniques are available at different levels of the OSI model to maximize the WSN lifetime and especially at the network layer which uses routing strategies to maintain the routes in the network and guarantee reliable communication. In this paper we intend to propose a new protocol called
Combined Energy and Distance Metrics Dynamic Routing Protocol (CEDM-DR). Our new approach considers not only the distance between wireless sensors but also the energy of node acting as a router in order to find the optimal path and achieve a dynamic and adaptive routing.
The performance metrics exploited for the evaluation of our protocol are average energy consumed, network lifetime and packets lost. By comparing our proposed routing strategy to protocol widely used in WSN namely Ad hoc On demand Distance Vector(AODV), simulation results show that CEDM-DR strategy might effectively balance the sensor power consumption and permits accordingly to enhance the network
lifetime. As well, this new protocol yields a noticeable energy saving compared to its counterpart.
MULTICASTING BASED ENHANCED PROACTIVE SOURCE ROUTING IN MANETSIJCNCJournal
Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) is an accumulation of movable nodes organizing a irregular topology without centralized administration. In a MANET, multicasting is a significant technique for utilizing data communication system. Multicasting based enhanced proactive source routing is proposed in this paper for Mobile Ad hoc Networks. It explains an innovative multicasting algorithm that considers the transmission energy and residual energy while forwarding the data packets. It improves the network throughput and raises the network lifetimes. Simulation analysis is carried in this proposed system and this method shows improved performance over the existing system.
B ENCHMARKING OF C ELL T HROUGHPUT U SING P ROPORTIONAL F AIR S CHEDULE...ijwmn
The proportional fair (PF) scheduling algorithm com
promises between cell throughput and fairness. Many
research findings have been published by various re
searchers about PF algorithm based on mathematical
model and simulations. In this paper we have taken
the practical route to analyse the algorithm based
on
three types of subscription. In this benchmarking s
tudy, the user subscriptions are differentiated as
Gold,
Silver and Bronze schemes and they are provisioned
with certain throughputs. Apart from subscriptions
plans, the channel condition also plays a major rol
e in determining the throughput. So in order to ens
ure
fairness among different subscriptions even in the
bad channel conditions and to deliver the provision
ed
throughputs certain priorities are attached with th
e subscriptions. As per the subscription plans Gold
subscribers are assigned with 50% of the speed offe
red by the network as maximum based on CAT3 speed
(100 Mbps in DL and 50 Mbps in UL), Silver is assig
ned with 25% of the max speed and Bronze is
assigned with 12% of the max speed. The priorities
assigned to subscribers determines the fairness in
the
unfavourable channel conditions - Bronze (high), Si
lver and Gold (medium). In this paper, an
benchmarking tests have been performed with all of
three types of subscribers for nearly two hours in
the
live single cell network without any heterogeneous
cells influencing it. Furthermore, the results are
compared with the simulation results.
Steganography is a technology used since years for the communication of messages secretly. These secret messages are put inside honest carriers. Carriers can be digital images, audio files, video files and so on. The limitation in sending concealed longer messages has been overcoming by the inclusion of video files as carriers. Popular internet services such as Skype, BitTorrent, Google Suggest, and
WLANs are targets of information hiding techniques. Nowadays, plotters are not only using the carriers but also the protocols for communication that regulate the path of the carrier through the Internet. This technique is named Network Steganography.
System level simulation for two tier macro femto cellular networksijwmn
LTE is an emerging wireless communication technology to provide high- speed data service for the mobile
phones and data terminals. To improve indoor coverage and capacity Femtocells are included in 3GPP
since Release 8. There is no common simulation platform is available for performance justification of LTEFemtocells.
LTE-Sim is an object-oriented open source simulator which incorporates a complete protocol
stack can be used for simulating two-tier macro-femto scenarios. To the best of our knowledge no paper
provides the guideline to perform system level simulation of Femtocell networks. Here, in this paper
Femtocells performance is evaluated in multi-Macrocells and multi-Femtocells environment with
interference from Microcells and Macrocell users along with the scripting.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
A secure qos distributed routing protocol for hybrid wireless networksAAKASH S
The succeeding wireless network is Hybrid Wireless Networks. It can provide Quality of Service
(QoS) requirements in real time transmission for wireless application. But it stream including critical mission
application like military use or emergency recovery. Hybrid wireless networks is unified mobile ad-hoc network
(MANET) and wireless infrastructure networks. It inherits invalid reservation and race condition problem in
Mobile ad-hoc network (MANET). Whereas open medium and wide distribution of node make vulnerable to
malicious attackers in Hybrid wireless networks. How to secure the Quality of Service (QoS) routing in Hybrid
wireless networks. In this paper, we propose a Secure QoS-Oriented Distributed routing protocol (SQOD) to
upgrade the secure Quality of Service (QoS) routing in Hybrid wireless networks. SQOD contain two
contrivances: 1.QoS-Oriented Distributed Routing Protocol (QOD)-to reduce transmission delay, transmission
time. And also increase wireless network transmission throughput. 2. Enhanced Adaptive ACKnowledgment
(EAACK)-implement a new intrusion-detection system for Hybrid wireless networks. It protect Hybrid wireless
networks from attacks that have higher malicious behavior detection rate. Analytical and simulation result
based on the real human mobility mode. SQOD can provide high secure performance in terms of Intrusion detection,overhead, transmission delay.
Hybrid networks is integrate MANETs and infrastructure wireless networks
It have proven to be a better network structure for the next generation networks
It can act Base station and Ad hoc according to the environment conditions
The widespread use of mobile devices the increasing demand for mobile multimedia streaming services
The future of real time need of high Quality of Service (QoS) support in wireless and mobile networking environments
The QoS support reduces end to end transmission delay and enhances throughput to guarantee the seamless communication between mobile devices and wireless infrastructures
Specifically, infrastructure networks improve the scalability of MANETs, while MANETs automatically establish self-organizing networks, extending the coverage of the infrastructure networks
A comparative study in wireless sensor networksijwmn
Sensor networks consist of a large number of small, low-powered wireless nodes with limited computation,
communication, and sensing abilities, in a battery-powered sensor network, energy and communication
bandwidth are a precious resources. Thus, there is a need to adapt the networking process to match the
application in order to minimize the resources consumed and extend the life of the network. In this paper,
we introduce a comparative study in different routing algorithms that propose vital solutions to the most
important issues that should be taken into account when designing wireless network which are reliability,
lifetime, communication bandwidth, transmission rand, and finally the limited energy issue, so we will
introduce their algorithms and discuss how did they propose to solve such of these challenges and finally
we will do some evaluation to each approach.
Adaptive QoS Multicast Routing with Mobility Prediction in MANETs ijasuc
A Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) is a collection of wireless mobile hosts that form a temporary network
without a centralized administration or wired infrastructure. Due to the high mobility of nodes, the network
topology of MANETs changes very fast, making it more difficult to find the routes that message packets use.
Network control with Quality of Service (QoS) support is a key issue for multimedia applications in MANET.
Most of the real time applications have stringent requirements on bandwidth, delay, delay-jitter, packet loss
ratio, cost and other QoS metrics. This paper proposes a Multi-constrained QoS routing with mobility
prediction protocol. If the node has enough resources to transmit data packets, it uses the Global
Positioning System (GPS) to get the location information of the mobile nodes and selects the routing path
with the maximum Route Expiration Time (RET). A set of static and mobile agents are used to find the
multicast routes and transmit the packets. Extensive simulations have been conducted to evaluate the
performance of MC_MAODV using Network Simulator (NS-2). The simulation results show that the
proposed protocol achieves good performance in terms of improving packet delivery ratio and minimizing
end-to-end delay.
A CELLULAR BONDING AND ADAPTIVE LOAD BALANCING BASED MULTI-SIM GATEWAY FOR MO...pijans
As it is well known, the QoS(quality of service) provided by mobile Internet access point devices is far from
the QoS level offered by the common ADSL modem-router due to several reasons: in fact, mobile Internet
access networks are not designed to support real-time data traffic because of several drawbacks
concerning the wireless medium such as resource sharing, traffic congestion, radio link coverage etc.,
which impact directly such parameters as delay, jitter, and packet loss rate that are strictly connected to
the quality of user experience. The main scope of the present paper is to introduce a dual USIM HSPA
gateway for ad hoc and sensors networks thanks to which it will be possible to guarantee a QoS suitable
for a series of network-centric application such as real-time communications and monitoring, video
surveillance, real-time sensor networks, telemedicine, vehicular and mobile sensor networks and so on. The
main idea is to exploit multiple radio access networks in order to enhance the available end-to-end
bandwidth and the perceived quality of experience. The scope has been reached by combining multiple
radio access with dynamic load balancing and the VPN (virtual private network) bond technique.
ENERGY LOCATION AWARE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ELARP) FOR WIRELESS MULTIMEDIA SENSOR...ijcsit
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)have sensor nodes that sense and extract information from surrounding
environment, processing information locally then transmit it to sink wirelessly. Multimedia data is larger in
volume than scalar data, thus transmitting multimedia data via Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks
(WMSNs) requires stick constraints on quality of services in terms of energy, throughput and end to end
delay.Multipath routing is to discover multipath during route discovery from source to sink. Discover
multipath and sending data via these different paths improve the bandwidth and decrease the end to end
delay. This paper introduces an Energy Location Aware Routing Protocol (ELARP) which is reactive
multipath routing protocol establishing three paths with awareness of node’s residual energy and distance.
ELARP has experimented with NS2 simulator. The simulation results show that ELARP enhances QoS for
multimedia data in terms of end to end delay and packet delivery ratio.
IMPROVING PACKET DELIVERY RATIO WITH ENHANCED CONFIDENTIALITY IN MANETijcsa
In Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET), the collection of mobile nodes gets communicated without the need of any customary infrastructure. In MANET, repeated topology changes and intermittent link breakage
causes the failure of existing path. This leads to rediscovery of new route by broadcasting RREQ packet.The number of RREQ packet in the network gets added due to the increased amount of link failures. This result in increased routing overhead which degrades the packet delivery ratio in MANET. While designing
routing protocols for MANET, it is indispensable to reduce the overhead in route discovery. In our previous
work[17], routing protocol based on neighbour details and probabilistic knowledge is utilized, additionally
the symmetric cipher AES is used for securing the data packet. Through this protocol, packet delivery ratio
gets increased and confidentiality is ensured. But there is a problem in secure key exchange among the
source and destination while using AES. To resolve that problem, hybrid cryptographic system i.e.,
combination of AES and RSA is proposed in this paper. By using this hybrid cryptographic scheme and the
routing protocol based on probability and neighbour knowledge, enhanced secure packet delivery is
ensured in MANET
DETERMINING THE NETWORK THROUGHPUT AND FLOW RATE USING GSR AND AAL2Rijujournal
In multi-radio wireless mesh networks, one node is eligible to transmit packets over multiple channels to different destination nodes simultaneously. This feature of multi-radio wireless mesh network makes high throughput for the network and increase the chance for multi path routing. This is because the multiple channel availability for transmission decreases the probability of the most elegant problem called as interference problem which is either of interflow and intraflow type. For avoiding the problem like interference and maintaining the constant network performance or increasing the performance the WMN need to consider the packet aggregation and packet forwarding. Packet aggregation is process of collecting several packets ready for transmission and sending them to the intended recipient through the channel, while the packet forwarding holds the hop-by-hop routing. But choosing the correct path among different available multiple paths is most the important factor in the both case for a routing algorithm. Hence the most challenging factor is to determine a forwarding strategy which will provide the schedule for each node for transmission within the channel. In this research work we have tried to implement two forwarding strategies for the multi path multi radio WMN as the approximate solution for the above said problem. We have implemented Global State Routing (GSR) which will consider the packet forwarding concept and Aggregation Aware Layer 2 Routing (AAL2R) which considers the both concept i.e. both packet forwarding and packet aggregation. After the successful implementation the network performance has been measured by means of simulation study.
Control Channel Dilemma (CCD) is still an open problem for Cognitive Radio Network (CRN). In this
article, we investigate and present a novel solution of Distributed Coordination in CRN to mitigate the
necessity for a common control channel. This scheme is based on the fact that a group of nearby nodes
almost detects the same frequency spectrum. That will allow every group of close nodes to choose a node
called coordinator, which in its turn chooses a reliable control channel for the group, then the reaming
nodes become slaves. Furthermore, the nodes that belong to two or more groups have an important role in
maintaining the network connectivity since they act as bridges to relay data between different groups. The
proposed approach carries potentials to provide robust operation under network dynamics conditions.
Finally, several simulation experiments are presented to validate the proposed approach.
Design and implementation of new routingIJCNCJournal
Energy consumption is a key element in the Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) design. Indeed, sensor nodes are really constrained by energy supply. Hence, how to improve the network lifetime is a crucial and challenging task. Several techniques are available at different levels of the OSI model to maximize the WSN lifetime and especially at the network layer which uses routing strategies to maintain the routes in the network and guarantee reliable communication. In this paper we intend to propose a new protocol called
Combined Energy and Distance Metrics Dynamic Routing Protocol (CEDM-DR). Our new approach considers not only the distance between wireless sensors but also the energy of node acting as a router in order to find the optimal path and achieve a dynamic and adaptive routing.
The performance metrics exploited for the evaluation of our protocol are average energy consumed, network lifetime and packets lost. By comparing our proposed routing strategy to protocol widely used in WSN namely Ad hoc On demand Distance Vector(AODV), simulation results show that CEDM-DR strategy might effectively balance the sensor power consumption and permits accordingly to enhance the network
lifetime. As well, this new protocol yields a noticeable energy saving compared to its counterpart.
MULTICASTING BASED ENHANCED PROACTIVE SOURCE ROUTING IN MANETSIJCNCJournal
Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) is an accumulation of movable nodes organizing a irregular topology without centralized administration. In a MANET, multicasting is a significant technique for utilizing data communication system. Multicasting based enhanced proactive source routing is proposed in this paper for Mobile Ad hoc Networks. It explains an innovative multicasting algorithm that considers the transmission energy and residual energy while forwarding the data packets. It improves the network throughput and raises the network lifetimes. Simulation analysis is carried in this proposed system and this method shows improved performance over the existing system.
B ENCHMARKING OF C ELL T HROUGHPUT U SING P ROPORTIONAL F AIR S CHEDULE...ijwmn
The proportional fair (PF) scheduling algorithm com
promises between cell throughput and fairness. Many
research findings have been published by various re
searchers about PF algorithm based on mathematical
model and simulations. In this paper we have taken
the practical route to analyse the algorithm based
on
three types of subscription. In this benchmarking s
tudy, the user subscriptions are differentiated as
Gold,
Silver and Bronze schemes and they are provisioned
with certain throughputs. Apart from subscriptions
plans, the channel condition also plays a major rol
e in determining the throughput. So in order to ens
ure
fairness among different subscriptions even in the
bad channel conditions and to deliver the provision
ed
throughputs certain priorities are attached with th
e subscriptions. As per the subscription plans Gold
subscribers are assigned with 50% of the speed offe
red by the network as maximum based on CAT3 speed
(100 Mbps in DL and 50 Mbps in UL), Silver is assig
ned with 25% of the max speed and Bronze is
assigned with 12% of the max speed. The priorities
assigned to subscribers determines the fairness in
the
unfavourable channel conditions - Bronze (high), Si
lver and Gold (medium). In this paper, an
benchmarking tests have been performed with all of
three types of subscribers for nearly two hours in
the
live single cell network without any heterogeneous
cells influencing it. Furthermore, the results are
compared with the simulation results.
Steganography is a technology used since years for the communication of messages secretly. These secret messages are put inside honest carriers. Carriers can be digital images, audio files, video files and so on. The limitation in sending concealed longer messages has been overcoming by the inclusion of video files as carriers. Popular internet services such as Skype, BitTorrent, Google Suggest, and
WLANs are targets of information hiding techniques. Nowadays, plotters are not only using the carriers but also the protocols for communication that regulate the path of the carrier through the Internet. This technique is named Network Steganography.
System level simulation for two tier macro femto cellular networksijwmn
LTE is an emerging wireless communication technology to provide high- speed data service for the mobile
phones and data terminals. To improve indoor coverage and capacity Femtocells are included in 3GPP
since Release 8. There is no common simulation platform is available for performance justification of LTEFemtocells.
LTE-Sim is an object-oriented open source simulator which incorporates a complete protocol
stack can be used for simulating two-tier macro-femto scenarios. To the best of our knowledge no paper
provides the guideline to perform system level simulation of Femtocell networks. Here, in this paper
Femtocells performance is evaluated in multi-Macrocells and multi-Femtocells environment with
interference from Microcells and Macrocell users along with the scripting.
Energy balanced on demand clustering algorithm based on leach-cijwmn
As the use of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) has grown enormously, the need for energy-efficient management has also risen. With advances in ubiquitous computing environment, WSNs have been broadly studied and many energy-efficient routing protocols had been proposed. LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) is a popular cluster-based protocol, which provides distributed adaptive clustering and periodic cluster head (CH) selection rotation. As extension to LEACH, LEACH-C (LEACH Centralized) was proposed, in which the energy is utilized to select CH. However, both can’t guarantee cluster head distribution, in addition to considerable periodic clustering overhead. Furthermore, network topology change is a critical characteristic that has influence on communication path and load distribution among nodes. To resolve such problems, Energy-Balance on Demand Clustering Algorithm Based on LEACH-C is proposed. The algorithm adopts centralized cluster formation and distributed CH selection methods. Minimum energy clustering is used to divide the network into clusters, while energy and total communication distance are considered as secondary criteria to select optimal CH. From simulation results the proposed algorithm outperforms LEACH-C in life time, stability period and performance efficiency.
Effective Road Model for Congestion Control in VANETSijwmn
Congestion on the roads is a key problem to deal with, which wastes valuable time.. Due to high mobility
rate and relative speed link failure occur very often. VANET is used to tackle the problem of congestion,
and make decisions well in advance to avoid traffic congestion. In this paper we proposed a solution to
detect and control the traffic congestion by using of both (V2V) and (V2I), as a result the drivers become
aware of the location of congestion as well as way to avoid getting stuck in congestion. The congestion is
detected by analyzing the data obtained by vehicular communication and road side units to avoid the
traffic. Our proposition system is competent of detecting and controlling traffic congestion in real-time.
V2V and V2I communication network is used to receive and send the messages. We simulate the result by
using Congestion Detection and Control Algorithm (CDCA), and show that this is one effective way to
control congestion. The Proposed methodology ensures reliable and timely delivery of messages to know
about congestion and avoid it.
AN ADVANCED QOS ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION METHOD FOR MOBILE INTERNET ACCESS ijwmn
The paper proposes a new method for the analysis and evaluation of the Quality of Service (QoS) in a
mobile Internet access scenario. In particular, the paper proposes a throughput evaluation method based
on PathChirp algorithm. The end-to-end bandwidth was estimated by means of the Self Loading of Periodic
Streams (SloPS) technique. The obtained measurements were then analyzed by estimating the degree of
correlation with other parameters that characterize the data transmission such as power, round trip time,
etc. Finally, in order to have greater spatial resolution performance guaranteed by an Internet service
provider, a 3D reconstruction method based on using drones is proposed and some preliminary results are
discussed.
In ad hoc networks, routing plays a pertinent role. Deploying the appropriate routing protocol is very important in order to achieve best routing performance and reliability. Equally important is the mobility model that is used in the routing protocol. Various mobility models are available and each can have different impact on the performance of the routing protocol. In this paper, we focus on this issue by examining how the routing protocol, Optimized Link State Routing protocol, behaves as the mobility model is varied. For this, three random mobility models, viz., random waypoint, random walk and random direction are considered. The performance metrics used for assessment of Optimized Link State Routing protocol are throughput, end-to-end delay and packet delivery ratio.
A SEMI BLIND CHANNEL ESTIMATION METHOD BASED ON HYBRID NEURAL NETWORKS FOR UP...ijwmn
The paper describes how to improve channel estimation in Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple
Access (SC-FDMA) system, using a Hybrid Artificial Neural Networks (HANN). The 3rd Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP) standards for uplink Long Term Evolution Advanced (LTE-A) uses pilot based
channel estimation technique. This kind of channel estimation method suffers from a considerable loss
ofbitrate due to pilot insertion; all data frame sent contains reference signal. The HANN converts data
aided channel estimator to semi blind channel estimator. To increase convergence speed, HANN uses some
channel propagation Fuzzy Rules to initialize Neural Network parameters before learning instead of a
random initialization, so its learning phase ismore rapidly compared to classic ANN.HANN allows more
bandwidth efficient and less complexity. Simulation results show that HANN has better computational
efficiency than the Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) estimator and has faster convergence than
classic Neural Networks estimators.
BEHAVIOUR OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS INVESTIGATED FOR EME...ijwmn
Mobile Ad hoc Networks are open, shared, dynamic and self-organized networks. These distinct nature
lead to efficient use in emergency and recue scenarios where the sharing of information is necessary. In
order to share information within the network, a proper routing protocol is required to establish routes
between nodes. This article discusses which of the routing protocols such as reactive or proactive has
better performance in such scenario. In order to implement the test bed, we choose a real area in
Uttarakhand state, India where the disaster occurred recently hence so many civilizations had vanished
due to lack of communication and failure in recovery. Our aim is to choose an optimum routing protocol
that is correct and used for efficient route establishment between nodes so that message could be delivered
on time without loss and it will be implemented and used in future based on the model that we propose.
DEVICE-TO-DEVICE (D2D) COMMUNICATION UNDER LTE-ADVANCED NETWORKSijwmn
Device-to-Device (D2D) communication is a new technology that offer many advantages for the LTEadvanced
network such us wireless peer-to-peer services and higher spectral efficiency. It is also
considered as one of promising techniques for the 5G wireless communications system and used in so
many different fields such as network traffic offloading, public safety, social services and applications such
as gaming and military applications . The goal of this paper is to present advances on the current 3GPP
LTE-advanced system related to Device-to-Device (D2D). In this paper, we provide an overview of the
D2D types based on the communication spectrum of D2D transmission, namely Inband D2D
communication and Outband D2D communication. Then we present the advantages and disadvantages of
each D2D mode. Moreover, architecture and protocol enhancements for D2D communications under
LTE-A network are described.
ENERGY EFFICIENT GRID AND TREE BASED ROUTING PROTOCOLijwmn
In Wireless Sensor Network, a large number of sensor nodes are deployed and they mainly consume energy
in transmitting data over long distances. Sensor nodes are battery powered and their energy is restricted.
Since the location of the sink is remote, considerable energy would be consumed if each node directly
transmits data to the base station. Aggregating data at the intermediate nodes and transmitting using multihops
aids in reducing energy consumption to a great extent. This paper proposes a hybrid protocol
“Energy efficient Grid and Tree based routing protocol” (EGT) in which the sensing area is divided into
grids. The nodes in the grid relay data to the cell leader which aggregates the data and transmits to the
sink using the constructed hop tree. Simulation results show that EGT performs better than LEACH.
L shaped slot loaded semicircular patch antenna for wideband operation ijwmn
In this paper, a dual frequency resonance antenna is analysed by introducing L-shaped slot in a semi
circular patch, different parametric studies have allows and the results in terms of return loss and
radiation pattern are given. The results show that dual wide bands are achieved and a better impedance
matching for the upper and lower resonance are obtained. Also, it is observed that various antenna
parameters are obtained as a function of frequency for different value of slot length and width; it is easy to
adjust the upper and the lower band by varying these different antenna parameters. The coaxial feed is
used to excite the patch antenna. Theoretical results using Matlab are compared with the simulated results
obtained from Ansoft HFSS software and shown to be in good agreement.
Interference management in lte downlink networksijwmn
Two major challenges for evolving LTE (Long Term Evolution) networks are to achieve enhanced system capacity and cell coverage compared with WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) system. Effective utilization of radio resources as well as dense spectrum reuse are at the core to attain these targets. However, dense frequency reuse may increase inter-cell interference, which in turn severely limits the capacity of users in the system. Inter-cell interference can restrict overall system performance in terms of throughput and spectral efficiency, especially for the users located at the cell edge area. Hence, careful management of inter-cell interferences becomes crucial to improve LTE system performance. In this paper, interference mitigation schemes for LTE downlink networks are investigated.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become very popular recently for both civil uses and potential commercial uses, such as law enforcement, crop survey, grocery delivery, and photographing, although they were mainly used for military purposes before. Researchers need the help of simulations when they design and test new protocols for UAV networks because simulations can be done for a network of a size
that a test bed can hardly approach. In the simulation of an UAV network it is important to choose a radio propagation model for the links in the network. We study the shadowing radio propagation model in this paper and compare it with the free space model, both of which are available in the ns2 network simulation package. We also show how the choice of the parameters of the shadowing model would impact on the
network performance of a UAV network.
A fuzzy congestion controller to detect and balance congestion in wsnijwmn
A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is collection of wireless sensors with limited memory, processing and energy supply. Based on application, sensors distribute in a wide geographically area in order to collect information and transmit the collected data packets toward a base station also called Sink. Due to the relatively high node density and source-to-sink communication pattern, congestion is a critical issue in WSN. Congestion not only causes packet loss, but also leads to excessive energy consumption as well as delay. To address this problem, in this paper we propose a new fuzzy logic based mechanism to detect and control congestion in each grid in WSN. In the proposed approach, sink select one node in each grid as Monitor Node. In addition, sink defines congestion candidate grids. Each Monitor Node in congestion candidate grids continually monitors the network and fetches the fuzzy controller inputs in order to determine level of congestion in each grid. Based on the congestion level, packets forward through the grid or relay nodes. Simulation results show that our approach has higher packet delivery ratio and lower packet loss than existing approaches.
Mobility is one of the basic features that define an ad hoc network, an asset that leaves the field free for the
nodes to move. The most important aspect of this kind of network turns into a great disadvantage when it
comes to commercial applications, take as an example: the automotive networks that allow communication
between a groups of vehicles. The ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol, designed
for mobile ad hoc networks, has two main functions. First, it enables route establishment between a source
and a destination node by initiating a route discovery process. Second, it maintains the active routes, which
means finding alternative routes in a case of a link failure and deleting routes when they are no longer
desired. In a highly mobile network those are demanding tasks to be performed efficiently and accurately.
In this paper, we focused in the first point to enhance the local decision of each node in the network by the
quantification of the mobility of their neighbours. Quantification is made around RSSI algorithm a well
known distance estimation method.
SENSOR SELECTION SCHEME IN TEMPERATURE WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKijwmn
In this paper, we propose a novel energy efficient environment monitoring scheme for wireless sensor
networks, based on data mining formulation. The proposed adapting routing scheme for sensors for
achieving energy efficiency from temperature wireless sensor network data set. The experimental
validation of the proposed approach using publicly available Intel Berkeley lab Wireless Sensor Network
dataset shows that it is possible to achieve energy efficient environment monitoring for wireless sensor
networks, with a trade-off between accuracy and life time extension factor of sensors, using the proposed
approach.
GRAPH THEORETIC ROUTING ALGORITHM (GTRA) FOR MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS (MANET)graphhoc
Battlefield theater applications require supporting large number of nodes. It can facilitate many multi-hop
paths between each source and destination pairs. For scalability, it is critical that for supporting network
centric applications with large set of nodes require hierarchical approach to designing networks. In this
research we consider using Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) with multiple clusters. Each cluster
supports a few nodes with a cluster head. The intra-cluster connectivity amongst the nodes within the
cluster is supported by multi-hop connectivity to ensure handling mobility in such a way that no service
disruption can occur. The inter-cluster connectivity is also achieved by multi-hop connectivity. However,
for inter-cluster communications, only cluster heads are connected. The selection of intra-cluster
communications and inter-cluster communications allow scalability of the network to support multiservices
applications end-to-end with a desired Quality of Service (QoS). This paper proposes graph
theoretic approach to establish efficient connection between a source and a destination within each cluster
in intra-cluster network and between clusters in inter-cluster network. Graph theoretic approach
traditionally was applied networks where nodes are static or fixed. In this paper, we have applied the
graph theoretic routing to MANET where nodes are mobile. One of the important challenges in MANET is
to support an efficient routing algorithm for multi-hop communications across many nodes which are
dynamic in nature. However, dynamic behavior of the nodes requires greater understanding of the node
degree and mobility at each instance of time in order to maintain end-to-end QoS for multi-service
provisioning. This paper demonstrates graph theoretic approach produces an optimum multi-hop
connectivity path based on cumulative minimum degree that minimizes the contention and scheduling
delay end-to-end. It is applied to both intra-cluster communications as well as inter-cluster
communications. The performance shows that having a multi-hop connectivity for intra-cluster
communications is more power efficient compared to broadcast of information with maximum power
coverage. Each cluster performs similarly and the algorithm is also used for inter-cluster communications.
Our simulation results show that the proposed graph theoretic routing approach will reduce the overall
delay and improves the physical layer data frame transmission.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)have sensor nodes that sense and extract information from surrounding environment, processing information locally then transmit it to sink wirelessly. Multimedia data is larger in volume than scalar data, thus transmitting multimedia data via Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs) requires stick constraints on quality of services in terms of energy, throughput and end to end delay.Multipath routing is to discover multipath during route discovery from source to sink. Discover multipath and sending data via these different paths improve the bandwidth and decrease the end to end delay. This paper introduces an Energy Location Aware Routing Protocol (ELARP) which is reactive multipath routing protocol establishing three paths with awareness of node’s residual energy and distance. ELARP has experimented with NS2 simulator. The simulation results show that ELARP enhances QoS for multimedia data in terms of end to end delay and packet delivery ratio.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
21 9149 simulation analysis for consistent path identification edit septianIAESIJEECS
As the demand for Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) applications grows, so does their use of many essential services where node consistent and stability of the communication paths are of great importance. In this scheme, we propose Simulation Analysis for Consistent Path Identification to Refine the Network Lifetime (CPIR). This technique offers more stable path and transmits the data through the consistent nodes. This article is focused on protecting the route from the inconsistent node in mobile communications to improve the network performance and reduce the energy consumption in the network. The simulation results demonstrate that CPIR provided reduce the energy utilization and improved both the longer lifetimes and increased number of packets delivered.
A comparative analysis on qos multicast routing protocols in MANETsIOSR Journals
Abstract: Simultaneous transmission of data from one sender to multiple receivers is called multicasting.
Several widely used applications require multicasting at least at the logical level. Examples include audio video
teleconferencing, real time video streaming and the maintenance of distributed databases. In many cases it is
advantageous to implement multicasting at the level of the routing algorithm (other approaches would be oneto-all
unicast or the implementation of multicasting at the application layer). In this paper we are presenting a
comparative analysis on various multicast routing protocols in adhoc networks.
Keywords: multicasting, multicast protocols,dynamic core, performance evaluation,Qos Parameters
An Enhanced DSR Protocol for Improving QoS in MANETKhushbooGupta145
Ad hoc network is a network without centralized administration in which different users can communicate and exchange information. In such a structure, all the nodes participate in order to achieve the network and ensure the travel of the information. Hence, multihopping techniques are used to achieve this task. The communication reliability within an ad hoc network and how the different nodes act are managed by routing protocols. Nowadays, different types of protocols exist. Nevertheless, the source routing ones, based on information known at the source of the communication, seem to attract more studies. Source routing protocols had shown interesting results in realistic scenarios in areas such as military battlefields or airport stations.
This Paper deals with DSR Protocol and is focused on the multipath aspect of this routing protocol. Since, it is necessary to understand that multipath techniques enhance reliability and can ensure security. We have simulated a new multipath algorithm. The solution had been evaluated with the network Simulator 2. Since we want to know how our protocol reacts in different mobility cases, the random waypoint model which allows us to present relevant results, due to the fact this situation is taken into account.
Simulation results show that the multipath protocol behaves better than DSR, the main actual reactive protocol. The Proposed protocol MSR performs well in high mobility by using much less overhead than DSR. Additionally, it is interesting to see that DSR without any modifications manage poorly in high mobility situation.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)have sensor nodes that sense and extract information from surrounding environment, processing information locally then transmit it to sink wirelessly. Multimedia data is larger in volume than scalar data, thus transmitting multimedia data via Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs) requires stick constraints on quality of services in terms of energy, throughput and end to end delay.Multipath routing is to discover multipath during route discovery from source to sink. Discover multipath and sending data via these different paths improve the bandwidth and decrease the end to end delay. This paper introduces an Energy Location Aware Routing Protocol (ELARP) which is reactive multipath routing protocol establishing three paths with awareness of node’s residual energy and distance. ELARP has experimented with NS2 simulator. The simulation results show that ELARP enhances QoS for multimedia data in terms of end to end delay and packet delivery ratio.
The present paper describes a novel Raspberry Pi and Arduino UNO architecture used as a meteorological station. One of the advantages of the proposed architecture is the huge quantity of sensors developed for its usage; practically one can find them for any application, and weather sensing is not an exception. The principle followed is to configure Raspberry as a collector for measures obtained from Arduino, transmitting occurs via USB; meanwhile, Raspberry broadcasts them via a web page. For such activity is possible thanks to Raspbian, a Linux-based operating system. It has a lot of libraries and resources available, among them Apache Web Server, that gives the possibility to host a web-page. On it, the user can observe temperature, humidity, solar radiance, and wind speed and direction. Information on the web-page is refreshed each five minute; however, measurements arrive at Raspberry every ten seconds. This low refreshment rate was determined because weather variables normally do not abruptly change. As an additional feature, system stores all information on the log file, this gives the possibility for future analysis and processing.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)have sensor nodes that sense and extract information from surrounding environment, processing information locally then transmit it to sink wirelessly. Multimedia data is larger in volume than scalar data, thus transmitting multimedia data via Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs) requires stick constraints on quality of services in terms of energy, throughput and end to end delay. Multipath routing is to discover multipath during route discovery from source to sink. Discover multipath and sending data via these different paths improve the bandwidth and decrease the end to end delay. This paper introduces an Energy Location Aware Routing Protocol (ELARP) which is reactive multipath routing protocol establishing three paths with awareness of node’s residual energy and distance. ELARP has experimented with NS2 simulator. The simulation results show that ELARP enhances QoS for multimedia data in terms of end to end delay and packet delivery ratio.
A Professional QoS Provisioning in the Intra Cluster Packet Level Resource Al...GiselleginaGloria
Wireless mesh networking has transpired as a gifted technology for potential broadband wireless access. In a communication network, wireless mesh network plays a vital role in transmission and are structured in a mesh topology. The coordination of mesh routers and mesh clients forms the wireless mesh networks which are routed through the gateways. Wireless mesh networks uses IEEE 802.11 standards and has its wide applications broadband home networking and enterprise networking deployment such as Microsoft wireless mesh and MIT etc. A professional Qos provisioning in intra cluster packet level resource allocation for WMN approach takes power allocation, sub carrier allocation and packet scheduling. This approach combines the merits of a Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) algorithm and a genetic algorithm (GA) based approach. The KKT algorithm uses uniform power allocation over all the subcarriers, based on the optimal allocation criterion. The genetic algorithm is used to generate useful solutions to optimization and search problems and it is also used for search problems. By combining the intrinsic worth of both the approaches, it facilitates effective QOS provisioning at the packet level. It is concluded that, this approach achieves a preferred stability between system implementation and computational convolution.
Performance analysis of multilayer multicast MANET CRN based on steiner minim...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
In this study, the multicast mobile ad hoc (MANET) CRN has been developed, which involves multi-hop and multilayer consideration and Steiner minimal tree (SMT) algorithm is employed as the router protocol. To enhance the network performance with regards to throughput and packet delivery rate (PDR), as channel assignment scheme, the probability of success (POS) is employed that accounts for the channel availability and the time needed for transmission when selecting the best channel from the numerous available channels for data transmission from the source to all destinations nodes effectively. Within Rayleigh fading channels under various network parameters, a comparison is done for the performance of SMT multicast (MANET) CRN with POS scheme versus maximum data rate (MDR), maximum average spectrum availability (MASA) and random channel assignment schemes. Based on the simulation results, the SMT multicast (MANET) CRN with POS scheme was seen to demonstrate the best performance versus other schemes. Also, the results proved that the throughput and PDR performance are improved as the number the primary channels and the channel’s bandwidth increased while dropped as the value of packet size D increased. The network’s performance grew with rise in the value of idle probability (푃퐼) since the primary user’s (PU) traffic load is low when the value of 푃퐼 is high.
Wireless Sensor Network Using Six Sigma Multi Hop RoutingIOSR Journals
Abstract: The most significant problem in the design of wireless sensor networks is to coordinate the sensors with dynamism into a wireless communication network and route sensed data to the base station. The energy efficiency is the most important key point of the network routing designing. This paper presents the efficient multi hop routing algorithm to extend the lifetime of sensor networks and focuses by employing six sigma principles to obtain the Quality of Service. To attain QoS support, we have to find either a route to assure the application requirements or offering network response to the application when the requirements cannot be met. Keywords: Wireless Sensor Networks, Multi hop routing, six sigma, QoS
Wireless Sensor Network Using Six Sigma Multi Hop RoutingIOSR Journals
The most significant problem in the design of wireless sensor networks is to coordinate the sensors
with dynamism into a wireless communication network and route sensed data to the base station. The energy
efficiency is the most important key point of the network routing designing. This paper presents the efficient
multi hop routing algorithm to extend the lifetime of sensor networks and focuses by employing six sigma
principles to obtain the Quality of Service. To attain QoS support, we have to find either a route to assure the
application requirements or offering network response to the application when the requirements cannot be met.
Analysis of Neighbor Knowledge Based Bcast Protocol Performance For Multihop ...pijans
Reliable group communication is a challenging issue for most Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) due to
dynamic nature of wireless mobile nodes, group key establishment and management, ensuring secure
information exchange and Quality of Service (QoS) in data transfer. Recently multicast and broadcast
routing protocols are emerging for supporting QoS aware group communication. In MANETs QoS
requirements can be quantified by a set of measurable pre-specified service attributes such as packet
delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, packet loss probability, network control overhead, throughput,
bandwidth, power consumption, service coverage area etc. In this paper, the performance of a neighbor
knowledge based broadcast protocol is analyzed using different QoS metrics (packet delivery ratio, end-toend delay, packet loss probability and network control overhead). BCAST is used as broadcast protocol.
The performance differentials are analyzed using NS-2 network simulator for varying number of data
senders (multicast group size) and data sending rate (offered traffic to the network) over QoS aware group
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Reliable group communication is a challenging issue for most Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) due to
dynamic nature of wireless mobile nodes, group key establishment and management, ensuring secure
information exchange and Quality of Service (QoS) in data transfer. Recently multicast and broadcast
routing protocols are emerging for supporting QoS aware group communication. In MANETs QoS
requirements can be quantified by a set of measurable pre-specified service attributes such as packet
delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, packet loss probability, network control overhead, throughput,
bandwidth, power consumption, service coverage area etc. In this paper, the performance of a neighbor
knowledge based broadcast protocol is analyzed using different QoS metrics (packet delivery ratio, end-toend delay, packet loss probability and network control overhead). BCAST is used as broadcast protocol.
The performance differentials are analyzed using NS-2 network simulator for varying number of data
senders (multicast group size) and data sending rate (offered traffic to the network) over QoS aware group
communication. Simulation results show that BCAST performs well in most cases and provides robust
performance even with high traffic environments.
Optimal Coverage Path Planningin a Wireless Sensor Network for Intelligent Tr...IJCNCJournal
With the enhancement of the intelligent and communication technology, an intelligent transportation plays a vital role to facilitate an essential service to many people, allowing them to travel quickly and conveniently from place to place. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are well-known for their ability to detect physical significant barriers due to their diverse movement, self-organizing capabilities, and the integration of this mobile node on the intelligent transportation system to gather data in WSN contexts is becoming more and more popular as these vehicles proliferate. Although these mobile devices might enhance network performance, however it is difficult to design a suitable transportation path with the limited energy resources with network connectivity. To solve this problem, we have proposed a novel itinerary planning schema data gatherer (IPS-DG) model. Furthermore, we use the path planning module (PPM) which finds the transportation path to travel the shortest distance. We have compared our results under different aspect such as life span, energy consumption, and path length with Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH), Multi-Hop Weighted Revenue (MWR), Single-Hop Data Gathering Procedure (SHDGP). Our model outperforms in terms of energy usage, shortest path, and longest life span of with LEACH, MWR, SHDGP routing protocols.
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An effective transmit packet coding with trust-based relay nodes in VANETsjournalBEEI
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Connectivity aware and adaptive multipath routing algorithm for mobile adhoc and sensor networks
1. International Journal of Wireless & Mobile Networks (IJWMN) Vol. 7, No. 1, February 2015
DOI : 10.5121/ijwmn.2015.7104 55
CONNECTIVITY-AWARE AND ADAPTIVE
MULTIPATH ROUTING ALGORITHM FOR MOBILE
ADHOC AND SENSOR NETWORKS
Bayrem TRIKI1
, Slim REKHIS2
and Noureddine BOUDRIGUA2
1
University of Sousse
2
University of Carthage
ABSTRACT
We propose in this paper a connectivity-aware routing algorithm and a set of related theorems. This
algorithm allows nodes in Mobile Adhoc and Sensor Networks (MASNets) to provide the highest
connectivity life time to a specific destination since the issuance of data becomes a necessity for MASNets.
In the proposed Solution, nodes in MASNets are able to specify the disjointness degree of the available
paths allowing the discovery of the optimal set of backup routes and consequently enhance the survivability
of the connectivity. These nodes perform an on-demand discovery and a generation of a set of routes, by
specifying a disjointness threshold, representing the maximal number of nodes shared between any two
paths in the set of k established paths. The proposed multipath routing algorithm, is adaptive, secure, and
uses labels to carry the disjointness-threshold between nodes during the route discovery. A set of security
mechanisms, based on the Watchdog and the digital signature concepts, is used to protect the route
discovery process.
KEYWORDS
k-x-connectivity, adaptive routing, multipath, watchdog, Mobile Adhoc And Sensor Networks
1.INTRODUCTION
Mobile Adhoc and Sensors Networks (MASNets) are highly demanded in the current Internet of
Things projects. In such projects the relationship between the physical and the virtual
environments is too close. For example, wireless sensors networks are in deep relationship with
cloud computing networks to store collected data [20]. Consequently, MASNets require more and
more bandwidth and an important adaptivity skill to alleviate the resource constraints nature of
MASNets and to provide a guaranteed data delivery [26].
Used sensors nodes in MASNets have several limiting factors related to infrastructure-less
architecture and dynamic network topology [18]. Maintaining the availability of routes in Mobile
and Adhoc Sensor Networks (MASNets) during network runtime represents a challenging
problem [23, 3, 8]. In fact, they may be easily broken due to nodes mobility, links and nodes
failure, and radio interference. In addition, links could have limited bandwidth, and potential
network congestion could lead to resource starvation in nodes. Multipath routing algorithms were
proposed as a solution for these issues[22, 28], making a node able to establish and use
simultaneously k paths to the destination [24, 30]. The main objectives of algorithms is to enforce
fault tolerance [29], load balancing [19, 27] and minimize end-to-end delivery delay [13]. Once
the k paths are established, a node sends datagrams redundantly over the alternative paths to
mitigate failure problems [1, 17].
2. International Journal of Wireless & Mobile Networks (IJWMN) Vol. 7, No. 1, February 2015
56
For example, The Multipath On-Demand Routing Algorithm (MDR) proposed in [4] ensures the
establishment of disjoint paths between the source and the destination. It splits the original data
packet into k parts and sends these new sub-packets instead of the whole packet across available
paths. The destination, which eventually receives one of the route request messages, will only be
aware of the existence of one path. It returns a route reply containing a supplementary field that
indicates the number of hops it traveled so far. Each node that receives a route reply, increments
the hop count of the message and then forwards the message to the neighbor from which it got the
original route request. This solution may cause a lot of overhead in the network. In dynamic
multi-path source routing (DMSR) [21], each node must write its bandwidth into forwarded
packets in order to find better paths based on the available bandwidth. Best Effort Geographical
Routing Protocol (BEGHR) exploits nodes position to forward data, and requires the use of a
positioning system such as Global Position Systems (GPS). However, the demands for resources
at the different nodes are quite high, which affect battery lifetime. Label-based Multipath Routing
(LMR) [6] broadcasts a control message throughout the network for a possible alternative path. It
defines a lexicographic total order on the label for each node. The destination should have the
minimum label. If a node is a local minimum with respect to its neighbors, it will not have a path
to the destination. In this case, it increases its label and reverses some or its entire links. The
number of routing paths can be higher than two, while showing relatively long end to end
transmission delay.
The maximal number of possible paths that could be established between any source and
destination nodes is very sensitive to the mobility scheme of sensors nodes, which may affect the
extent to which these paths are disjoint [12, 9]. The sensitivity of the used applications and the
variation of the nodes density from a network location to another, makes it important to extend
the multipath routing algorithms so that a new parameter, called disjointness factor (representing
the maximal number of nodes shared between any two paths in the set of established paths), will
be specified and exploited during the routes discovery to create a trade-off between fault-
tolerance and performance [9].
We develop in this paper a set of validation theorems of the Secure Multipath Routing Algorithm
for Mobile Adhoc and Sensor Networks (SeMuRAMAS) proposed in [2], which allows nodes in
MASNet to perform an on-demand discovery and generation of a set of paths, while specifying
both of the number of separate paths k to establish and the disjointness factor x. A new concept
called k-x-connectivity is therefore introduced. We propose in this paper a set of theorems used
for the adjustment of parameters k and x allowing an optimized connectivity life time. The
algorithm is adaptive, secure, and uses labels to carry the disjointness-threshold between nodes
during the route discovery. SeMuRAMAS exploits the watchdog concept to tolerate several types
of routing attacks, and uses threshold signature, including the elliptic threshold signature
algorithms, to protect the integrity of the exchanged datagrams and prevent attackers from forging
routes. The conducted simulation estimates the additional overhead, showing the efficiency of the
algorithm.
The paper contribution is seventh-fold. First, the proposed multipath routing algorithm is
adaptive. It allows a source node to tune the disjointness factor to a suitable value before
establishing a path and sending data. The value of the threshold may depend on the sensitivity of
the message to be sent and the rate of routes failures during previous communications.
Second, we provides a set rules allowing the adjustment of the parameters k and x needed for the
tuning of the disjointness level between discovered paths. Third, thanks to the use of the
watchdog mechanism and digital signature, the algorithm is secure. In the WSNs, threshold
signature does not require an extensive number of stored keys per sensor node. The technique of
3. International Journal of Wireless & Mobile Networks (IJWMN) Vol. 7, No. 1, February 2015
57
sur-signature could be used for the generation of evidences, which could be used by a digital
investigation scheme to prove the identity of malicious nodes and trace and analyze the attack.
Fourth, the algorithm is tolerant to a large set of routing attacks such as wormhole. Fifth,
SeMuRAMAS takes into consideration the characteristics of Adhoc and wireless sensor
networks, in terms of architecture, node resources limitation, and attacks categories. Sixth, the
variation of the network topology could make nodes unable to establish multiple disjointness
paths to the destination. If the MASNet is used for some application requiring a high level of
tolerance to nodes and link failures, by tuning the value of the disjointness factor, nodes could
cope with topology variation and continue benefiting from a degraded level of fault tolerance.
Seventh, when it is impossible to generate a route for the specified threshold, the proposed
algorithm advices the source node about the optimal disjointness value to be used by the
destination mobile nodes.
This paper is organized as follows. The next section describes the requirements to be fulfilled by
a secure and multipath routing algorithm. Section 3 presents the problem formulation related to
the multipath routing process. Section 4 describes the proposed routing algorithm. Section 5,
presents security mechanisms used by the proposed algorithm. In Section 6, a validation of the
proposed algorithm is addressed. Section 7 presents and discusses simulation results. The last
section concludes the work.
2. REQUIREMENTS FOR ADAPTIVE MULTIPATH ROUTING IN AD HOC AND
SENSOR NETWORKS
This section presents seven important requirements to be fulfilled by an adaptive multipath
routing algorithm for mobile ad hoc and sensor networks
First, although ad hoc and wireless sensor networks could be infrastructure-less based, and use
multihop communication [10], they may show many differences including, but not limited to, the
availability of computational resources, battery energy availability [15], and the security of the
area in which the network is deployed. Since the proposed algorithm should be operational on
both Ad Hoc and Wireless Sensor Networks, it should take into consideration those constraints
specific to WSN.
Second, it would be better that the algorithm be reactive rather than proactive. In fact, the source
node is usually the node that specifies the disjointness factor value. This value may depend on the
sensitivity of the data to be transmitted from a session to another.
Third, the algorithm must be distributed where intermediate nodes should start learning and
gathering information regarding potential available path as long as the route request datagrams is
forwarded. In fact, distributed computation has a better chance to withstand failure in the case of
attacks.
Fourth, the routing algorithm must preserve the network performance. Especially, the overhead
caused by the storage of information regarding potential usable routes, and the distributed
computation of the routing paths by intermediate nodes in the networks, should be reduced.
Fifth, if the source node fails to establish a set of paths with the specified threshold value, the
algorithm should allow it to receive an indication regarding the minimal disjointness value
supported by the current network topology. Such a mechanism will prevent the source node from
generating additional failures and overloading the network bandwidth.
4. International Journal of Wireless & Mobile Networks (IJWMN) Vol. 7, No. 1, February 2015
58
Sixth, the algorithm should include the generation of evidences regarding the identities and
behavior of nodes involved during the establishment of the multiple routes. This is of utmost
importance if a digital investigation scheme is used to trace back an occurred attack, locate the
malicious nodes, and prove the existence of fake routes.
Seventh, the proposed algorithm should be tolerant to attacks targeting routing protocols. In
wormhole attacks, for instance, a node can perform a high-powered transmission of a route
request message to a non neighbor node, forcing the routing algorithm to include it in the
established routing paths. This attack makes the malicious node appear as a highly connected
node, while in reality, it is connected to a few number of nodes. In this context, the proposed
multipath algorithm should verify that packets are properly forwarded in the network and
identities of intermediate nodes are appended securely to the routing requests.
3. MULTIPATH ROUTING: PROBLEM FORMULATION
We consider a set of deployed mobile nodes in a mesh network. Each two nodes, say S and D, can
communicate together in a multi-hop fashion. Depending of the density of the network, a set of
intermediate nodes could be used to forward the exchanged datagrams between S and D. Several
paths could be available between these nodes. The source node S can discover k paths in the set of
generated routes, which can be disjoint or share some nodes. We assume that the number of
shared nodes between any two paths in the set of discovered k paths, could not share a number of
nodes more than a predefined disjointness factor, denoted in the sequel by x.
Its important to formally express the relationship between x and k values. For this purposes we
represent all possible paths between the source and the destination as a graph of nodes. As shown
in Figure 1, this graph is used in the form of a tree where the head is the destination node D and
all leafs represent the same source node S accessed over different paths. A path in the tree from
the source to the destination node represents a routing path. The parent of a node in this path
represents the next hop.
In the tree, all paths can share some intermediate nodes excepting the source node at the leaves.
We consider that each hop from a node to another represents an increment of the depth level. We
denote by Li the ith
level in the tree. This means that each path is represented by a number of
levels equal to the number of used intermediate nodes. The first level, denoted by L0, is assigned
to the destination node and the last level is assigned to the source node. Each time that there is
one step backward in a specific path to the source node, we increment this level by 1. We denote
by a bifurcation a set of edges connection between a parent node and at least two children nodes.
In a first analysis, we express the possible disjointness k paths in terms of the disjointness factor
value x using a specific parsing algorithm. The latter can apply a depth-first search on the tree to
look for the maximal value of k (i.e., number of paths) sharing at most x nodes. The input of this
algorithm is the constructed tree and the value of the disjointness factor x. The output of this
algorithm will be the value of the parameter k allowing estimating the possible value of k given
the value of x. Breadth First Search is performed on the tree by counting for every
bifurcation B encountered until level Lx, the value CB representing the number of child nodes
obtained from that bifurcation minus one. The value k will be equal to one higher than the value
of the obtained CB.
5. International Journal of Wireless & Mobile Networks (IJWMN) Vol. 7, No. 1, February 2015
59
Figure 1. Tree of paths between the source and the destination node
Figure 2. Example of paths between the source and the destination node
In a second analysis, we express the maximal value of the disjointness factor x given the value
of k representing the number of required paths by applying a depth-first search on a branch of the
tree to determine k paths sharing at most x nodes. The input of this algorithm is the constructed
tree and the value of k. The output will be the value of the disjointness factor x. This algorithm
consists in determining the minimal level, say lmin, in the tree showing a total number of leaf
nodes higher or equal to k (since each leaf represents a path). The value of x will be equal to lmin −
1.
The routing algorithm that we are proposing in this paper allows to determine the value
of k starting from the specified value of x. Therefore, it performs a breadth-first search on the
network topology modeled by the tree described above. In order to determine the number of
bifurcations, each intermediate node should store the different paths allowing packets to reach the
source node. The destination node should inform nodes in the network about the value of the
disjointness factor it determined. In addition, all leaves (representing instances of the source
node) should receive all paths computed by those intermediate nodes, in order to be able to
reconstruct the tree of available paths. Several datagrams will be used to this purpose and will be
described in the next section.
6. International Journal of Wireless & Mobile Networks (IJWMN) Vol. 7, No. 1, February 2015
60
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED ADAPTIVE ROUTING ALGORITHM
The proposed SeMuRAMAS [2], as a multipath adaptive routing algorithm, extends the Dynamic
Source Routing (DSR) algorithm [11], which is a reactive routing approach widely used as a
basis for a large set of extended routing protocols. With regard to the existing works in the
literature, SeMuRAMAS has several contributions.
First, it is adaptive to the network topology variation. It allows a source node to tune the
disjointness threshold to a suitable value before establishing a path and sending data. The value of
the threshold may depend on the sensitivity of the message to be sent or the rate of broken routes
during previous communications. Second, thanks to the use of the watchdog mechanism and
digital signature, the algorithm is secure. In the WSNs, threshold signature does not require an
extensive number of stored keys per sensor node. The technique of sur-signature could be used
for the generation of evidences, which could be used by a digital investigation scheme to prove
the identity of malicious nodes and trace and analyze the attack.
Third, the algorithm is tolerant to a large set of routing attacks such as wormhole. Fourth,
SeMuRAMAS takes into consideration the characteristics of Ad Hoc and wireless sensor
networks, in terms of architecture, nodes resources limitation, and categories of attacks.
Fifth, the variation of the network topology can make nodes unable to establish multiple
disjointness paths to the destination. If the MASNet is used for some application requiring a high
level of tolerance to nodes and link failures, by tuning the value of the disjointness threshold,
nodes could cope with topology variation and continue benefiting from a degraded level of
tolerance. Sixth, in the case of the absence of paths with specified threshold, the proposed
algorithm advises the source node about the optimal disjointness value supported by the current
MASNet topology to ensure the connectivity between the source and the destination mobile
nodes.
4.1 SeMuRAMAS phases
This protocol includes two steps: route discovery and route maintenance, which allow to discover
and maintain possible multiple paths between any two mobile source node, say S, and destination
mobile node, say DM. Especially, in the context of wireless sensor networks, DM should
represent the base station.
Route Discovery: This is the mechanism used when S wants to establish a set of paths with DM.
Route Request datagrams, say RReq, is sent by S when it does not already have a route to DM.
The entirely on-demand properties allow SeMuRAMAS to minimize the overhead and specify the
path-disjointness factor value. After receiving a list of potential paths, S computes all paths to the
destination satisfying the specified threshold, chooses the list of paths to be used, caches the
remaining ones, and starts sending the data. Keeping information regarding unused paths, allows
a rapid reaction to route modification and decreases the overhead related to the generation of a
new RReq.
Route Maintenance: This is the mechanism used by the intermediate nodes to let S update the
list of paths in use when the network topology changes or when some routes are broken due to a
routing attack or because nodes can change their state from active to sleeping. This mechanism is
based on allowing intermediate nodes using the watchdog concept for every packet they forward
[14] to detect the identities of misbehaving nodes or detect route errors. If the next hop appears to
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be broken, a route error packet, say RErr, is generated and sent to S in order to decrease the
number of possible path to the destination. S will consider all the paths as broken and will attempt
to use another route stored in its cache, which allows maintaining the k-x-connectivity. If none
backup route to DM is in the cache, the source node generates again the Route Discovery
mechanism.
4.2 SeMuRAMAS route Discovery
SeMuRAMAS uses six kinds of messages during the route discovery:
Route Request Datagram (RReq): It is the first packet to be broadcasted by a mobile
node, which wants to establish multiple routes to a destination node. Every intermediate
node exploits this datagram to discover incomplete routes in the network. It also appends
its identity to the RReq and broadcasts it to its neighbors.
Route Response Datagram: It is sent back by the destination upon reception of the RReq.
This datagram contains the optimal path and is source routed to the node which generated
the RReq.
Notification Datagram: It is used by the destination node to ask intermediate nodes to
forward the information they learned regarding the routes to the source node. The
information would have been invisible by the destination mobile node when it received
the RReq datagram.
List forwarding Datagram: It is used by intermediate nodes to forward the information
they stored regarding the existing paths in the network.
Route Error Datagram: It is sent by an intermediate node to the source node when it
detects a route failure. It also lets the source node update the set of paths it uses to reach
the mobile destination node.
Threshold Tuning Datagram: is used by an intermediate node to indicate the value by
which the threshold should be increased to let the establishment of the multiple requested
paths be possible.
Network discovery: When a mobile node, say S1, joins the network, it broadcasts a two-hop
HELLO message, which includes its identity and has a Time To Live (TTL) value equal to 2. Any
node, say S2, which hears the message, includes the identity of S1 in its list of one-hop neighbors,
sets the TTL value of the HELLO message equal to 1 lower than its received value, and forwards
the datagram. Any node, say S3, that hears the message includes the identity of S2 in its list of
one-hop neighbors and S1 in its list of two-hop neighbors, sets the TTL value of the HELLO
message equal to 1 lower than its received value, and discards the datagram. To be considered as
active, every node should periodically send a two-hop HELLO message and follow the above
described process. This allows each node to maintain two up-to-date lists. The first is the list of
neighbors and the second shows for each neighbor the list of its neighbors. The two lists will
support the detection of routing attacks (described later in Section 5).
Route request generation and forwarding: A node which wants to establish a path to the
mobile destination node, say MD initiates the route discovery by generating a RReq datagram
to MD, and broadcasting it in the network. Every generated RReq includes a three-tuple
information: ⟨Seq, RRec, Dt⟩. Seq stands for a sequence number which should be different for
every new generated RReq. The sequence number together with the IP address of the sender allow
to uniquely identify the RReq and associate it to the subsequent generated responses. Dt is the
disjointness factor which is set by the sender to specify the maximal number of nodes that could
be shared by any two paths among the set of paths to establish with the destination node. The
value of Dt remains unchanged during the forwarding of the RReq to the destination. RRec is a
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route record which is used to include the path followed by the RReq to reach MD. In fact, when a
node in the network receives a copy of this datagram for the first time, it appends its identity to
the RRec field, broadcasts it to its neighbors. Every node, say N, including MD, which receives a
second copy of the datagram, extracts the content of the RRec field. The latter provides a path
from the sender to the node N. The node N will append the content of RRec together with the
value of Seq to a list stored locally, entitled RP, which stands for list of Received Paths. Then it
discards the datagram.
Route response generation and forwarding: The Route Response includes five-tuple
information < Seq, RRec, nh, RNC, RPD > , where Seq represents the value of the sequence
number that appeared in the received Route Request datagram, and RRec is the shortest Route
Record, in terms of number of records, which is collected from the different copies of the
received Route Requests. The value of nh represents the number of hops traversed by the route
response datagram within a link that will be shared by at least two routes. Initially, nh is set
to 0 by the destination node. RNC indicates the remaining number of nodes that could still be
shared by the fragments of routes to generate. It is set by MD to the value of the disjointness
factor received in the route request. Finally, RPD contains the RP list stored in d after replacing
any two entries E and E’ in RP list, such that R(E) shares more than RNC nodes with R(E’), by
the shortest one. The Route Response datagram will be source routed using the reverse series or
nodes in RRec. Before forwarding the received Route Response datagram, every intermediate
node checks if it has a non-empty RP list associated to the triplet (Seq, s, MD). If it is the case, it
decreases the value of RNC by nh.
Notification Datagrams generation and forwarding: Any intermediate node, including MD,
should generates a Notification Datagram when to every entry in its RP list when has already
forwarded the Route Response datagram and he has a non-empty RP list associated to the triplet
(Seq,s,MD) specified in this datagram. A Notification Datagram contains seven-tuple
information < s, d, Seq, nh, RNC, RPD, P > , where s, d, Seq, nh, and RPD have the same value
already specified in the routed Route Response datagram. RNC is set equal to the disjointness
factor value received in the Route Response datagram. P stands for the reverse route extracted
from the shortest entry (in terms of number of nodes) in the RP list associated to the triplet (Seq,
s, d). P will be used to source route the datagram to s. Every intermediate node, which receives
this datagram, checks whether its RP list, associated to the triplet (Seq, s, d), is empty. If it is the
case, it increments nh, otherwise, it decreases RNC by nh and sets nh to 0. If RNC is still higher
than 0, it forwards it to the next node in the route and generates another Notification Datagram for
every entry in its RP list, and source route it to node s. SeMuRAMAS keeps the parameters s, d,
Seq, nh, and RPD will have the same values in the already received Notification Datagram except
the updated value of RNC. It allows discovering any existent solution in the form of
concatenation of two kinds of sub-paths: the first sub-path is shared by another route to the
destination with a length shorter than the disjointness factor x, the second sub-path never occurs
in other route to the destination, discovered by SeMuRAMAS.
List Forwarding Datagrams generation and forwarding: Upon generation of the Notification
Datagram, every node, which has a non-empty RP list associated to (s, d, Seq), consecutively
applies two filters, say F1 and F2, on that list. The filter F1 eliminates from RP any entry, say E,
such that there is E in RPD where R(E) shares more than RCN − 1 nodes with R(E’). Note that the
value of RPD is the same included in the already generated Notification Datagram. The
filter F2 replaces any two entries E and E’ in the RP list, such that R(E) shares more than RCN −
1 intermediate nodes with R(E’), by the shortest one of them. Paths filtered by F2 from the RP list
will be sent later to the source node with the RP list in order to be used as backup paths if the
source node is not able to find any path to the destination node. After applying the two filters, if
the RP list is not empty, the node generates a List of Paths datagram containing four-tuple
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information < s, d, Seq, RP, Rte > , where Rte is the shortest path obtained from the remaining
entries in RP. It will be used to source route the datagram from the current node to s. After
generation, the RP list is deleted. Two categories of nodes can be used: nodes with high storage
capacity and nodes with limited storage capacity. Each node knows the category of its neighbors.
A node with a low storage capacity has the possibility to send parts of the data it stores only to
neighbor nodes with high storage capacity. In fact, the receiving node should send back the data
to the sender before it sleeps or goes out of its coverage. If the sender memory is still full, the
receiving node should find a neighbor node, which is also a neighbor of the sender and has a high
storage capacity, transfer the data to that node, and inform the sender about its identity.
Threshold Tuning Datagram generation and forwarding: Each time that a mobile node sets
the RCN to 0, it executes the two filters F1 and F2 on the content of the RP to discard paths
sharing more than the authorized disjointness factor. The mobile node computes the minimal
number of shared nodes, say n, between the remaining paths in the RP and sends this value to the
source node within the TTD datagram. This value could be exploited by the source node, in the
case where it is unable to establish the set of paths satisfying the requested threshold. It let to
determine the best suitable threshold value that could be guaranteed by the network topology.
This value will be n greater than the last used threshold value.
4.3 Reconstruction of routes by the source
The aim of the reconstruction process is to generate k paths satisfying the disjointness factor x. If
several combinations are possible, the sender can select the one which uses the minimal number
of shared nodes, or select the one which uses the shortest k possible paths. The first alternative
could be chosen if availability is more sensitive than delivery delays. We remind, that the value
of x specified in the route request RReq, has prevented intermediate nodes to forward useless list
of paths, which, if assembled together by the source node, would generate routes that include a
number of shared nodes higher than what is expected by x.
To reconstruct the set of paths, the following algorithm is executed. Let Lcp be the list of complete
paths satisfying the threshold x to generate by the algorithm, and LP be the series of path received
in the different List Forwarding Datagrams sent by intermediate nodes in the network. Lp is a n-
tuple of the form < p1, ..., pn > , where every pi ( ∈ LP) represents any path of the form of < S1,
..., Sbl > , where S1 represents the identity of the node, which initiated the route
discovery, S2 to Sbl − 1 represent intermediate nodes and Sbl represents the identify of any
intermediate node in the network including the destination mobile node MD, which discarded a
second copy of the RReq datagram.
Starting with a FIFO queue, say Q, containing the set of paths in RPBS received by MD. Until Q=
⟨⟩ or Lp = ∅, the algorithm executes the following tasks: Let R = < S1
’
, ..., Sn
’
> , be the first
routing path in Q, where S1
’
stands for the source node and Sn
’
stands for MD. Starting from a
value of i equal to n, and until i becomes equal to 1 (i.e., i is decreased by 1 in every loop), the
algorithms checks for every p ∈ Lp if Si ∈ R corresponds to the last node Sbl ∈ p. If it is the case,
the source node will generate a path equal to ⟨S1, ..., Sbl, Si + 1
’
..., Sn
’
⟩, appends it to Lcp and Q,
and deletes p from Lp. If i becomes equal to 1, the algorithm deletes R from Q. For the particular
case where MD has generated an RPBS containing paths which share more than x nodes,
the Lcp needs to be filtered by keeping the shortest path from those having more than x nodes
shared with paths in the RPBS. Based on the content of Lcp, the source node will be able to select
the best combination of paths, in terms of number of hops, satisfying the values of k and x.
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If Lcp = ∅, meaning that the request k paths cannot be established while satisfying the threshold x,
the source node should have received at least a TTD datagram. It selects the minimal value, say v,
from those indicated by the received TTD datagrams. Later, it can generate again a new route
discovery where x will be v greater than the last used x value.
4.4 Route maintenance
A path can fail due to collisions and/or nodes mobility. It is essential to recover broken paths
immediately to ensure the reliability of data. After route establishment and during data
forwarding, when a node in an established route fails to send the packet to the next hop, or detects
that a neighbor is not forwarding the datagram, SeMuRAMAS considers the route as broken and
sends a Route Error RErr to the source node to inform it about the identity of the unavailable
node. This mechanism is strengthened by applying a watchdog mechanism described in the
Section 5. Upon reception of this RErr packet, the source node deletes any alternative route in
the k established path that contains the broken node. It tries to replace it by one of the available
routes in its cache, and verifies if the set of k paths to use still have, at the maximum
possible, x common nodes. If it is not the case, the route discovery step is initiated again.
4.5 Illustrative example
In the example presented in Figure 3, the source node A needs to establish three (k = 3) routes to
the destination node MD sharing at maximum two nodes between them (disjointness factor x =
2). A generates and broadcasts a RReq with a disjointness factor x equal to 2. In the Figure, nodes
are represented by circles, and an edge connects two nodes if they are able to directly
communicate together. The RP lists stored by each node are represented by rectangles.
Anode B receives the first packet directly from A and receives a second copy though two other
paths which are < A, C, B > and < A, C, E, B > . As each time node B drops a duplicated packet,
it stores the routing path used by this copy in its RP list, the routing path RP will be equal to < <
A, C, B > < A, C, E, B > > . The RReq is forwarded to neighbor nodes until it reaches MD on the
shortest path Rsp = < A, B, Din − depth, F, MD > .
Figure 3. Example of received path lists stored nodes in a network using SeMuRAMAS
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As shown in Figure 3, based on the number of minimum common nodes RCN which is set to 2 in
the Notification Packet ND, the RP lists are only sent by nodes F, M, D and E. In fact, at the
response step, when Node F receives the ND from MD, it decreases the value of RCN to 1 and
forwards this packet to its neighbors. This node applies the filter F1 on its RP list based on the
content of the RPBS list received for the destination node. Note that this RPBS contains the two
following paths < A, B, D, F, MD > and < A, B, D, E, M, MD > .
Using the filter F1, paths < A, B, E, F > and < A, B, E, M, F > , in the RP list of the node F, will
be eliminated because they have more than RCN − 1 = 1 shared node with the RPBS. As
the RP list of node F is empty, its RP list will be sent back to the source node. When
node M receives the NP from MD, it decreases RCN to 1 and applies the two filters F1and F2 on
its RP list. By applying F1, node M, will discard the path < A, B, D, F, M > from its RP list,
because it has more than RCN − 1 = 1 shared nodes with the first path < A, B, D, F, MD > of
the RPBS list. When the node M receives a second copy of ND from the node F it will discard it.
When nodes D and E receive ND from node F, they decrease the value of RCN to 0. By applying
the two filters F1 and F2, node D will not send the path < A, B, E, D > stored in its RP list. In
fact, the use of filter F1 lets node E keep only paths < A, C, E > and <A, C, G, E> in its RP list.
However, < A, C, E > and < A, C, G, E > share node C and node E accepts only RCN − 1 =
0 common nodes. Therefore, when it applies the filter F2, node E is forced to keep only the
shortest path it knows, which is < A, C, E >.
When the node E receives a second copy of the ND from the node M, it discards it. When the
neighbors of nodes D and E receive the NP with an RCN set to 0, they discard this packet without
sending any information. At the end, the source node A has a list of paths available to MD which
is equal to Lp = {< A, C, E >}. The RPBS, extracted from the RRep, together with the list of
paths Lp, will be used to determine the set of routes to MD, characterized by k = 3 and x = 2. By
applying the reconstruction algorithm described in Subsection 4.3, the final list of reconstructed
paths Lcp will be:{<A, C, E, F, BS > <A, B, D, F, BS> <A, B, E, M, BS >}.
5. RELIABILITY OF SEMURAMAS
When a failure occurs, the proposed algorithm assumes that the source node switches to another
path that does not include the failed links or nodes. The detection of node failure is performed by
every intermediate node periodically through neighbor discovery procedure. When a node tries to
forward a packet to the next node according to the specified route, the node informs the source
node about the failure. A recovery of failure is made by the source upon receiving failure node
information as depicted in Subsection 3.4. Another alternative for the recovery can be done
distributively. In this case, Instead of informing the source node about the node failure, the node
detecting the failure can try to bypass the failing node by checking whether it is the source of a
request for k-x paths to a destination for which one of the constructed paths has an intersection
with the active route. In fact, the intermediate node which detects the node failure when it tries to
send datagrams related to the route request, say R1, could be the source node of another route
request, say R2, sent for another destination node. In this case it should have a local view of the
available routes to nodes in the network. Consequently, some of the nodes used for the source
routed datagrams related to R1 could be used for source routed datagrams related to R2. Hence,
the intermediate node, which detected the failure, checks in the set of paths reconstructed by R2, if
there is a bypass links to the remaining nodes in the route specified in datagrams related to R1. In
this case, the intermediate node sends to the source node of R1, the route error, and the possible
bypass link to be used if they satisfy the parameters k and x. If a path is still available to the
destination after the intermediate node failure, but the ceil of the number of paths available before
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the failure divided by 2, is equal to 1, the source node will generate a new route request while
continuing to use the current path until new routes are obtained by that request.
If all paths are disjoints (i.e., the disjointness factor used to discover them is equal to 0), the
proposed algorithm guarantees a maximal availability period. However, if the discovered routes
share some number of nodes (i.e., the used disjointness factor is higher or equal to 1), a failure
has occurred, and there is at least a route that does not share the failed node, the connection
between the source and destination nodes will survive. In the worst case, the failed node is part of
the set of reconstructed path. Therefore, the algorithm will not be able to enhance the routing
survivability and the connection will no longer be available. This situation can occur specially
when there is a star topology and all routes share the central node. This situation should not be
considered as a drawback of SeMuRAMAS because it is a consequence of the physical topology
of the network.
In addition, nodes could be captured by attackers in order to compromise the route discovery
process. To provide a secure routing algorithm against attacks, which prepare for the
investigation, three main properties should be satisfied. First, nodes should be able to authenticate
each others during the process of routes establishment. Datagrams generated with forged
information should be discarded before reaching the destination mobile node MD. Second, every
node should not only be in charge of generating and forwarding datagrams to MD, but also should
be able to watch what its neighbors receive and forward. Second, when a node detects a malicious
neighbor, both the source and the destination nodes should be informed.
To provide the third propriety, the watchdog technique is used to detect nodes that do not forward
the datagrams as expected [7]. A node which uses the watchdog technique is able to determine
whether its neighbor nodes are forwarding the datagram they receive or not. If the packet is not
forwarded within some predefined period, this neighbor is considered as malicious [14]. Every
node should maintain two lists: a list of one-hop neighbors and a list of two hop neighbors. The
two lists are created by letting every node periodically perform a two-hop broadcast of a Hello
Message (i.e., by setting the TTL equal to 2). A node, say n1, which receives a generated Hello
message by a node, say n0, with a TTL equal to 2, appends the identity of n0 to its list of
neighbors, appends its own identity (i.e., n1), decreases by one the TTL, and forwards the packet.
A node, say n2, which receives a datagram with a TTL equal to 1 from the neighbor node n1,
appends the identity of the sender (i.e., n0) to its list of two hop neighbors, and marks this node as
being reachable through the immediate sendern1.
To protect the routing algorithm against forgery of false routing information, we use a signature
scheme to authenticate nodes and guarantee the integrity of the information they exchange. We
suppose that, in the case of WSN, every node joining the network is authenticated by the BS.
Intermediate verification of packets signature (including the hello messages) allows discarding
compromised packets before they reach the destination nodes, which optimizes the used energy
and communication resources, and reduces the overhead of the signature verification process
performed by the destination node. During the routes establishment, every node which generates
or forwards the RReq, appends its identity, the identity of the next receiving nodes, and sur-signs
the route record. A node receiving the forwarded message verifies whether the last appended
signature is correct, checks if it is the presumed destination, determines the immediate sender (the
neighbor node from which the packet is being forwarded) of that datagram and makes sure that it
is a neighbor. If it is the case, it appends its identity, the identity of the possible next hops and
appends its signature the datagram (the new signature is applied on the whole received datagram
including the old signature).
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In the context of WSN, signature is performed using the elliptic threshold signature algorithm
provided by [16], which allows to generate for one public key kpub, n associated secret keys kpr1,
..., kprn. Every signature created using one of the private keys, say kpri, can be checked using kpub.
Every node uses its own private key for signature, while the same public key is used by all the
other nodes for the purpose of signature verification. In the context of general types of Ad Hoc
networks, where nodes can enter and leave the network at any time, and no resource limitations
exist, regular signature can be used. Every node should have its own private and public keys. For
this, a certificate containing the public key of each node should be delivered to the node by a
certification authority. Mobiles nodes will use the certificates of the senders to check the integrity
of the signed datagrams. We assume that each mobile node has the ability to contact a
certification authority repository to download the certificate.
These techniques increase the resilience to node compromising, especially in the context of WSN.
The protection is done by: a) using digital signature to authenticate packet content and discard
invalid datagrams; b) identifying captured nodes using an applied watchdog mechanism and
intermediate signature; and c) Discarding compromised nodes using SeMuRAMAS.
Consequently, even when parts of the nodes have been captured, the rest of the network remains
secure.
6. VALIDATION OF SEMURAMAS PROPRIETIES
In this section, we will show that SeMuRAMAS has some properties including coherence, ability
of the algorithm to find a path in the network, and security in SeMuRAMAS. We proposed a set
of theorem related to these proprieties.
Theorem 1: (Correctness) Let δ be the set of reconstructed paths satisfying the disjointness factor
x generated using the SeMuRAMAS algorithm. Any two paths in δ do not share more than x
nodes.
Proof:
Assuming that there are two reconstructed paths p1 and p2 at the source node, the aim is
to show that the number of shared nodes between p1 and p2 does not exceed the pre-
defined disjointness factor, denoted by x. The theorem will be proved by contradiction.
Let us suppose that p1 and p2 share more than x nodes and represent a solution, and we
will disprove the latter proposition.
Let s1 be the first shared node between p1 and p2 which received a second copy of the
same route request generated by the source node. We remind that:
o Each shared node receiving the notification packet or the route response and its
RP list (i.e., it previously received at least two copies of the same route request)
should decrease the value of x and forward this packet with the new value. In
addition, the use of filter F2 allows any intermediate node, which receives the
value of x, to check if p1 and p2 do not share more than x − 1 nodes from the
source node to it. If it is the case, it announces to the source node
that p1 and p2 represent two possible routes which do not share more
than x nodes;
o Each shared node receiving a notification packet with a value of x equal to 1 will
discard it, as the value of x will be decreased to 0.
The first shared node s1, should receive the notification packet. This means that the
received value of x is greater than or equal to 0. If the number of shared nodes exceeds
the value ofx, this means that sn has received a negative value of x, which is impossible.
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Theorem 2: Let P be the shortest path between two nodes s and d, and δ be the set of paths
generated by s using SeMuRAMAS with a disjointness factor set to x. Any path between s and d,
which does not share more than x nodes with P, belongs to δ.
Proof: Assuming that there is a path p1 sharing with the shortest path P a number of nodes which
does not exceed the pre-defined disjointness factor, denoted by x. Let δ be the set of paths
generated by s using SeMuRAMAS. We suppose that p1 will not be discovered by SeMuRAMAS
and we will prove that this is impossible. We remind that in the shortest path each node receiving
the route response will decrement the value of the threshold x. If the value of x is higher
than 0 and the node has already received a second copy of the route request, it will send the stored
paths to the source and generate a notification packet containing segment of paths from the source
to the related shared node. If the path p1is not added to δ, this means that the node involved
in P has not received the route response, which is impossible.
Theorem 3. Given a route request generated by a node s to reach a destination d. Let RP be the
Received Path list, obtained at an intermediate node i, consequently to the reception of several
copies of route requests sent from s to d. Then RP has the following properties
The number of paths in RP is equal to the number of copies of the route request received
by node i
Any path in RP is a concatenation of two subpaths. The first subpath is shared by at least
another path in RP, while the second subpath never intersects with another path in RP.
Proof:
We remind that a RReq datagram contains the identities of nodes through which the
datagram has been routed. During the route discovery, a node broadcasts the RReq, and
all its neighbors receive a copy. The RReq can follow different paths starting from one
node and only one copy of the RReq could be routed through a segment of consecutive
nodes. We define for every path in the list of received paths RP two subpaths. This first
subpath is composed of nodes shared with at least a path in the same RP and the second
subpath is composed of nodes which are not involved in any other path within the
same RP. We demonstrate the Lemma based on recurrence induction. We consider a
path p in RP, which can be written in the form of p = < S1, .., Si, .., Sn, > as the
concatenation of several path segments, where every segment S represents the longest
series of nodes that belong to the maximal possible number of paths in the RP.
Every Si is in the form of < nx, .., ny > where ny is the node from which the RReq was
forwarded to a number of neighbors, say Nni (Nni ≥ 2), such that the neighbors in Nn are
part of different paths to the node storing the RP. We suppose that the list Si is shared
by Npi paths in the RP. Therefore, the segment path Si + 1 will be shared by Npi − Nni +
1 paths and we have Npi + 1 = Npi − Nni + 1. This means that the RReq has followed
different paths, where every path, which starts with a node in Nn, does not share any node
with the next segment Si + 1, ..., Sn excepting the node storing the RP list. Roughly
speaking, for every i (where 1 ≤ i ≤ n) if Npi > 1 the segment Si will be part of the first
subpath. The same reasoning is applied by recurrence until Sn. Since a node does not
forward two copies of the same Route Request Datagram, the segment Sn will inevitably
belong to the second subpath and cannot be empty.
The construction of paths in SeMuRAMAS is based on a distributed mechanism where
information regarding available links is collected by the BS, or stored by intermediate nodes. The
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coherence of the routes generation is vindicated by the fact that exchanged information during the
algorithm execution are signed by participating neighbors and verified by neighbors. In addition,
the Notification datagrams generated by the destination mobile node MD or by nodes incorporate
the disjointness factor related to the set of the k established paths. Since this value is decreased
whenever the notification datagrams is forwarded by a node, which maintains a path to the source
node, all pairs of paths that have more than x shared nodes will not be generated. This allows that
nodes to store and forward only the useful information and reduce the network overhead. This
propriety was proved by theorem 2.
In addition, the source node is able to reconstruct all existing shortest paths to the destination. In
fact, SeMuRAMAS broadcasts the RReq over all nodes in the network and makes all the nodes,
including MD, able to save all information regarding possible routes from the source node to
them. In addition, notification datagrams are broadcast to all neighbor nodes, which have
discarded a copy of the RReq, to let them send to the source node the list of paths they discovered.
Using SeMuRAMAS the network overload may increase depending on the number of nodes and
the value of the disjointness factor x. Especially, a high number of lists of paths may be generated
and the number of List of Paths datagrams may increase. The traffic overload will be estimated in
the next section. In WSN, if nodes are in sleeping state they will not be involved in the route
discovery. If the node changes its state at the end of this process, it will be considered as a novel
node joining the network, and it will be involved in the next route discovery.
The security of SeMuRAMAS is based on the use of watchdog mechanism and digital signature.
The watchdog mechanism allows capturing several types of routing attacks such as the wormhole
attack [7]. To efficiently use this mechanism, bi-directional links should be used to communicate
between mobile nodes in order to let a node detect whether its neighbor is forwarding the
datagram received from another node. False positives may occur if a node detects that its
neighbor is malicious because it has not forwarded the datagram, while, in reality, it happens due
a collision. False negatives may occur if the state, of some nodes involved in the route to MD,
becomes sleeping or runs out of energy. Such node, which is not detected as inactive yet, may be
considered as malicious and leads to the generation of false negative alerts.
The values of the two parameters x and k are highly correlated and both of them depend on the
node density. Typically, if the source node chooses a high value of k, it tends to decrease the
value of x to guarantee the establishment of all the paths. It is worth to notice that, for a fixed
value of k, the lower is the node density, the lower will be the value of x. Conversely, if the nodes
density is high, the value of x could increase with regard to the latter situation.
Two particular topologies can reduce considerably the performance of SeMuRAMAS. The first is
obtained when nodes are so close to each other and all of them are located around MD. In this
topology, a RReq generated from any node will reach all nodes in the network. As a result, a node
can receive the same copy of datagrams from all nodes in the network. The nodes memory will be
overloaded due to the highest number of paths to store in the RP list. The second is obtained when
nodes are not deployed with a sufficient number, and most of nodes do not have more than two
neighbors. In that case, the routing paths to generate will be relatively long. While the memory
occupation rate in nodes is highly reduced with regard to the previous topology, a multipath will
require a high delay to be established.
7. SIMULATION RESULTS
In this section, we describe the simulations performed to estimate memory overhead and
communication overhead generated by proposed multipath routing algorithm.
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7.1 Memory overhead estimation
Every node receives a copy of a RReq stores the route recorded in its RP list of received paths.
Since this list is temporary stored within the mobile node memory, we need to estimate the
average number of stored paths in each node as a function of the number of nodes. For this, we
consider an area of size 72 × 72 length units square. The nodes communication radius is set
to 10 length units and the x’s value is set to 2. Based on these values, the optimal number of
deployed nodes No, as defined by the following formula, is approximately equal to 50 (⋍3*722
⁄
(102
π)).
No = 3*Total_Network_AreaNode’s/ Coverage_Area (1)
To estimate the average number of stored paths, we develop a simulation considering a network
where we deploy a number of nodes using a uniform distribution of random values, with respect
to variation ranging from 10 to 150 nodes. We note that, the use of uniform distribution is very
common in such situation to distribute nodes over the network area and ensure a homogeneous
coverage [5]. If the nodes would have been deployed in non-flat surface containing valleys, rivers
and lakes, the use of another distribution such as normal distribution [25] would be a better
solution. In each simulation phase, we randomly choose a source node and a destination node to
send the route request. The simulation is repeated 500 times to estimate the average value.
Figure 4. Influence of nodes density on length of stored paths list
Figure 4 shows the variation of the average number of stored paths per node, says An, with
respect to a number of nodes ranging from 10 to 150. This average is computed at the end of the
route discovery phase. It is equal to:
An = Number_of_stored_paths_in_all_nodes / Number_of_deployed_nodes (2)
The simulation results indicate that, the average number increases significantly when the node
communication radius increases. Starting from a value of deployed nodes equal to10, and until
this number reaches No (i.e., 50), the number of received copies of the same RReq increases
slowly. In fact, since the node number is lower than the optimal value, the number of unreachable
nodes is important. The node, which does not receive any copy of RReq, will have a number of
stored paths equal to 0. On the other hand when the number of nodes is higher than No, all the
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71
nodes in the network become reachable and the average of stored paths significantly increases as
long as the number of nodes in the network increases.
7.2 Communication overhead estimation
In this simulation we estimate the communication overhead generated by SeMuRAMAS. To do
so, we consider an area equal to 39 × 39 length units square, where a variable number of nodes
was uniformly distributed. The node communication radius is set to 10 length units and the value
of the disjointness factor x is set to 2. Based on these values, the optimal number of deployed
nodes is equal to 15. The curve depicted by Figure 5 shows the estimated average time per node
required to generate a set of routes satisfying the chosen disjointness factor, in terms of number of
nodes in the network and number of hops separating the source node to the MD. The number of
nodes was varied from 5 to 195, and the estimated time was computed for different possible hop
values.
The simulation shows that the estimated average time, per node, to establish a path, initially
increases as the number of nodes increases from 5 to 35, decreases from 35 to 355and becomes
stable starting from 30. In fact, the network becomes more and more covered, and nodes far from
the destination mobile node MD become able to establish a path, which increases the average of
the estimated time. As the number of nodes becomes far from the optimal value, the estimated
average time becomes approximately constant. This is due to the fact that datagrams generated by
the algorithm are always routed through the shortest path. Even during the route establishment
phase, the copies of the RReq datagrams arriving to MD, are the ones which were forwarded
through the minimal number of nodes. The simulation shows also that the highest values of hops
are obtained for a number of nodes ranging from 20 to 35. In fact, since the network is not
sufficiently dense, nodes that are far from the MD will require a high number of hops to reach
the MD. As the network becomes dense, these nodes become able to reach the MD using shorter
paths. Finally, it is also noticed that as the number of hops increases by 1, the estimated average
time regularly increases linearly.
Figure 5. Influence of nodes density on the overhead and the length of paths
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8. CONCLUSION
We developed in this paper a novel algorithm called SeMuRAMAS to let nodes in Wireless
Adhoc and Sensor Networks be able to specify both of the number of paths that should be
available between a source and a destination, and the maximal number of nodes to be shared by
these paths.. This allows source nodes to have the ability to route their data using optimized
multiple paths. SeMuRAMAS uses watchdogs and digital signature to detect malicious neighbor
nodes and authenticate exchanged packets. A simulation is conducted to estimate the memory and
communication overhead. Directions for future works will address the estimation of the threshold
value depending on the network density and the expected number of paths.
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Authors
Dr. Bayrem Triki received the Ph.D. in Telecommunications from the Engineering School
of Communications (Sup'Com), University of Carthage (Tunisia) in 2013. He is currently
an Assistant in ISITCom at the university of Sousse. Dr Triki conducting research activities
in the areas of is conducting research activities in the area of digital investigation of
security incidents , intrusion detection systems, security traffic shaping, computer and
network attacks.
Dr. Slim Rekhis received the. University Habilitation (DSc.) and the Ph.D. in
Telecommunications from the Engineering School of Communications (Sup'Com),
University of Carthage (Tunisia) in 2007. He is currently an Assistant Professor in
Sup'Com and member of the Communication Networks and Security (CN&S) research
laboratory. Dr. Rekhis is conducting research activities in the area of digital investigation of
security incidents, formal verification of security protocols, intrusion detection and tolerance, traceback of
host and network attacks, wireless sensor networks, and security of vehicular ad-hoc networks.
Pr. Nouredddine Boudrigua received his Ph.D. in algebraic topology from the University
of Paris (France) and his Ph.D. in computer science from the University of Tunis
(Tunisia). He is currently a professor of telecommunications at the University of Carthage,
Tunisia, and the director of the Communication Networks and Security Research
Laboratory (CNAS). Pr. Boudriga is the recipient of the Tunisian Presidential Award in
Science and Research (2004). He has served as the general director and founder of the Tunisian National
Digital Certification Agency. He has been very actively involved in research and has authored or co-
authored many chapters and books, including more than 250 published journal and conference papers. Pr.
Boudriga is the President of the Tunisia Scientific Telecommunications Society.