This presentation covers semi-structured interviews, surveys, focus groups, and participant observation with a focus on highlights most pertinent to those conducting library and information sciences research. Presented at the Empirical Librarians Conference on 2/9/15. Authors include: Emily Vardell; John D Martin, III; Amanda B. Click; and Leslie Thomson.

1. Conducting LIS Research:
The Method in our Madness
Emily Vardell
John D. Martin, III
Amanda B. Click
Leslie Thomson

2. Semi-Structured Interviews
Emily Vardell, MLS

3. (Atkinson & Silverman, 1997)
Interview Society

4. • Well-rounded picture of an individual’s experience
• Mirrors back-and-forth of a natural conversation
• Respondent is perceived as the expert
4
Interviews

5. d

6. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Semi-Structured and Structured Interviews
Semi-Structured Interviews Structured Interviews
Advantages ∙ facilitates rapport/empathy
∙ allows greater flexibility of
coverage
∙ enables discussion of novel
areas
∙ produces richer data
∙ no fixed range of responses
∙ maximizes researcher control
∙ increases reliability
∙ speed
∙ may be beneficial when participants
have a speech or language
impairment
Disadvantages ∙ reduces investigator's control
∙ increases time spent
∙ more difficult to analyze
∙ limits what can be discussed
∙ investigator may not have predicted
a particular area
∙ unlikely to allow complexity in
responses
∙ stilted
(Ayers, 2008, p. 811; Smith, 1995, p. 12-13; Whiting, 2008, p. 35)

7. Interview Schedule/Guide
• Includes an outline of topics
• Considers difficulties in advance
• Is open to additional topics
• Is responsive to culture
differences

8. Probes
(Whiting, 2008, p. 38, from Bernard, 2000)

9. Conducting the Semi-Structured Interview
• Interviewee (person being
interviewed) dictates course of
interview
• Interviewer should:
✓ Show empathy
✓ Listen actively
✓ Maintain eye contact
✓ Maintain a neutral demeanor

10. Analyzing Semi-Structured Interviews
1. Read the transcript a number of times, using
notes in the margin.
2. Use the other margin to document emerging
theme titles.
3. On a separate sheet, list the emerging themes
and look for connections between them.
4. Produce a master list of themes, ordered
coherently.
5. Add an identifier of instances.
(Smith, 1995, p. 20)

11. Recommended Resources
Short overviews:
• Smith, J. (1995). Semi-structured interviewing and qualitative analysis. In J. Smith, R. Harré, & L. Langenhove (Eds.), Rethinking
methods in psychology (pp. 10-27). London, UK: SAGE Publications Ltd.
• Whiting, L. (2008). Semi-structured interviews: Guidance for novice researchers. Nursing Standard, 22(23), 35-40. doi.
In-depth guides:
• Galletta, A. (2013). Mastering the semi-structured interview and beyond: From research design to analysis and publication. New
York, NY: NYU Press.
• Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). InterViews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA:
SAGE Publications.
• Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. (2005). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Examples from library and information science research:
• Kim, H., Park, S., & Bozeman, I. (2011). Online health information search and evaluation: Observations and semi-structured
interviews with college students and maternal health experts. Health Information and Libraries Journal, 28(3), 188-199. doi.
• Stuart, L., & Wiles, P. G. (1997). A comparison of qualitative and quantitative research methods used to assess knowledge of
foot care among people with diabetes. Diabetic Medicine: A Journal of the British Diabetic Association, 14(9), 785-791. doi.
• Zhou, L., & Nunes, M. B. (2013). Doing qualitative research in Chinese contexts: Lessons learned from conducting interviews in a
Chinese healthcare environment. Library Hi Tech, 31(3), 419-434. doi.
11

12. Image Credits
• http://www.ssrc.org/workspace/images/crm/new_program/%7B526bed75-f555-
de11-afac-001cc477ec70%7D.jpg
• http://www.tools4dev.org/wp-content/uploads/Semi-structured-interviews-
spectrum.png
• http://www.pamf.org/research/studies/?sitecfg=23
• http://bobkaylor.typepad.com/.a/6a00d8345304b969e2016768d3ac13970b-800wi
• https://www.flickr.com/photos/37031529@N00/516326731?rb=1
• https://fstoppers.com/portraits/shooting-jimmy-fallon-interview-lloyd-bishop-3154
• http://ftape.com/media/?p=69341
• http://article.wn.com/view/2014/03/05/Local_actors_had_roles_in_Oscarwinning_
12_Years_a_Slave/
12

13. Surveys
John D. Martin III

14. What is a survey?
GTRIP Research Methods Series
?
DATA

15. What is a survey?
?
DATA
?
DATA

16. When to use a survey?
?
DATA

17. What are surveys good for?
• collecting structured data
• collecting demographic information
• collecting opinion data
• quantitative data

18. What are surveys not good for?
• collecting unstructured data
• recording observations about interactions, such as non-verbal cues
• allowing participants to respond to questions at length
• qualitative data

19. Preparing a survey
• Who am I trying to find out about?
• What concepts are important to me and how are they defined?
• How will I ask questions to get the data I need?
• How can I get people to respond to my questions?

20. Sampling
Population (N) Sample (n)

21. Identifying the sampling frame
Sampling frame Sample

22. Resources

23. Think about data analysis early on
• Define concepts
• Operationalize variables
Variables provide the basis for our questions.
The answers to our questions allow us to produce estimates.

24. Design the instrument

25. How will it be administered?

26. Demographic data

27. Open- and closed-ended questions
Open-ended
What is a typical question that a
first-year student might ask at the
reference desk?
Please write your answer below.
Closed-ended
In your experience, do first-year
students ask more non-reference
questions than other students?
❏ Yes
❏ No

28. Asking good questions
What? Huh?

29. Be specific
What is your national origin? What country were you born in?

30. Be specific
What is your national origin? What country were you born in?

31. Beware!
What is your national origin? ‫ما‬‫العرق‬‫القومي‬‫الخاصة‬‫بك؟‬

32. Beware!
What is your national origin? ‫ما‬‫العرق‬‫القومي‬‫الخاصة‬‫بك؟‬
“What is your ethnicity?”

33. Beware!
What is your national origin?
In what country were you born?
‫ما‬‫العرق‬‫القومي‬‫الخاصة‬‫بك؟‬
“What is your ethnicity?”
‫في‬‫أي‬‫بلد‬‫ولدت؟‬

34. Leading Questions
In general, how would you rate
the questions you receive from
first-year students?
❏ Very high quality
❏ High quality
❏ Neither high nor low
❏ Low quality
❏ Very low quality
In general, how happy are you
with the type of question you
receive from first-year
students?
❏ Very happy
❏ Somewhat happy
❏ Neutral
❏ Not happy
❏ Very unhappy

35. Leading Questions
In general, how would you rate
the questions you receive from
first-year students?
❏ Very high quality
❏ High quality
❏ Neither high nor low
❏ Low quality
❏ Very low quality
In general, how happy are you
with the type of question you
receive from first-year
students?
❏ Very happy
❏ Somewhat happy
❏ Neutral
❏ Not happy
❏ Very unhappy

36. Leading Questions
In general, how many non-
reference questions do first year
students ask compared to other
students?
❏ A lot more
❏ More
❏ About the same
❏ Fewer
❏ A lot fewer
Do you first-year students ask
more non-reference questions
than other students?
❏ Yes
❏ No

37. Leading Questions
In general, how many non-
reference questions do first year
students ask compared to other
students?
❏ A lot more
❏ More
❏ About the same
❏ Fewer
❏ A lot fewer
In your experience, do first-year
students ask more non-reference
questions than other students?
❏ Yes
❏ No

38. Double-barrelling
In your experience, do first-year
students ask general information
questions and questions about
classes at the reference desk?
❏ Yes
❏ No

39. Double-barrelling
In your experience, do first-year
students ask general information
questions and questions about
classes at the reference desk?
❏ Yes
❏ No

40. Two questions are better than one
In your experience, do first-year
students ask general information
questions and questions about
classes at the reference desk?
❏ Yes
❏ No
Do first-year students ask
questions about classes at the
reference desk?
❏ Yes
❏ No

41. Recruit participants
• Briefly describe the study and its goals
• Identify possible benefits of the research
• Identify the incentive for participants to participate
• Estimate how long the survey will take to complete

42. How long to collect data?
Recruit
Remind
Stop

43. Analyzing and reporting data
• Cleaning data
• Coding open-ended responses
• Choose appropriate statistical methods
• Graphs are not just for reporting: they help us see patterns in data

44. Recommended Resources
In-depth guides:
● Dillman, D. A., Smyth, J. D., & Christian, L. M. (2009). Internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: The tailored design
method. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.
● Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E., & Tourangeau, R. (2009). Survey methodology
(2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.
● Tourangeau, R., Conrad, F., & Couper, M. (2013). The science of web surveys. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
● Tourangeau, R., Rips, L. J., & Rasinski, K. (2000). The psychology of survey response. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Examples from library and information science research:
● Creaser, C. (2006). User surveys in academic libraries. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 12(1), 1–15. doi.
● Franklin, B., & Plum, T. (2006). Successful web survey methodologies for measuring the impact of networked
electronic services (MINES for libraries). IFLA Journal, 32(1), 28–40. doi.
● Hayslett, M. M., & Wildemuth, B. M. (2004). Pixels or pencils? The relative effectiveness of Web-based versus paper
surveys. Library & Information Science Research, 26(1), 73–93. doi.
● Kelly, D., Kantor, P. B., Morse, E. L., Scholtz, J., & Sun, Y. (2009). Questionnaires for eliciting evaluation data from
users of interactive question answering systems. Natural Language Engineering, 15(Special Issue 01), 119–141. doi.

45. Focus Groups
Amanda B. Click, MLIS

46. What is a focus group?
“A focus group study is a carefully planned series of discussions
designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a
permissive, nonthreatening environment” (Krueger & Casey,
2009)
“A form of group interview that capitalises on communication
between research participants in order to generate data”
(Kitzinger, 1995)

47. ● Focus groups involve
people.
● The people possess certain
characteristics.
● Focus groups provide
qualitative data.
● Focus groups have a
focused discussion.
Characteristics of the Focus Group

48. Advantages of the Focus Group
● Efficiency
● Interaction
● Flexibility
● Usable results
(see Stewart, Shamdasani, & Rook, 2007)

49. Do not use a focus group if...

50. Preparing for a Focus Group
● Developing questions
o Opening
o Introductory
o Transition
o Key
o Ending
● Recruitment

51. Running a Focus Group
● scene setting and ground
rules
● individual introductions
● the opening topic
● discussion
● ending the discussion

52. Moderating a Focus Group
● The moderator should…
● Potential challenges

53. Online Focus Groups
● synchronous vs.
asynchronous
● anonymity
● communication styles

54. Recommended Resources
In-depth guides:
● Bloor, M., Frankland, J., Thomas, M., & Robson, K. (2001). Focus groups in social research. London, UK; Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
● Carey, M.A., & Asbury, J. (2012). Focus group research. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
● Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M.A. (2009). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th ed.). Los Angeles,
CA: Sage Publications.
● Pickard, A. J. (2013). Research methods in information. Chicago, IL: Neal-Schuman.
● Stewart, D. W., Shamdasani, P.N., & Rook, D.W. (2007). Focus groups: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Examples from library and information science research:
● Burhanna, K. J., Seeholzer, J., & Salem Jr, J. (2009). No natives here: A focus group study of student perceptions of
Web 2.0 and the academic library. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 35(6), 523-532. doi.
● Crowley, G. H., Leffel, R., Ramirez, D., Hart, J. L., & Armstrong II, T. S. (2002). User perceptions of the library’s Web
pages: A focus group study at Texas A&M University. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 28(4), 205-210. doi.
● Latham, D., & Gross, M. (2013). Instruction preferences of first-year college students with below proficient
information literacy skills: A focus group study.College & Research Libraries, 74(5), 430-449. doi.
● Walden, G. R. (2006). Focus group interviewing in the library literature: A selective annotated bibliography 1996-
2005. Reference Services Review, 34(2), 222-241. doi.

55. Participant Observation
Leslie Thomson

56. What is Participant Observation?
• A “qualitative research method for collecting data that
depends on direct, firsthand sensory experience of human
events, activities, and interactions” (Preissle, 2009)
• One of the oldest forms of data collection, often associated
with ethnography

57. Characteristics of Participant Observation
• Occurs in a natural setting, in situ, in a field site
• Involves a researcher’s immersion in the setting and activities
• Often means a lengthy time commitment by a researcher
• Demands a researcher’s constant note-taking
• Produces an immense amount of collected data

58. Advantages of Participant Observation
• Allows for a researcher’s observation and participation
• Allows for a researcher to see natural occurrences
• Allows for a researcher to collect
real-time data
• Allows for a researcher to collect
highly detailed data
• Is flexible, and thus suitable to many different contexts
• Does not always require participants’ informed consent

59. Disadvantages of Participant Observation
• Depends upon the researcher for all collected data
• May disrupt participants’ natural behaviours
• Demands a researcher’s
constant attention
• Relies upon the trust of participants
being gained
• Involves a large time investment
• Alone, does not provide a full picture of a scenario

60. Preparation for Participant Observation

61. Carrying Out Participant Observation
01. Gain field site access, and build rapport with participants
02. Gain a “grand-tour” overview of the setting
03. Obtain more focused “mini-tour” pictures of the setting
04. Continue to make both “grand-” and “mini-” tour observations
05. Begin analysis of data while observations are still occurring
06. Exit the field site, and maintain relationships with participants

62. Note-Taking during Participant Observation
• Substantive field notes are descriptive accounts of
observations
• Methodological field notes explain methodological tactics,
plans, and reflections
• Analytic field notes are an ongoing record of concept
development and theory
• calendars, schedules, video, audio, photographs, documents, or artifacts may
also be collected

63. Analyzing Participant Observation Data

64. Bias in Participant Observation
• The accounts of one researcher (or of a research team) are
unavoidably limited, and can never be totally objective or
‘true’
• Over-attachment or over-detachment by a researcher or by
participants in the field will also affect what data is collected
• Stringent record-keeping is one way to guard against bias

65. Recommended Resources
In-depth guides:
• Gold, R. (1958). Roles in sociological field observations. Social Forces, 36(3), 217-223. doi.
• Jorgenson, D. L. (1989). Participant observation: A methodology for human studies. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE
Publications.
• McKechnie, L. E. F. (2008). Participant observation. In L. M. Given (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative
research methods (pp. 599-600). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. doi.
• Preissle, J. (2009). Participant observation. In I. B. Weiner & W. E. Craighead (Eds.), The Corsini encyclopedia of
psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi.
• Schwartz, M. S., & Schwartz, C. G. (1955). Problems in participant observation. American Journal of Sociology, 60(4),
343-353. doi.
• Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant observation. Toronto, ON: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
Examples from library and information science research:
• Chatman, E. A. (1984). Field research: Methodological themes. Library & Information Science Research, 6(4), 425-
438.
• Cooper, J., Lewis, R., & Urqhardt, C. (2004). Using participant or non-participant observation to explain information
behaviour. Information Research, 9(4). Retrieved from http://www.informationr.net/ir/9-4/paper184.html.
• Hartel, J. (2010). Managing documents at home for serious leisure: A case study of the hobby of gourmet cooking.
Journal of Documentation, 66(6), 847-874. doi.

66. Questions? Comments?
Emily Vardell
evardell@email.unc.edu
John D. Martin, III
johnmar3@live.unc.edu
Amanda B. Click
aclick@live.unc.edu
Leslie Thomson
lethomso@live.unc.edu