Computer Basics | Computer Fundamental and Organization

Computar Fundamental
and Organization

Agenda
• Simple Model Computer
• Characteristics of Computer
• Generation of Computer
• Stored Program concept: Vonn-Neumann
architecture

Cont...
• Input Unit
– Input Unit is provided to read the algorithm and data to be processed by
the algorithm
• Memory Unit
– Memory Unit stores the algorithm and computed values.
• Processing Unit
– Processing Unit interprets the instruction and carries them out.
– It has the capabilities to perform arithmetic operations, character
manipulation operations, and logical operations.
• Output Units
– Output Unit prints or displays computed values.

Characteristics of Computer
• Computers are built to carry out a small variety of instructions.
• Instructions are extremely simple; e.g., add, subtract, read a character, write
a character, compute numbers, characters, etc.
• Most instruction are carried out in less than a millionth of a second.
• Instruction are carried out obediently with no questions asked.
• Instructions are carried out without any mistakes.
• Automatic
– Works by itself without human intervention
• Speed
– Very fast device. It can perform in very few second, the amount of work
that a human can do in entire year.
– Not in a term of seconds, milliseconds but in terms of microseconds,
nanoseconds and even picoseconds.

Cont...
• Accuracy
– It is fast but at same time it is very accurate
– Errors are occur but due to human or technological weakness.
• Diligence
– Computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
– Work for hours without any error or grumbling
– Millions of calculation have to be performed, a computer will perform
last one with exactly the same accuracy and speed of the first one.
• Versatility
– At one moment preparing result of examination, next moment it is busy
to prepare electricity bill and in between helping an office secretary to
trace an important letter in second.
• Power of remembering
– It contain important and unimportant data while human brain can do
selection what is important and worth, retain in memory and other is
removed.

Cont...
• No I.Q
– Computer is not magical device. It don’t have intelligence of its own. Its
I.Q is zero till today.
– It has to be told that what to do and in what sequence.
– Computer can not take its own decision.
• No feelings
– Computer are devoid of emotions. They don’t have feelings because
they are machine.
– Computer will not do work as human heart and soul.
– Based on our feelings, taste, knowledge, and experience we often make
certain judgement in day-to-day life but computer can not make such
judgement.
– They make judgement based on instruction given to them in form of
program which is written by human.

Generation of Computer
• It provide framework for the growth of computer industry.
• First Generation(1946-1955)
– The first large electronic computer was completed in 1946 by a team led
by Eckert and Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania in U.S.A.
– It is called as Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator(ENIAC)
which used high speed Vacuum tube switching devices.
• It had small memory and was designed to calculate the trajectories
of missiles. It took about 200 microsecond to add two digit and
about 2800 microsecond to multiply.
– A major drawback of ENIAC was that its program were wired on boards
that made it difficult to change the program.
– Dr.John Von Neumann introduce “Stored Program Concept” which is
used by Electrical Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)
of USA.
– At the same time U.K. Developed Electronic Delay Storage
Automatic Calculator (EDSAC).

Cont...
• In this machine addition operations took 1500 microsecond and
multiplication operation took 4000 microsecond.
• Commercial production of stored program machine in 50s and that is
Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I) build by Univac division of
Remington Rand and delivered in 1951.
– It also used Vacuum Tube. It used filament as a source of electron, they
had limited life.
– Computers typically used more than10,000 tubes so power dissipation
was very high.
• During this time programming was mainly done in machine language.
• Initial application of this computer was in science and engineering.

Cont...
• Characteristic of First Generation computers
– They were the fastest calculating devices of their time.
– They were too bulky in size, required large rooms for installation.
– They used thousands of vacuum tubes that heat large amount of heat
so the rooms in which these computers were located had to be properly
air-conditioned.
– Each vacuum tube consumes half a watt of power and it used more
than 10,000 vacuum tubes, power consumption was very high.
– As vacuum tube used filament, they had limited life and computer used
thousands of vacuum tube they face frequent hardware failures.
– Due to low mean time between failure, these computer required
constant maintenance.
– Commercial production of these computer was difficult and costly
because thousands of individual component were assembled manually
by hand in electronic circuits.
– It had limited commercial use because it is difficult to program and used.

Cont...
• Second Generation (1955-1965)
– John Bardeen, willian shockley, and Walter Brattain invented a new
electronic switching device called transistor at Bell Laboratories in 1947.
– Transistor proved to be better device than vacuum tube because,
• They are easy to handle than tubes because they are made of
germanium semiconductor material rather than glass.
• They were highly reliable as compared to tubes because they had
no parts like a filament.
• They could switch faster than tube.
• They consumed almost one tenth power consumed by a tube.
• They were much smaller than tube.
• They were less expensive.
• They dissipated less heat as compared to vacuum tube.
– Second generation computer emerged around 1955 transistor instead of
Vacuum tube.

Cont...
• Magnetic cores for storage was generated in this period, it was a tiny ring
made up of ferrit and can be magnetized in either clockwise or anticlockwise
direction to represent 0 and 1.
• Memory capacity was about 100 KB.
• Higher level programming language like FORTRAN, COBOL, Algol
SNOBOL & operating System were developed during this generation.
• International Business machine (IBM) 700 series computer emerged
during second generation using batch oriented operating system.
• Commercial application rapidly developed during this period.
• More than 80% installed computer used in business and industry.
• Payroll, inventory control, marketing, production planning and general
ledger system were developed.
• New professions in computing such as System Analyst and Programmer
emerged during second generation.

Cont...
• Characteristics of Second Generation
– They are more than ten times faster than first generation.
– They are smaller than first generation computer so require small space.
– Consume less power and dissipate less heat than first generation.
– More reliable and less prone to hardware failure than first generation.
– They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared
to first generation.
– They were easier to program.
– Thousands of individual transistors had to be assembled manually by
hand into electronic circuits making commercial production of these
computer difficult and costly.

Cont...
• Third Generation (1965-1975)
• In 1958, Jack St.Clair Kilby and Robert Noyce invented first integrated
circuit (IC).
• IC consist of transistors, resistors and capacitors.
• Small scale integrated chip had about 10 transistor per chip, for medium
scale 100 transistor per chip.
• Switching speed of transistors went up by factor of 10, reliability increased
by factor of 10, power dissipation reduced by factor of 10 and size also
reduce by factor of 10.
• The cumulative effect this was powerful CPUs with capacity of carrying out
1 million instruction per second.
• Some new features like virtual memory, interrupt processor, base register
become a part of a commercial computer.
• Size of main memory reached about 4MB and Magnetic disk become 100
MB.

Cont...
• This all things led to development of time shared operating system. It
increased programmer productivity.
• On-line system become feasible like Dynamic Production Control System,
Airline Reservation System, Interactive Query System and real time closed
loop process control system.
• High level languages improved. FORTRAN IV and optimizing FORTRAN
compiler were developed.
• COBOL 68 was standardize by American National Standard Institute.
• Characteristics of Third Generation
– More powerful than second generation. Capable of performing about 1
million instruction per second.
– Smaller than second generation so require small space.
– They consume less power and dissipated less heat than second
generation computer but still required proper air-conditioned.

Cont...
• Less hardware failure than second generation so require lower maintenance
cost.
• They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage.
• Used for both scientific and commercial application.
• Did not require manual assembly of individual components into electronic
circuits resulting in reduced human labour and cost involved at assembly
stage so commercial production of these system was easier and cheaper
highly sophisticated technology and expensive setup was required for
manufacturing of IC chips.
• Standard high level programming languages allowed programs written for
one computer to be easily ported to and executed on another computer.
• Timesharing Operating system comes in exist.
• Unbundling of software from hardware gave users of the systems an
opportunity to invest only in software of their need and value.
• Minicomputers of third generation made computers affordable even by
smaller companies.

Cont...
• Fourth Generation(1975-1989)
• Average number of electronic components packed on a silicon chip doubled
each year after 1965.
• This progress soon led to era of the Large Scale Integration (LSI) with
possible to integrate 30,000 electronic component on single chip & Very
Large Scale Integration (VLSI) with possible to integrate about One
Million electronic component on a single chip. This led to creation of
Microprocessor.
• Microprocessor contains all circuits needed to perform arithmetic logic and
control functions, the core activities of all computer on a single chip.
• It started new social revolution called Personal Computer (PC) revolution
• Semiconductor memories replaced magnetic memory core memories. Hard
disk become cheaper, smaller and larger in capacity. Floppy disk become
very popular as a portable media for porting program and data from
computer to another computer.
• High speed computer network enable to enter connection of multiple
computers to enable them communicate and share data.
• Local Area Network (LAN) became popular for connecting computers within
small organization or within campus.

Cont...
• Wide Area Network became popular for connecting computers located at
large distance.
• Several new OS were developed during this period like MS-DOS, MS-
Windows and etc.
• Graphical User Interface (GUI) is developed for making computer more
user friendly. It provides icons and menus that user can select with mouse.
• Powerful word processing packages that allows easy development of
document, spreadsheet packages that allowed easy manipulation and
analysis of data in form of rows and columns, graphics packages that
allowed easy drawing of pictures and diagrams.
• Multiple windows on single terminal screen.
• UNIX operating system and C Programming languages become very
popular.

Cont...
• Characteristics of Fourth generation computer
• PCs were smaller and cheaper than mainframes or minicomputers of third
generation.
• Fourth generation mainframe required air-conditioning of the rooms/areas in
which they were located, but no air conditions were required for PC.
• Consumed less power than third generation computer.
• More reliable and less prone to hardware failures than third generation
computers.`
• Had faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to third
generation.
• They were general purpose machine.
manufacturing LSI and VLSI chips.

Cont...
• Graphical User Interface (GUI) enabled new user to quickly learn how to
use computer.
• PC-based application made PCs a powerful tool for both office and home
usage.
• Network of computers enabled sharing of resource like disks, printer, etc.
among multiple computers and their users. Other application like involving
interaction among computer users at geographically distant location.
• PCs of fourth generation made computers affordable even by individuals for
their personal use at home.

Cont...
• Fifth Generation (1989-present)
• Small change in electronic components, increase in power of
microprocessor and increase in capacity of main memory and hard disk
continued during fifth generation.
• VLSI became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) in fifth generation and
chips having ten million electronic component.
• Storage technology also increased during this fifth generation, optical disk
also emerged as a popular portable mass storage media such as CD-ROM.
• In fifth generation outgrowth of computer network, this trend is result in
popularity of internet. Internet provide computer user to sitting across the
globe to communicate with each other within a minutes using Electronic
Mail.
• Some application emerged during this time e.g. Electronic commerce,
Virtual libraries, virtual classrooms, distance education.
• Popular tool for wide range for multimedia (text, graphics, animation, audio,
video) application because high processing power and storage capacity.

Cont...
• The data size of multimedia application is much larger than textual
information because representation of graphics, animation, audio, video.
• Characteristics of fifth generation
• Portable PCs (notebook) are much smaller than fourth generation, allow
user to use its facility even while travelling.
• Fifth generation computer require proper air conditioning of the room or
area in which they are located. No air conditioning for notebook, desktop
PC.
• Consume less power than their predecessor.
• More reliable and less prone to hardware failure than their predecessor.
Requiring negligible maintenance cost.
• Larger and faster primary storage as compared to their predecessors.
• They are general purpose machines.
manufacturing ULSI chips.

Cont...
• User-friendly interfaces with multimedia features make system easier to
learn and use by anyone, including children.
• More powerful application including multimedia application make system
more useful.
• Programs to be easily ported to and executed on another computer.
• So many types of computer in all price range today.

Stored Program Concept: Vonn-
Neumann Architecture
• This concept is proposed in 1945 by John Von Neumann.
• Main idea is storing program and processed data in same memory.
• Storing program in in memory makes operation of computer automatic.
• Basic operation of computer
• Inputting: Process of entering data and instruction in computer.
• Storing: storing data and instruction to make them available when required.
• Processing: performing arithmetic operation or logical operation on data to
convert them into useful information.
• Outputting: processing of producing useful information or result for user.
• Controlling: directing the manner and sequence in which the above
operations are performed.

Cont...
• Input Unit
• Accept or read data and instruction for computation.
• Data and instruction are depend upon the input device used.
• Computer memory accept input in binary form so Input Interface transfer
that input signal to binary code.
• Functions of Input Unit:
• It accepts instruction and data from outside world.
• It converts these instruction and data in computer acceptable form.
• It supplies the converted instruction and data to computer system for further
processing.
• Output Unit
• Perform reverse operation of input unit.
• Supplies processed data to outside world.
• Result is always be in binary form so Output Interface transfer that binary
data in human acceptable form.

Cont...
• Functions of Output Unit:
• It accepts the result produced by a computer, which are in coded form and
hence, we cannot easily understand them.
• It converts these coded result to human acceptable form.
• It supplies the converted result to outside world.
• Storage Unit
• Data inserted by input unit have to be stored in the computer before actual
processing start. Similarly computed result also have to be stored
somewhere before being passed on to output unit. Moreover computer must
also store intermediate result.
• Storage Unit provide space for input data, output data and intermediate
result.
• Storage Unit holds:
• Data and instruction required for processing.
• Intermediate result of processing.
• Result for output, before they are released to an output device.

Cont...
• Two types of storage:
• Primary Storage:
• It also known as a main memory.
• It stores piece of program instruction and data, intermediate results of
processing, and recently produced results on which computer is currently
working.
• It hold information only while computer system is on. As soon as system
switches off or resets, the information held in primary storage is erased. It
has limited storage capacity because it is very expensive.
• Secondary Storage:
• It is also known as auxiliary storage. Secondary storage is much cheaper
than primary storage so it takes care of the limitation of primary storage and
it can contain information even when computer system switches off.
• Magnetic disk is the most commonly used secondary storage medium.

Cont...
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• It is the place where actual execution of instruction takes place during
processing.
• Calculations are performed and all decisions are made in the ALU.
• First of all data are stored in primary storage and, transfer it to ALU when it
is needed after that again it is transferred to primary storage. This process
happened many times within the completion of process.
• ALU can perform four basic arithmetic operation (Add, Subtract, Division,
Multiplication) and logical operations or comparisons such as less than,
equal to.
• Control Unit:
• CU is acts as a central nervous system for other components of a computer
system.
• It manages and coordinate the entire computer system.

Cont...
• Central Processing Unit (CPU):
• CU and ALU of computer system are together known as the Central
Processing Unit (CPU). It is a brain of computer system.
• In computer system all major calculation comparisons takes place inside
CPU and it is responsible for activating and controlling the operations of
other units of computer system.

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