The document discusses two important inferential comprehension skills: inferring main ideas and inferring cause-and-effect relationships. It outlines approaches for teaching students to infer main ideas, including having them identify the topic sentence, think aloud to reason their way to the main idea when there is no topic sentence, and start with lists of explicit facts or details in a paragraph to determine the main idea.

1. Taking Aim at Comprehension:
Inferring Main Ideas and
Cause and Effect
Sharon Walpole Michael C. McKenna
University of Delaware University of Virginia

2. Take Two
Here is the lead paragraph of a newspaper article:
While wicked weather will not return to the nation
early next week, arctic air will make a comeback across the
Northeast. After a seasonable day today and Monday, frigid
air from the north Tuesday will send temperatures back to
the brutally cold values of this past February.
What headline do you think appeared above
this story?

3. To compose a headline, a journalist must be able to
infer the main idea of a story. This is not always a
simple task, even for a good reader. It is critical,
however, because it is the basis of crucial
comprehension abilities, such as monitoring one’s
understanding and summarizing. Inferring main
ideas is one of two inferential elements we’ll
consider today.

4. To compose a headline, a journalist must be able to
infer the main idea of a story. This is not always a
simple task, even for a good reader. It is critical,
however, because it is the basis of crucial
comprehension abilities, such as monitoring one’s
understanding and summarizing. Inferring main
ideas is one of two inferential elements we’ll
consider today.
Oh, yes, the headline was …
Brutal Cold Returning to Northeast

5. Today’s Goals
 Review the role of inferential thinking in reading
comprehension
 Examine research-based approaches for
teaching children to infer main ideas
 Examine research-based approaches for
teaching children to infer cause-and-effect
relationships
 Select from among these approaches and apply
them to a chosen text
 Consider instructional resources available
through the Teacher Academies

6. Back at School
 Work with teachers at one grade level
as they plan to apply one or more of
these approaches to trade books and/or
core selections.
 Follow up with individual teachers to
see how it went.
 Make plans for the other three grades.

7. GPS Elements that are the cornerstones
inferential comprehension.
j Identifies and infers main idea and
supporting details.
l Identifies and infers cause-and-effect
relationships and draws conclusions.
m Recalls explicit facts and infers
implicit facts.

8. c. Generates questions
to improve
comprehension
c. Generates questions b. Makes predictions f. Makes judgments and
to improve from text content inferences about setting,
comprehension characters, and events
c. Generates questions and supports them with
g. Summarizes to improve evidence from the text
text content comprehension
i. Makes connections
p. Recognizes the g. Summarizes between texts and/or
author’s purpose text content personal experiences
Identifies and infers
Identifies and infers Recalls explicit
cause-and-effect
main idea and facts and infers
relationships and
supporting details. implicit facts
draws conclusions

9. Why is inferential comprehension so
important?
 When students infer as they read,
they link facts presented explicitly in the
text,
they link facts in the text with prior
knowledge,
they process the content actively, which
helps them understand and remember it
better.

10. Key GPS Inferential
Elements
1. Inferring facts
2. Inferring main ideas
3. Inferring cause-and-effect
relationships

11. Key GPS Inferential
Elements
1. Inferring facts
2. Inferring main ideas
3. Inferring cause-and-effect
relationships

12. What does this element involve?
 The reader must start with an understanding
of a paragraph or larger segment of text.
 The reader makes judgments about which
facts are important.
 The reader “shrinks” the content into a single
complete thought, which can be expressed
as a sentence.

13. Why is it important to infer main ideas
while reading?
1. It is important in summarizing. In summarizing, main
ideas are linked across paragraphs.
2. It is important in comprehension monitoring. Unless a
reader is attuned to the importance of ideas while
reading, all of the facts and events will be given equal
importance. This is not true, of course, and leads to a
limited, superficial understanding of text content.

14. What exactly is a main idea?
A main idea is a statement that captures the most
important thought represented in a paragraph or
longer text segment.
A main idea can be expressed as a complete
sentence.
A main idea is not the same as a topic, which can be
expressed in a word or phase.
Main ideas are usually associated with information
text rather than narrative.

15. Two Types of Main Ideas
In their classic book on teaching comprehension,
Pearson and Johnson suggest two basic kinds
of paragraph main ideas:
1. Label-List. The paragraph content falls into a
category.

16. Example of a Label-List Main Idea
––––––––––––
Robins build nests in trees.
Pheasants build nests in bushes. Eagles
build nests in rocks. Birds build nests in a
variety of places.
––––––––––––
The first three sentences can be grouped
under the last.

17. Two Types of Main Ideas
In their classic book on teaching comprehension,
Pearson and Johnson suggest two basic kinds
of paragraph main ideas:
1. Label-List. The paragraph content falls into a
category.
2. Rule-Example. The main idea is a rule and the
paragraph content provides one or more
examples.

18. Example of a Rule-Example Main Idea
––––––––––––
In Alaska, it is important not to be caught
out in the cold. Motorists keep their gas tanks
full in case they get stranded. They also keep
blankets and food in the trunk.
––––––––––––
The first sentence states a general rule, and
the rest of the paragraph provides an example.

19. Topic Sentences
In both of these examples, the paragraph has a
topic sentence that captures the main idea. In the
first example, the topic sentence comes at the end.
In the second example, it comes at the beginning.
Research shows that paragraphs that begin with
topic sentences are easier for young readers to
comprehend (Winograd & Bridge, 1986).
When an author places the topic sentence at the
end of the paragraph – or does not include one at all
– it creates an opportunity for a teacher to step in
and conduct a think-aloud. How would you help
students reason their way to the main idea of the
following paragraph?

20. How would you help students
reason their way to the main idea
of the following paragraph?

21. Snakes don’t have arms
or legs. They don’t have wings
or fins. But some snakes can
climb trees or swim in water.
Others can dig underground.
Some even jump off branches.
They flatten their bodies so they
fall slowly and land safely.

22. Task 1
Try your hand at writing a topic sentence for this
paragraph. To do this, you must first infer the
main idea!

23. Teacher Think-Aloud: No Topic Sentence
There are many paragraphs like the preceding one without
topic sentences. A teacher can conduct a think-aloud
that guides students in inferring the main idea.
1. Choose a paragraph without a topic sentence in a core
selection, a trade book, or a read-aloud.
2. Infer the main idea yourself.
3. Plan your think-aloud.
4. Make sure you involve students when you deliver it.
Let’s revisit our snake.

24. Snakes don’t have arms
or legs. They don’t have wings
or fins. But some snakes can
climb trees or swim in water.
Others can dig underground.
Some even jump off branches.
They flatten their bodies so they
fall slowly and land safely.
The teacher might say, “Let’s
see if we can put all these facts
together. The author tells us
about some things snakes can
do. We also learn that they can
do them without arms or legs or
wings or fins. How can we put
that in a sentence? …

25. Everything in the city rushes and races and roars –
everything except a bright patch of green. It is a park, a
place where living things of all kinds can escape the noise
and crowds.
In the park, trees cast their shade while birds and
animals go about the business of living. Human visitors
come, too. Sometimes they sit quietly and close their
eyes for a short rest. Other times they look around to find
a whole world hidden from the city beyond.
These paragraphs are oddly structured.
The last sentence of the first paragraph
serves as a topic sentence for the next
paragraph. The teacher might say,
“This part seems to tell us some ways
that living things can escape the noise
and crowds of the city.”

26. Now let’s look at a more direct
approach to teaching children how to
infer main ideas.

27. Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking: Level 1
Where do we begin to teach young children how to infer
main ideas? Pearson and Johnson (1978) argue that
determining a main idea involves realizing a thought that
runs through sentences and links them like a thread.
They suggest starting with lists of related words and
helping students infer a category label that describes all
of the words. Try your hand at this:
birds states trees
robin Georgia oak
eagle Florida maple
pheasant Ohio pine
duck Maine elm

28. Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking: Level 1
Where do we begin to teach young children how to infer
main ideas? Pearson and Johnson (1978) argue that
determining a main idea involves realizing a thought that
runs through sentences and links them like a thread.
They suggest starting with lists of related words and
helping students infer a category label that describes all
of the words. Try your hand at this:
birds states trees
robin Georgia oak
eagle Florida maple
pheasant Ohio pine
duck Maine elm

29. Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking: Level 2
Jim Baumann (1986) suggests that the next step should
be helping students reduce a long sentence to its basic
idea. Here’s an example:
Susan, the girl who lives down the street in the
blue house, goes to Girl Scouts every
Wednesday afternoon.
How can we “shrink” the sentence to eliminate details?

30. Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking
Level 2
Susan, the girl who lives down the street in the
blue house, goes to Girl Scouts every
Wednesday afternoon.
Susan goes to Girl Scouts.
– Baumann (1986)

31. Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking: Level 3
The third level is to recognize a topic sentence. We have
seen how this might pose problems because topic
sentences are not always the first sentence in a
paragraph and because sometimes they are not present.
Be alert for paragraphs structured like this one:
Robins build nests in trees. Pheasants build nests
in bushes. Eagles build nests in rocks. Birds build
nests in a variety of places.
Then guide students as they recognize the sentence that
expresses the main idea.

32. Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking: Level 4
The fourth level involves paragraphs without topic
sentences. Here, the main idea cannot merely be
recognized. It must be inferred. Teaching students to
make such inferences (once they’re ready) might involve
activities like these.
Provide a paragraph with the topic sentence removed
and ask students to write one. Compare their sentence
with the original. For instance, you might start with:
Robins build nests in trees. Pheasants
build nests in bushes. Eagles build nests in
rocks.

33. Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking: Level 4
The fourth level involves paragraphs without topic
sentences. Here, the main idea cannot merely be
recognized. It must be inferred. Teaching students to
make such inferences (once they’re ready) might involve
activities like these.
Provide a paragraph with the topic sentence removed
and suggest some possible topic sentences. Lead a
discussion about which is best. For instance:
a. Birds build nests.
b. Birds do things.
c. Birds build nests in many places.

34. Note that a favorite test item
on group achievement tests presents
students with a short passage and
then asks them to choose the best title.
Doing so requires them to infer the
main idea!

35. Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking: Level 4
The fourth level involves paragraphs without topic
sentences. Here, the main idea cannot merely be
recognized. It must be inferred. Teaching students to
make such inferences (once they’re ready) might involve
activities like these.
Link main idea thinking to writing. Teach students to
begin each paragraph with a topic sentence. Doing so
will make them more attentive to they topic sentences
they encounter while reading.
How can you help facilitate transfer to reading?

36. Four Levels of Main Idea Thinking: Level 4
The fourth level involves paragraphs without topic
sentences. Here, the main idea cannot merely be
recognized. It must be inferred. Teaching students to
make such inferences (once they’re ready) might involve
activities like these.
Construct a semantic map with students. Write a detail
at the end of each spoke. Then, with the help of
students, write the main idea in the center of semantic
map.

37. Adapted from Baumann (1986).

38. Key GPS Inferential
Elements
1. Inferring facts
2. Inferring main ideas
3. Inferring cause-and-effect
relationships

39. Task 2
1. Choose a paragraph in a trade book or core selection
that lacks a clearly stated main idea.
2. Plan a think-aloud that would model for children how a
good reader might infer the main idea.
3. Prepare to share!

40. Key GPS Inferential
Elements
1. Inferring facts
2. Inferring main ideas
3. Inferring cause-and-effect
relationships

41. Take Two
Here is the opening paragraph of a novel called
Mischief by British writer Ben Travers:
One night after they had been married only about six
months, Mr. and Mrs. Reginald Bingham went to Ciro’s. Mr.
Bingham had never been to Ciro’s before. His surprise,
therefore, on seeing his wife there was considerable.
Why was Mr. Bingham surprised to see his
wife at Ciro’s?

42. Adult readers are generally so good at inferring cause-and-
effect relationships that it’s difficult to find an example
where they have to apply themselves!
When you finished the paragraph, your first impression
might have been that it didn’t make sense. You might then
have tried to speculate (that Mr. Bingham was a bigamist,
etc.). But in fact, you were intentionally misled by Travers.
He knew that you would assume that when newlyweds go
out, they go together. But this isn’t always the case, and
you had trouble inferring a cause.
Children can experience similar difficulties, though the
result can be confusing, not amusing.

43. What does this element involve?
 The reader begins with an event in the text.
 The reader may consider earlier events that
could have caused it.
OR
 The reader may look ahead for the effects
caused by the event.
How can teachers foster this ability?

44. Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter Rabbit:
Now let’s create a timeline to capture the sequence of events.

45. Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter Rabbit:
Some of the events in the sequence are not causally related.
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter looks
lettuces radishes sick for parsley
and beans

46. Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter Rabbit:
But these two events cause the next event in the sequence.
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter looks
lettuces radishes sick for parsley
and beans

47. Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter Rabbit:
Peter’s feeling sick is the effect of his overeating.
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter looks
lettuces radishes sick for parsley
and beans

48. Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter Rabbit:
But Peter’s feeling sick then causes him to look for parsley.
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter looks
lettuces radishes sick for parsley
and beans

49. Understanding Cause-and-Effect Inferences
Consider these events from The Tale of Peter Rabbit:
So what will happen next? Will Peter find some parsley?
Peter eats Peter eats Peter feels Peter looks
lettuces radishes sick for parsley
and beans

50. No!

51. Let’s review what we know about
cause and effect
 Many sequences of events are not causally related.
 Cause-and-effect is a special kind of sequence
since causes always come before effects.
 Causes have effects, which can then become
causes themselves in cause-and-effect chains.
 Prediction is a special kind of cause-and-effect, in
which we know the cause but the effect lies in the
future.
 Children will be better at inferring cause-and-effect
relationships when they realize that such
relationships depend on sequences.
 Children will be better predictors if they realize that
predictions are based on cause-and-effect.

52. Of course, Beatrix Potter could have saved us all this
bother by being more explicit. Here’s what she might
have written:
First he ate some lettuces and some French beans;
and then he ate some radishes. Because of eating so
much, he felt sick. Therefore, he went to look for some
parsley because he knew that eating parsley might
make him feel better.
Words like because and therefore signal causal
relationships in no uncertain terms. In these cases, the
reader does not need to infer. But good writers often
imply rather than state directly, leaving it to the reader
to make connections. Young readers may need support
in learning to do this.

53. What instructional methods can
teachers use to help students
infer causal relationships?

54. Method 1
Graphic Organizers:
Sequence and Cause-and-Effect
The time line used in our Peter Rabbit example
could easily be sketched on a white board as a
teacher guides students through a story.
This graphic organizer makes the time order visible
and helps students infer causal links and to predict
outcomes – both of which depend on time.

55. Method 2
Teacher Questioning:
Cause-and-Effect
A teacher can help students infer causal relationships
by asking questions.
1. You may need to ask some “set-up” questions that
get relevant events into the discussion.
2. Use questions that focus on the sequence of events.
3. Ask “why” questions to get at cause. These are very
effective (Menke & Pressley, 1994).
4. Ask children to predict beyond the end of a story.
(“What will happen … ?”)
5. Ask children to predict by changing an event in the
story (“What if … ?”)
6. Expect children to support their predictions.

56. Let’s look at an example of teacher
questioning based on Peter Rabbit.

57. Teacher: What did Peter eat first? These are literal
Child: Lettuces and beans. questions because of
the key words, first
Teacher: Right. What did he eat next? and then. They allow
Child: Radishes. the teacher to set up
the inferences to
come.

58. }
Teacher: Why do you think Peter The teacher asks the
felt sick? child to infer a cause-
and-effect relationship.
Child: Because he ate so much. Note that we can’t really
Teacher: I think so. Do you know be certain about this
what parsley is? relationship. It is merely
Child: No. probable.
Teacher: Parsley is a plant, like
radishes and beans.
Why do you think Peter
went to look for some?

59. Teacher: Why do you think Peter
felt sick?
Child: Because he ate so much. The teacher suggests
}
Teacher: I think so. Do you know that this conclusion is
what parsley is? merely probable and
Child: No. then asks a question to
assess prior knowledge.
Teacher: Parsley is a plant, like
radishes and beans.
Why do you think Peter
went to look for some?

60. Teacher: Why do you think Peter
felt sick?
Child: Because he ate so much.
Teacher: I think so. Do you know
what parsley is?
After filling this gap in
Child: No.
prior knowledge, the
}
Teacher: Parsley is a plant, like teacher asks a question
radishes and beans. requiring the student to
Why do you think Peter speculate about a
went to look for some? cause.

61. Teacher: Maybe! I’ve heard that
}
After reinforcing the
parsley is good for a child’s speculative
stomach ache. Do you inference, the teacher
asks for a prediction.
think he’ll find some? Remember that this is
really a type of cause-
and-effect question.

62. Teacher: Maybe! I’ve heard that
parsley is good for a
stomach ache. Do you
think he’ll find some?
}
Child: I think so. The teacher asks the
child to support his
Teacher: Why do you think he will?
prediction.
Child: I’m not sure.
Teacher: Well, he’s in a garden …
Child: And parsley might be
growing there!

63. Teacher: Maybe! I’ve heard that
parsley is good for a
stomach ache. Do you
think he’ll find some?
Child: I think so.
Teacher: Why do you think he will?
Child: I’m not sure.
}
Teacher: Well, he’s in a garden … The teacher prompts
Child: And parsley might be such support.
growing there!

64. Resources for Teaching
Inferential
Comprehension Skills

65. Questioning Resources
K Academy, Asking Effective Questions, Handout 4
1 Academy Cause/Effect Prompts, Handout 3
Academy, DR-TA Planning Sheet, Handout 9
Academy, Narrative Question Cards, Handout 11
Academy, Expository Question Cards, Handout 12
2 Academy, Narrative Question Cards, Handout 5
Academy, Expository Question Cards, Handout 6
Academy, Scaffolding Discussions, Handout 7
Academy, Modified QARs, Handout 9, 10
Academy, DR-TA Planning Sheet, Handout 18
3 Academy, Narrative Question Cards, Handout 6
Academy, Expository Question Cards, Handout 7
Scaffolding Discussions, Handout 8
Academy, Modified QARs, Handout 10
Academy DR-TA Prediction Organizer, Handouts 19, 20
Help for Struggling Readers, Question Clusters, Section 5

66. Cause-and Effect Graphic Organizer Resources
K Academy Prediction Chart, Handout 2
1 Academy Prediction Chart, Handout 7, 9
2 Academy Prediction Chart, Handout 19
3 Academy Prediction Chart, Handout 16

67. Other Inferential Comprehension Resources
K Academy, Story Map, Handout 2
Academy, Listening Comprehension Elements, Handout 11
1 Academy, Read-Aloud Suggestions, Handout 2
Academy, Asking Effective Questions, Handout 6
Academy, Story Map, Handout 7
Academy, Instructional Procedures, Handout 8
Academy, After-Reading Activities, Handout 10
2 Academy, Expository Texts Types, Handout 2
Academy, Story Map, Handout 14
Academy, Self-Monitoring Strategies, Handouts 20, 21
Academy, Gist, Main Idea/Summarizing Chart, Handout 23
Academy, Story Retell Chart, Handout 25
3 Academy, Expository Texts Types, Handout 3
Academy, Story Map, Handout 15
Academy, Self-Monitoring Strategies, Handouts 21, 22
Academy, Gist, Main Idea/Summarizing Chart, Handout 24
Help for Struggling Readers, Sections 5 and 6

68. Coach’s Corner
 The approaches we have reviewed
today are summarized in a quick
reference sheet.
 Review the list to make sure you are
comfortable with each approach.
 What questions do you have?

69. Back at School
 Work with teachers at one grade level
as they plan to apply one or more of
these approaches to trade books and/or
core selections.
 Follow up with individual teachers to
see how it went.
 Make plans for the other three grades.

70. References
Almasi, J.F. (2003). Teaching strategic processes in reading. New York: Guilford.
Baumann, J.F. (1986). The direct instruction of main idea comprehension ability.
In J.F. Baumann (Ed.), Teaching main idea comprehension (pp. 133-178).
Newark, DE: IRA.
McKenna, M.C. (2002). Help for struggling readers. New York: Guilford Press.
Menke, D.J., & Pressley, M. (1994). Elaborative interrogation: Using “why”
questions to enhance the learning from text. Journal of Reading, 37, 642-645.
Paris, S.G., Wasik, B.A., & Turner, J.C. (1991). The development of strategic
readers. In R. Barr, M.L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P.D. Pearson (Eds.),
Handbook of reading research (vol. 2, pp. 609-640). New York: Longman.
Pearson, P.D., & Johnson, D.D. (1978). Teaching reading comprehension. New
York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Raphael, T.E., & Au, K.H. (2005). QAR: Enhancing comprehension and test
taking across grades and content areas. The Reading Teacher, 59, 206-221.
Willingham, D.T. (2006-07). The usefulness of brief instruction in reading
comprehension strategies. American Educator, Winter, 39-45, 50.
Winograd, P.N., & Bridge, C.A. (1986). The comprehension of important
information in written prose. In J.F. Baumann (Ed.), Teaching main idea
comprehension (pp. 18-48). Newark, DE: IRA.