The research is aimed at reviewing two numerical methods for modeling the effect of coastal forest on tsunami run-up and to propose an alternative approach. Two methods for modeling the effect of coastal forest namely the Constant Roughness Model (CRM) and Equivalent Roughness Model (ERM) simulate the effect of the forest by using an artificial Manning roughness coefficient. An alternative approach that simulates each of the trees as a vertical square column is introduced. Simulations were carried out with variations of forest density and layout pattern of the trees. The numerical model was validated using an existing data series of tsunami run-up without forest protection. The study indicated that the alternative method is in good agreement with ERM method for low forest density. At higher density and when the trees were planted in a zigzag
pattern, the ERM produced significantly higher run-up. For a zigzag pattern and at 50% forest densities which represents a water tight wall, both the ERM and CRM methods produced relatively high run-up which should not happen theoretically. The alternative method, on the other hand, reflected the entire tsunami. In reality, housing complex can be considered and simulated as forest with various size and layout of obstacles where the alternative approach is applicable. The alternative method is more accurate than the existing methods for simulating a coastal forest for tsunami mitigation but consumes considerably more computational time.
Assessing mangrove deforestation using pixel-based image: a machine learning ...journalBEEI
Mangrove is one of the most productive global forest ecosystems and unique in linking terrestrial and marine environment. This study aims to clarify and understand artificial intelligence (AI) adoption in remote sensing mangrove forests. The performance of machine learning algorithms such as random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), decision tree (DT), and object-based nearest neighbors (NN) algorithms were used in this study to automatically classify mangrove forests using orthophotography and applying an object-based approach to examine three features (tree cover loss, above-ground carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and above-ground biomass loss). SVM with a radial basis function was used to classify the remainder of the images, resulting in an overall accuracy of 96.83%. Precision and recall reached 93.33 and 96%, respectively. RF performed better than other algorithms where there is no orthophotography.
Comparing of Land Change Modeler and Geomod Modeling for the Assessment of De...IJAEMSJORNAL
The forest destruction, climate change and global warming can reduce an indirect forest benefit because forest is the largest carbon sink and it plays a very important role in global carbon cycle. To support reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) program, there is a need to understand the characteristics of existing Land Use/Cover Change (LUCC) modules. The aims of this study are 1) to calculate the rate of deforestation at Poso Regency; and 2) to compare the performance of LCM and GM for simulating baseline deforestation of multiple transitions based on model structure and predictive accuracy. The data used in this study are : 1) Indonesia tophographic map scale 1; 50.000, produced by Geospatial Information Agency (BIG), 2) Landcover maps (1990, 2000, and 2011) which were collected from the Director General of Forestry Planning, Ministry of Environment and Forestry. Meanwhile independent variables (environmental variables) such as : distance from the edge of the forest, the distance from roads, the distance from streams, the distance from settlement, elevation and slope. Landcover changes analysis was assessed by using Idrisi Terrset software and Geomod software. Landcover maps from 1990 and 2000 were used to simulate land-cover of 2011. The resulting maps were compared with an observed land-cover map of 2011. The predictive accuracy of multiple transition modeling was calculated by using Relative Operating Characteristics (ROC). The results show that the deforestation on the period of 1990-2011 reached 19,944 ha (3.55 %) or the rate of deforestation 949 ha year1. Based on the model structure and predictive accuracy comparisons, the LCM was more suitable than the GM for the asssement of deforestation.
Myanmar is one of the most forested countries in mainland South-east Asia. These forests support a large number of important species and endemics and have great value for global efforts in biodiversity conservation.
Assessing mangrove deforestation using pixel-based image: a machine learning ...journalBEEI
Mangrove is one of the most productive global forest ecosystems and unique in linking terrestrial and marine environment. This study aims to clarify and understand artificial intelligence (AI) adoption in remote sensing mangrove forests. The performance of machine learning algorithms such as random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), decision tree (DT), and object-based nearest neighbors (NN) algorithms were used in this study to automatically classify mangrove forests using orthophotography and applying an object-based approach to examine three features (tree cover loss, above-ground carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and above-ground biomass loss). SVM with a radial basis function was used to classify the remainder of the images, resulting in an overall accuracy of 96.83%. Precision and recall reached 93.33 and 96%, respectively. RF performed better than other algorithms where there is no orthophotography.
Comparing of Land Change Modeler and Geomod Modeling for the Assessment of De...IJAEMSJORNAL
The forest destruction, climate change and global warming can reduce an indirect forest benefit because forest is the largest carbon sink and it plays a very important role in global carbon cycle. To support reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) program, there is a need to understand the characteristics of existing Land Use/Cover Change (LUCC) modules. The aims of this study are 1) to calculate the rate of deforestation at Poso Regency; and 2) to compare the performance of LCM and GM for simulating baseline deforestation of multiple transitions based on model structure and predictive accuracy. The data used in this study are : 1) Indonesia tophographic map scale 1; 50.000, produced by Geospatial Information Agency (BIG), 2) Landcover maps (1990, 2000, and 2011) which were collected from the Director General of Forestry Planning, Ministry of Environment and Forestry. Meanwhile independent variables (environmental variables) such as : distance from the edge of the forest, the distance from roads, the distance from streams, the distance from settlement, elevation and slope. Landcover changes analysis was assessed by using Idrisi Terrset software and Geomod software. Landcover maps from 1990 and 2000 were used to simulate land-cover of 2011. The resulting maps were compared with an observed land-cover map of 2011. The predictive accuracy of multiple transition modeling was calculated by using Relative Operating Characteristics (ROC). The results show that the deforestation on the period of 1990-2011 reached 19,944 ha (3.55 %) or the rate of deforestation 949 ha year1. Based on the model structure and predictive accuracy comparisons, the LCM was more suitable than the GM for the asssement of deforestation.
Myanmar is one of the most forested countries in mainland South-east Asia. These forests support a large number of important species and endemics and have great value for global efforts in biodiversity conservation.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceinventy
esearch Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Mapping Land Cover Changes Using Landsat TM: a Case Study of Yamal Ecosystems...Universität Salzburg
This poster presents image processing by ILWIS GIS. It demonstrates changes in land cover types in tundra landscapes (Yamal) since 1988 to 2011. The research method is supervised classification (Minimal Distance) of the Landsat TM scenes. The new approach of the current work is application of ILWIS GIS and RS tools for Arctic, Bovanenkovo region. The poster demonstrates techniques of the remote sensing data processing by ILWIS GIS.
Land Use / Land Cover Classification of kanniykumari Coast, Tamilnadu, India....IJERA Editor
The land use/ land cover details of Kanniyakuamri coast which is Located in the southern part of Tamil Nadu (India) is studied. Satellite imagery is used to identify the Land use/ Land cover status of the study area. The software like ERDAS and Arc GIS are used to demarcate the land use / Land cover features of Kanniyakuamari coast. Remote sensing and GIS provided consistent and accurate base line information than many of the conventional surveys employed for such a task. The total area of Kanniyakumari coast is 715 sq.km. The land use / land cover classes of the study area has been categorized into thirteen such as Plantation, Sandy area, Water logged area, Scrub forest, Crop Land, Water bodies, Land with scrub, Reserve forest, Land without Scrub, Salt area, Beach Ridge, Settlement and Fallow land on the basis NRSA Classifications. Among these categories, land with scrub land is predominantly found all over the study area, It is occupied about 336.36 sq.km (44.61 percent), Crop Land 273.82 sq.km(38.29 percent), water bodies lands sharing about 20.44 sq.km (2.85 percent ), settlement occupied with 6.96 sq.km (0.97 percent), and Fallow land was occupied 13.98 sq.km ( 1.95 percent ).
A New geotechnical method for Natural slope exploration and analysisRasika Athapaththu
Geotechnical investigation of natural slopes is challengeable especially whennatural slopes having higher gradients and access is difficult. Also, it is even more problematic to find the shear strength parameters spatially to evaluate the stability of slopes as most of the methods available to find the shear strength parameters in the literature are uneconomical or such methods cannot be applied in vegetated slopes. Recently, authors have conducted a series of in-situ investigations based on the newly developed.....
Assessment of landslide susceptibility using geospatial analysis and interfer...Pavlos Krassakis
The main purpose of the current study, was to examine the assessment of landslide susceptibility in the mountainous Municipalities of Nafpaktia and Karpenisi (Central Greece) by using geospatial analysis via RES (Rock Engineering System) and interferometry data.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Wave-Current Interaction Model on an Exponential Profileijceronline
We develop a model that approximates the exponential depth, which exhibits the behavior of linear depth particularly in the surf zone. The main effect of the present exponential depth is found in the shoaling zone, where the depth remains finite. The basic description and the outcome is essentially rip currents where in the surf zone the wave behavior is the same as found in the linear depth case. In the shoaling zone the present exponential depth exhibits the hypergeometric functions.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceinventy
esearch Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Mapping Land Cover Changes Using Landsat TM: a Case Study of Yamal Ecosystems...Universität Salzburg
This poster presents image processing by ILWIS GIS. It demonstrates changes in land cover types in tundra landscapes (Yamal) since 1988 to 2011. The research method is supervised classification (Minimal Distance) of the Landsat TM scenes. The new approach of the current work is application of ILWIS GIS and RS tools for Arctic, Bovanenkovo region. The poster demonstrates techniques of the remote sensing data processing by ILWIS GIS.
Land Use / Land Cover Classification of kanniykumari Coast, Tamilnadu, India....IJERA Editor
The land use/ land cover details of Kanniyakuamri coast which is Located in the southern part of Tamil Nadu (India) is studied. Satellite imagery is used to identify the Land use/ Land cover status of the study area. The software like ERDAS and Arc GIS are used to demarcate the land use / Land cover features of Kanniyakuamari coast. Remote sensing and GIS provided consistent and accurate base line information than many of the conventional surveys employed for such a task. The total area of Kanniyakumari coast is 715 sq.km. The land use / land cover classes of the study area has been categorized into thirteen such as Plantation, Sandy area, Water logged area, Scrub forest, Crop Land, Water bodies, Land with scrub, Reserve forest, Land without Scrub, Salt area, Beach Ridge, Settlement and Fallow land on the basis NRSA Classifications. Among these categories, land with scrub land is predominantly found all over the study area, It is occupied about 336.36 sq.km (44.61 percent), Crop Land 273.82 sq.km(38.29 percent), water bodies lands sharing about 20.44 sq.km (2.85 percent ), settlement occupied with 6.96 sq.km (0.97 percent), and Fallow land was occupied 13.98 sq.km ( 1.95 percent ).
A New geotechnical method for Natural slope exploration and analysisRasika Athapaththu
Geotechnical investigation of natural slopes is challengeable especially whennatural slopes having higher gradients and access is difficult. Also, it is even more problematic to find the shear strength parameters spatially to evaluate the stability of slopes as most of the methods available to find the shear strength parameters in the literature are uneconomical or such methods cannot be applied in vegetated slopes. Recently, authors have conducted a series of in-situ investigations based on the newly developed.....
Assessment of landslide susceptibility using geospatial analysis and interfer...Pavlos Krassakis
The main purpose of the current study, was to examine the assessment of landslide susceptibility in the mountainous Municipalities of Nafpaktia and Karpenisi (Central Greece) by using geospatial analysis via RES (Rock Engineering System) and interferometry data.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Wave-Current Interaction Model on an Exponential Profileijceronline
We develop a model that approximates the exponential depth, which exhibits the behavior of linear depth particularly in the surf zone. The main effect of the present exponential depth is found in the shoaling zone, where the depth remains finite. The basic description and the outcome is essentially rip currents where in the surf zone the wave behavior is the same as found in the linear depth case. In the shoaling zone the present exponential depth exhibits the hypergeometric functions.
Systematic Variation of Rain Rate and Radar Reflectivity Relations for Micro ...iosrjce
Understanding the detailed structure and behavior of rainfall parameters is important for improving
the efficiency of signals over an Earth-space transmission links. The use of data from weather radar is an
efficient way of observing the characteristics of rainfall. The attenuation due to rain has been recognized as one
of the major causes of unavailability of radio communication systems operating at frequencies above 10 GHz
(Ojo et.al, 2008). In this study, Two years of profile measurement of rainfall parameter using verticallypointing
micro rain radar sited at the Department of Physics, the Federal University of Technology, Akure,
(7°
15'N, 5°15'E) has been analyzed to develop empirical model of rain rate and radar reflectivity over some
heights and their effects on radio wave propagation in Akure South-West, Nigeria. The rain parameter was
observed within the heights range of 160 to 4800 m at an interval of 160 m height based on the stratiform and
convective rain type. Empirical relations in the form Z = aRb were obtained for the rainfall (R) and the radar
reflectivity factor (Z) using the least square power law regression
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
A new geotechnical method for natural slope exploration and analysis Rasika Athapaththu
Geotechnical investigation of natural slopes is challengeable especially whennatural slopes having higher gradients and access is difficult. Also, it is even more prob-lematic to find the shear strength parameters spatially to evaluate the stability of slopes asmost of the methods available to find the shear strength parameters in the literature areuneconomical or such methods cannot be applied in vegetated slopes. Recently, authorshave conducted a series of in situ investigations based on the newly developed
A New Geotechnical Method for natural Slope Exploration and AnalysisRasika Athapaththu
.............Therefore, a new field test technique is required to assess the natural slopes havingdense vegetation to overcome the shortcomings of the existing methods. The charac-teristics of the proposing technique have to be lightweight, economical, safe, and reli-able. With this aim, the academics and the researchers in geotechnical laboratory of Hiroshima University, Japan, have experimented a new field method based on dynamiccone penetrometers: recently introduced ......................
Measuring Individual Tree Height and Crown Diameter for Mangrove Trees with A...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Mangroves are unique ecosystems that provide valuable coastal area habitats, protection, and services. Access to observing mangrove forests is typically difficult on the ground. Therefore, it is of interest to develop and evaluate remote sensing methods that enable us to obtain accurate information on the structure of mangrove forests and to monitor their condition in time. The main objective of this study was to develop a methodology for processing airborne lidar data for measuring height and crown diameter for mangrove forests in the north-eastern coastal areas of Brazil. Specific objectives were to: (1) evaluate the most appropriate lidar data processing approach, such as area-based or individual tree methods, (2) investigate the most appropriate parameters for lidar-derived data products when estimating height and crown diameter, such as the spatial resolution of canopy height models and ground elevation models; and (3) compare the accuracy of lidar estimates to field measurements of height and crown diameter. The lidar dataset was acquired over mangrove forest of the northeast of Brazil. The crown diameter was calculated as the average of two values measured along two perpendicular directions from the location of each tree top by fitting a fourth-degree polynomial on both profiles. The lidar-derived tree measurements were used with regression models and cross-validation to estimate plot level field-measured crown diameter. Root mean square error, linear regression and the Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient were also used to compare lidar height and field height. The mean of lidar-estimated tree height was 9,48m and the mean of field tree height was 8.44m. The correlation between lidar tree height and field tree height was r= 0.60, E=-0.06 and RMSE= 2.8. The correlation between height and crown diameter needed to parameterized the individual tree identification software obtained for 32 trees was r= 0.83 and determination coefficient was r2 = 0.69. The results of the current study show that lidar data could be used to estimate height and average crown diameter of mangrove trees and to improve estimates of other mangrove forest biophysical parameters of interest by focusing at the individual tree level. The research presented in this study contributes to the overall knowledge of using lidar remote sensing to measure and monitor mangrove forests.
Measuring Individual Tree Height and Crown Diameter for Mangrove Trees with A...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Mangroves are unique ecosystems that provide valuable coastal area habitats, protection, and services. Access to observing mangrove forests is typically difficult on the ground. Therefore, it is of interest to develop and evaluate remote sensing methods that enable us to obtain accurate information on the structure of mangrove forests and to monitor their condition in time. The main objective of this study was to develop a methodology for processing airborne lidar data for measuring height and crown diameter for mangrove forests in the north-eastern coastal areas of Brazil. Specific objectives were to: (1) evaluate the most appropriate lidar data processing approach, such as area-based or individual tree methods, (2) investigate the most appropriate parameters for lidar-derived data products when estimating height and crown diameter, such as the spatial resolution of canopy height models and ground elevation models; and (3) compare the accuracy of lidar estimates to field measurements of height and crown diameter. The lidar dataset was acquired over mangrove forest of the northeast of Brazil. The crown diameter was calculated as the average of two values measured along two perpendicular directions from the location of each tree top by fitting a fourth-degree polynomial on both profiles. The lidar-derived tree measurements were used with regression models and cross-validation to estimate plot level field-measured crown diameter. Root mean square error, linear regression and the Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient were also used to compare lidar height and field height. The mean of lidar-estimated tree height was 9,48m and the mean of field tree height was 8.44m. The correlation between lidar tree height and field tree height was r= 0.60, E=-0.06 and RMSE= 2.8. The correlation between height and crown diameter needed to parameterized the individual tree identification software obtained for 32 trees was r= 0.83 and determination coefficient was r2 = 0.69. The results of the current study show that lidar data could be used to estimate height and average crown diameter of mangrove trees and to improve estimates of other mangrove forest biophysical parameters of interest by focusing at the individual tree level. The research presented in this study contributes to the overall knowledge of using lidar remote sensing to measure and monitor mangrove forests.
Measuring Individual Tree Height and Crown Diameter for Mangrove Trees with A...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Mangroves are unique ecosystems that provide valuable coastal area habitats, protection, and services. Access to observing mangrove forests is typically difficult on the ground. Therefore, it is of interest to develop and evaluate remote sensing methods that enable us to obtain accurate information on the structure of mangrove forests and to monitor their condition in time. The main objective of this study was to develop a methodology for processing airborne lidar data for measuring height and crown diameter for mangrove forests in the north-eastern coastal areas of Brazil. Specific objectives were to: (1) evaluate the most appropriate lidar data processing approach, such as area-based or individual tree methods, (2) investigate the most appropriate parameters for lidar-derived data products when estimating height and crown diameter, such as the spatial resolution of canopy height models and ground elevation models; and (3) compare the accuracy of lidar estimates to field measurements of height and crown diameter. The lidar dataset was acquired over mangrove forest of the northeast of Brazil. The crown diameter was calculated as the average of two values measured along two perpendicular directions from the location of each tree top by fitting a fourth-degree polynomial on both profiles. The lidar-derived tree measurements were used with regression models and cross-validation to estimate plot level field-measured crown diameter. Root mean square error, linear regression and the Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient were also used to compare lidar height and field height. The mean of lidar-estimated tree height was 9,48m and the mean of field tree height was 8.44m. The correlation between lidar tree height and field tree height was r= 0.60, E=-0.06 and RMSE= 2.8. The correlation between height and crown diameter needed to parameterized the individual tree identification software obtained for 32 trees was r= 0.83 and determination coefficient was r2 = 0.69. The results of the current study show that lidar data could be used to estimate height and average crown diameter of mangrove trees and to improve estimates of other mangrove forest biophysical parameters of interest by focusing at the individual tree level. The research presented in this study contributes to the overall knowledge of using lidar remote sensing to measure and monitor mangrove forests.
ON OPTIMALITY OF THE INDEX OF SUM, PRODUCT, MAXIMUM, AND MINIMUM OF FINITE BA...UniversitasGadjahMada
Chaatit, Mascioni, and Rosenthal de ned nite Baire index for a bounded real-valued function f on a separable metric space, denoted by i(f), and proved that for any bounded functions f and g of nite Baire index, i(h) i(f) + i(g), where h is any of the functions f + g, fg, f ˅g, f ^ g. In this paper, we prove that the result is optimal in the following sense : for each n; k < ω, there exist functions f; g such that i(f) = n, i(g) = k, and i(h) = i(f) + i(g).
Toward a framework for an undergraduate academic tourism curriculum in Indone...UniversitasGadjahMada
We analyse policy documents as well opinions of stakeholders contributing to the development of the undergraduate academic tourism curriculum, namely: The Government which develops the general framework for curriculum development in Indonesian universities; non-governmental tourism associations which assist universities with opinions and guidance; tourism academics who develop and implement the curriculum in the classroom; and tourism trade associations. Two issues characterize the development of the tourism curriculum namely: determining the appropriate balance between vocational and academic frameworks, and an aspiration to move from inter- to mono-disciplinary instruction.
Association of the HLA-B alleles with carbamazepine-induced Stevens–Johnson s...UniversitasGadjahMada
Carbamazepine (CBZ) is a common cause of life-threatening cutaneous adverse drug reactions such as Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN). Previous studies have reported a strong association between the HLA genotype and CBZ-induced SJS/TEN.We investigated the association between the HLA genotype and CBZ-induced SJS/TEN in Javanese and Sundanese patients in Indonesia. Nine unrelated patients with CBZ-induced SJS/TEN and 236 healthy Javanese and Sundanese controls were genotyped for HLA-B and their allele frequencies were compared. The HLA-B*15:02 allele was found in 66.7% of the patients with CBZ-induced SJS/TEN, but only in 29.4% of tolerant control (p = 0.029; odds ratio [OR]: 6.5; 95% CI: 1.2–33.57) and 22.9% of healthy controls (p = 0.0021; OR: 6.78; 95% CI: 1.96– 23.38). These findings support the involvement of HLA-B*15:02 in CBZ-induced SJS/TEN reported in other Asian populations. Interestingly, we also observed the presence of the HLA-B*15:21 allele. HLA-B*15:02 and HLA-B*15:21 are members of the HLA-B75 serotype, for which a greater frequency was observed in CBZ-induced SJS/TEN (vs tolerant control [p = 0.0078; OR: 12; 95% CI: 1.90–75.72] and vs normal control [p = 0.0018; OR: 8.56; 95% CI: 1.83–40]). Our findings suggest that screening for the HLA-B75 serotype can predict the risk of CBZ-induced SJS/TEN more accurately than screening for a specific allele.
Characteristics of glucomannan isolated from fresh tuber of Porang (Amorphoph...UniversitasGadjahMada
Porang is a potential source of glucomannan. This research objective was to find a direct glucomannan isolation method from fresh porang corm to produce high purity glucomannan. Two isolation methods were performed. In first method, sample was water dissolved using Al2(SO4)3 as flocculant for 15 (AA15) or 30 (AA30) minutes with purification. In second method, sample was repeatedly milled using ethanol as solvent and filtered for 5 (EtOH5) or 7 (EtOH7) times without purification. The characteristics of obtained glucomannan were compared to those of commercial porang flour (CPF) and purified konjac glucomannan (PKG). High purity (90.98%), viscosity (27,940 cps) and transparency (57.74 %) of amorphous glucomannan were isolated by EtOH7. Ash and protein level significantly reduced to 0.57% and 0.31%, respectively, with no starch content. Water holding capacity (WHC) of EtOH7 glucomannan significantly enhanced, whereas its solubility was lower than those of PKG due to its ungrounded native granular form.
Phylogenetic Analysis of Newcastle Disease Virus from Indonesian Isolates Bas...UniversitasGadjahMada
This study was conducted to analyze phylogenetic of Indonesian newcastle disease virus(NDV) isolates based on fusion (F) protein-encoding gene, with aim to determine which genotype group of Indonesian NDV isolates, compared to vaccine strain that circulating in Indonesia.
Land Capability for Cattle-Farming in the Merapi Volcanic Slope of Sleman Reg...UniversitasGadjahMada
This research carried out to study the cattle farming development based on the land capability in rural areas of the Merapi Volcanic slope of Sleman Regency Yogyakarta after eruption 2010. Samples taken were Glagaharjo village (Cangkringan Sub-District) as impacted area and Wonokerto village (Turi Sub-District) as unimpacted area. Survey method used were to land evaluation analysis supported by Geographic Information System (GIS) software. Materials used were Indonesian topographical basemap (RBI) in 1:25000 scale, IKONOS image [2015], land use map, landform map, and slope map as supple- ments. Potential analysis of land capability for cattle forage using the production unit in kg of TDN per AU. The result showed that based on the land capability class map, both villages had potential of carrying capacity for forage feed that could still be increased as much as 1,661.32 AU in Glagaharjo and 1,948.13 AU in Wonokerto.
When anti-corruption norms lead to undesirable results: learning from the Ind...UniversitasGadjahMada
This paper analyzes how and why adverse side-effects have occurred in the implementation of two articles of Indonesia’s anti-corruption law. These articles prohibit unlawful acts which may be detrimental to the finances of the state. Indeed, the lawmakers had good intentions when they drafted the two articles. They wanted to make it easier to convict corrupt individuals by lowering the standard of evidence required to prove criminal liability. The implementation of these articles has raised legal uncertainty. The loose definition of the elements of the crime enables negligence and imperfection of (public) contracts to be considered as corruption. The Constitutional Court has issued two rulings to restrict and guide the interpretation of these articles. However, law enforcement agencies (Supreme Court and public prosecutors) have been unwilling to adhere to the rulings. There are two possible reasons for this. First, as has been argued by several commentators, the law enforcement agencies have misinterpreted the concept of Bunlawfulness^. Besides, the law enforcement agencies wish to be seen to be committed to prosecuting and delivering convictions in corruption cases. To do so, they need to maintain looser definitions of the elements of the offence. This paper endorses the Constitutional Court rulings and provides additional reasons in support of their stance. The paper can be considered as a case study for other countries that may be contemplating similar legislation.
Receptor binding and antigenic site analysis of hemagglutinin gene fragments ...UniversitasGadjahMada
We reported a retrospective study on hemagglutinin (HA) gene fragments of Avian Influenza (AI) viruses recovered between 2010 to 2012, using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) followed by sequencing. The results provide information about the receptor binding sites (RBS) and antigenic sites character of HA gene of AI viruses in Indonesia. Viral RNA was extracted from allantoic fluid of specific pathogen free (SPF) of chicken embryonated eggs inoculated by AI suspected samples. Amplification was performed by using H5 specific primers to produce amplification target of 544 bp. The resulting sequences were analyzed with MEGA-5 consisting of multiple alignment, deductive amino acid prediction, and phylogenetic tree analysis. The results showed that out of the 12 samples amplified using RT-PCR technique, only 7 were detected to be avian influenza serotype H5 viruses. Sequence analysis of AIV H5 positive samples, showed a binding preference towards avian type receptors. Antigenic site analysis is consistent with the previous report, however, the antigenic site B at position 189 showed that the residue had undergone mutation from arginine to methionine. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that these viruses were clustered into clade 2.1.3. Our report supports the importance of the previous study of RBS and antigenic properties of HPAI H5N1 in Indonesia.
Sustaining the unsustainable? Environmental impact assessment and overdevelop...UniversitasGadjahMada
Bali faces serious environmental crises arising from overdevelopment of the tourism and real estate industry, including water shortage, rapid conversion of agricultural land, pollution, and economic and cultural displacement. This article traces continuities and discontinuities in the role of Indonesian environmental impact assessment (EIA) during and since the authoritarian ‘New Order’ period. Following the fall of the Suharto regime in 1998, the ‘Reform Era’ brought dramatic changes, democratizing and decentralizing Indonesia’s governing institutions. Focusing on case studies of resort development projects in Bali from the 1990s to the present, this study examines the ongoing capture of legal processes by vested interests at the expense of prospects for sustainable development. Two particularly controversial projects in Benoa Bay, proposed in the different historical and structural settings of the two eras—the Bali Turtle Island Development (BTID) at Serangan Island in the Suharto era and the Tirta Wahana Bali Internasional (TWBI) proposal for the other side of Benoa in the ‘Reform Era’—enable instructive comparison. The study finds that despite significant changes in the environmental law regime, the EIA process still finds itself a tool of powerful interests in the efforts of political and economic elites to maintain control of decision-making and to displace popular opposition forces to the margins.
Magnetogama is an open schematic handassembled fluxgate magnetometer. Compared to another magnetometer, Magnetogama has more benefit concerning its price and its ease of use. Practically Magnetogama can be utilized either in land or attached to an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Magnetogama was designed to give open access to a cheap and accurate alternative to magnetometer sensor. Therefore it can be used as a standard design which is directly applicable to the low-budget company or education purposes. Schematic, code and several verification tests were presented in this article ensuring its reproducibility. Magnetogama has been tested with two kind of tests: a comparison with two nearest observatories at Learmonth (LRM) and Kakadu (KDU) and the response of magnetic substance.
Limitations in the screening of potentially anti-cryptosporidial agents using...UniversitasGadjahMada
The emergence of cryptosporidiosis, a zoonotic disease of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract caused by Cryptosporidium Tyzzer, 1907, triggered numerous screening studies of various compounds for potential anti-cryptosporidial activity, the majority of which proved ineffective. Extracts of Indonesian plants, Piper betle and Diospyros sumatrana, were tested for potential anticryptosporidial activity using Mastomys coucha (Smith), experimentally inoculated with Cryptosporidium proliferans Kváč, Havrdová, Hlásková, Daňková, Kanděra, Ježková, Vítovec, Sak, Ortega, Xiao, Modrý, Chelladurai, Prantlová et McEvoy, 2016. None of the plant extracts tested showed significant activity against cryptosporidia; however, the results indicate that the following issues should be addressed in similar experimental studies. The monitoring of oocyst shedding during the entire experimental trial, supplemented with histological examination of affected gastric tissue at the time of treatment termination, revealed that similar studies are generally unreliable if evaluations of drug efficacy are based exclusively on oocyst shedding. Moreover, the reduction of oocyst shedding did not guarantee the eradication of cryptosporidia in treated individuals. For treatment trials performed on experimentally inoculated laboratory rodents, only animals in the advanced phase of cryptosporidiosis should be used for the correct interpretation of pathological alterations observed in affected tissue. All the solvents used (methanol, methanol-tetrahydrofuran and dimethylsulfoxid) were shown to be suitable for these studies, i.e. they did not exhibit negative effects on the subjects. The halofuginone lactate, routinely administered in intestinal cryptosporidiosis in calves, was shown to be ineffective against gastric cryptosporidiosis in mice caused by C. proliferans. In contrast, the control application of extract Arabidopsis thaliana, from which we had expected a neutral effect, turned out to have some positive impact on affected gastric tissue.
Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) of Amomum compactum essent...UniversitasGadjahMada
The main purpose of this study was to formulate and to characterize a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems of cardamom (Amomum compactum) essential oil. The optimum formula was analyzed using a D-Optimal mixture designed by varying concentrations of oil component (Amomum compactum essential oil and virgin coconut oil), Tween 80, and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400) (v/v) using a Design Expert® Ver. 7.1.5. Emulsification time and transmittance were selected as responses for optimization. The optimum formula was characterized by droplet size, zeta potential, viscosity, thermodynamic stability, and morphology using Transmission Electron Microscopy. SNEDDS of Amomum compactum essential oil was successfully formulated to SNEDDS using 10% of Amomum compactum essential oil, 10% of virgin coconut oil, 65.71% of Tween 80, and 14.29% of PEG 400. The characterization result showed the percent transmittance 99.37 ± 0.06, emulsification time 46.38 ± 0.61 s, the average droplet size 13.97 ± 0.31 nm with PI 0.06 ± 0.05, zeta potential −28.8 to −45.9 mV, viscosity 187.5 ± 0 mPa·s, passed the thermodynamic stress tests, and indicated spherical shape. The study revealed that the formulation has increased solubility and stability of Amomum compactum essential oil.
Attenuation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Virulence by Some Indonesian Medicinal ...UniversitasGadjahMada
This study aims to discover quorum sensing inhibitors (QSI) from some Indonesian medicinal plants ethanol extract to analyze their inhibitory activities against QS-mediated virulence factors in P. aeruginosa using in-vitro experimental study-laboratory setting. Indonesian medicinal plant ethanolic extracts were tested for their capability to inhibit P. aeruginosa motility, biofilm formation using microtiter plate method, pyocyanin and LasA production using LasA staphylolytic assay. Statistical significance of the data were determined using one way ANOVA, followed by Dunnett’s test. Differences were considered significant with P values of 0.05 or less. The findings obtained showed that Ethanolic extract of T. catappa leaves and A. alitilis flower capable to inhibit P. aeruginosa motility as well as pyocyanin production and biofilm formation. Both extracts also showed capability in reducing LasA protease production. It is concluded that T. catappa and A. alitilis are an interesting sources of innovative plant derived quorum quenching compound(s), thus can be used in the development of new antipathogenic drug.
Short-chain alcohols are a group of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are often found in workplaces and laboratories, as well as medical, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Realtime monitoring of alcohol vapors is essential because exposure to alcohol vapors with concentrations of 0.15–0.30 mg·L−1 may be harmful to human health. This study aims to improve the detection capabilities of quartz crystal microbalance (QCM)-based sensors for the analysis of alcohol vapors. The active layer of chitosan was immobilized onto the QCM substrate through a selfassembled monolayer of L-cysteine using glutaraldehyde as a cross-linking agent. Before alcohol analysis, the QCM sensing chip was exposed to humidity because water vapor significantly interferes with QCM gas sensing. The prepared QCM sensor chip was tested for the detection of four different alcohols: n-propanol, ethanol, isoamyl alcohol, and n-amyl alcohol. For comparison, a non-alcohol of acetone was also tested. The prepared QCM sensing chip is selective to alcohols because of hydrogen bond formation between the hydroxyl groups of chitosan and the analyte. The highest response was achieved when the QCM sensing chip was exposed to n-amyl alcohol vapor, with a sensitivity of about 4.4 Hz·mg−1·L. Generally, the sensitivity of the QCM sensing chip is dependent on the molecular weight of alcohol. Moreover, the developed QCM sensing chips are stable after 10 days of repeated measurements, with a rapid response time of only 26 s. The QCM sensing chip provides an alternative method to established analytical methods such as gas chromatography for the detection of short-chain alcohol vapors.
APPLICATION OF CLONAL SELECTION IMMUNE SYSTEM METHOD FOR OPTIMIZATION OF DIST...UniversitasGadjahMada
This paper proposes an application of clonal selection immune system method for optimization of distribution network. The distribution network with high-performance is a network that has a low power loss, better voltage profile, and loading balance among feeders. The task for improving the performance of the distribution network is optimization of network configuration. The optimization has become a necessary study with the presence of DG in entire networks. In this work, optimization of network configuration is based on an AIS algorithm. The methodology has been tested in a model of 33 bus IEEE radial distribution networks with and without DG integration. The results have been showed that the optimal configuration of the distribution network is able to reduce power loss and to improve the voltage profile of the distribution network significantly.
Screening of resistant Indonesian black rice cultivars against bacterial leaf...UniversitasGadjahMada
Black rice production in Indonesia constrained by the bacterial blight disease (BLB) caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae pathotype IV (Xoo). Breeding of BLB resistant cultivars is considered the most sustainable method for BLB disease control, both from an environmental and agricultural perspective. Indonesia has many local black rice varieties that can be used as genes resource to support breeding program producing resistant cultivars. The present research focuses on screening local Indonesian black rice cultivars for resistance against BLB and analyzing the expression of these resistance genes in black rice after inoculation with Xoo. The black rice cultivars Cempo Ireng, Pari Ireng, Melik, Pendek, and Indmira, were inoculated with Xoo while white rice cv. Conde, IRBB21, IR64, and Java14 were used as controls. We assayed the phenotypic performance of the cultivars samples after Xoo inoculation and analyzed their resistance gene expression at 24 and 96 h after Xoo inoculation semiquantitatively. The cultivar showed the best performance was selected for further analysis of the resistance genes using Realtime quantitative PCR. Cempo Ireng was indicated the most resistant cultivar against BLB disease based on the lowest disease intensity and Area Under Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC) value. Cempo Ireng expressed resistant genes xa5, Xa10, Xa21 and RPP13-like after inoculation of Xoo. The expression of xa5, Xa10, and Xa21 was up-regulated while that of RPP13-like was down-regulated in Cempo Ireng.
This article analyzes the life of young millennial Salafi-niqabi in Surakarta and their strategies in dealing with power relations in their everyday lives. Studies on Salafi in Indonesia have focused more on global Salafimovements, power politics, links with fundamentalist-radical movements, state security and criticism of Salafi religious doctrine. Although there are several studies that try to portray the daily life of this religious group, the majority of previous studies focused on formal institutions and male Salafi. Very few studies have addressed the lives of Salafi women. This is likely due to the difficulty of approaching this group because of their exclusivity, and their restrictions on interacting with the outside world. Using Macleod’s theory of ‘accommodating protest’ within the framework of everyday politics, agency, and power relations, this research found that young millennial Salafi-niqabi have a unique method of negotiating with the modern and globalized world. Through what Macleod calls an accommodation which is at the same time a protest, young Salafi-niqabi have experienced hijrah as a form of negotiation of their millennial identity.
Application of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi accelerates the growth of shoot r...UniversitasGadjahMada
Shoot roots are second type of root, which emerge from the base of the new shoots, 5-7 days after planting. The shoot roots growth on single bud chips seedling is critical for further growth in dry land. The objectives of this study were to examine shoot root growth using different doses of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculum on five clones of sugarcane and to ascertain their effect on seedling biomass weight. The highest and lowest temperatures on the research site were 32º and 18 ºC, in tropical monsoon climate. The experimental design was a completely randomized design (CRD) in 4x5 factorial arrangement with four replicates. The treatments were: four doses of AMF inoculum (0, 1, 2, 3 g/bud chips) on five clones with single bud chips seedling (PS864, KK, PS881, BL, and VMC). The evaluated parameters were root colonization affected by doses of AMF inoculum, number of shoot roots, surface area of shoot and total roots, root length, biomass seedling, and P leaf concentration affected by doses of AMF inoculum. AMF inoculum doses of 2 and 3 g of inoculum/bud chips resulted in the speed and extent root colonization at 5 days after inoculation on all five sugarcane clones. The clones exhibited 57-100 % accelerated emergence of shoot roots (i.e. the second roots formed), increased total root length, total root surface area especially on BL, VMC, and P leaf concentration. Application of 2-3 inoculum/bud of AMF inoculum significantly increased shoot roots growth i.e. root length, root surface area, and number of shoot roots.
SHAME AS A CULTURAL INDEX OF ILLNESS AND RECOVERY FROM PSYCHOTIC ILLNESS IN JAVAUniversitasGadjahMada
Most studies of shame have focused on stigma as a form of social response and a socio-psychological consequence of mental illness. This study aims at exploring more complex Javanese meanings of shame in relation to psychotic illness. Six psychotic patients and their family members participated in this research. Ethnographic fieldwork was conducted in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Thematic analysis of the data showed that participants used shame in three different ways. First, as a cultural index of illness and recovery. Family members identified their member as being ill when they had lost their sense of shame. If a patient exhibited behavior that indicated the reemergence of shame, the family saw this as an indication of recovery. Second, as an indication of relapse. Third, as a barrier toward recovery. In conclusion, shame is used as a cultural index of illness and recovery because it associated with the moral-behavioral control. Shame may also be regarded as a form of consciousness associated with the emergence of insight. Further study with a larger group of sample is needed to explore shame as a ‘socio-cultural marker’ for psychotic illness in Java.
Frequency and Risk-Factors Analysis of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Bali-CattleUniversitasGadjahMada
Cattle are known as the main reservoir of zoonotic agents verocytotoxin producing Escherichia coli. These bacteria are usually isolated from calves with diarrhea and / or mucus and blood. Tolerance of these agents to the environmental conditions will strengthen of their transmission among livestock. A total of 238 cattle fecal samples from four sub-districts in Badung, Bali were used in this study. Epidemiological data observed include cattle age, sex, cattle rearing system, the source of drinking water, weather, altitude, and type of cage floor, the cleanliness of cage floor, the slope of cage floor, and the level of cattle cleanliness. The study was initiated by culturing of samples onto eosin methylene blue agar, then Gram stained, and tested for indole, methyl-red, voges proskauer, and citrate, Potential E.coli isolates were then cultured onto sorbitol MacConkey agar, and further tested using O157 latex agglutination test and H7 antisera. Molecular identification was performed by analysis of the 16S rRNA gene, and epidemiological data was analyzed using
STATA 12.0 software. The results showed, the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 in cattle at Badung regency was 6.30% (15/238) covering four sub districts i.e. Petang, Abiansemal, Mengwi, and Kuta which their prevalence was 8.62%(5/58), 10%(6/60), 3.33%(2/60), and 3.33(2/60)%, respectively. The analysis of 16S rRNA gene confirmed of isolates as an E. coli O157:H7 strain with 99% similarities. Furthermore, the risk factors analysis showed that the slope of the cage floor has a highly significant effect (P<0.05) to the distribution of infection. Consequently, implementing this factor must be concerned in order to decrease of infection.
UNDERSTANDING WHAT GREEN WASHING IS!.pdfJulietMogola
Many companies today use green washing to lure the public into thinking they are conserving the environment but in real sense they are doing more harm. There have been such several cases from very big companies here in Kenya and also globally. This ranges from various sectors from manufacturing and goes to consumer products. Educating people on greenwashing will enable people to make better choices based on their analysis and not on what they see on marketing sites.
Artificial Reefs by Kuddle Life Foundation - May 2024punit537210
Situated in Pondicherry, India, Kuddle Life Foundation is a charitable, non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to improving the living standards of coastal communities and simultaneously placing a strong emphasis on the protection of marine ecosystems.
One of the key areas we work in is Artificial Reefs. This presentation captures our journey so far and our learnings. We hope you get as excited about marine conservation and artificial reefs as we are.
Please visit our website: https://kuddlelife.org
Our Instagram channel:
@kuddlelifefoundation
Our Linkedin Page:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/kuddlelifefoundation/
and write to us if you have any questions:
info@kuddlelife.org
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
WRI’s brand new “Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices” gives food service operators the very latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes. This research builds off our first guide for food service, now with industry experience and insights from nearly 350 academic trials.
Natural farming @ Dr. Siddhartha S. Jena.pptxsidjena70
A brief about organic farming/ Natural farming/ Zero budget natural farming/ Subash Palekar Natural farming which keeps us and environment safe and healthy. Next gen Agricultural practices of chemical free farming.
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Comparison of methods for simulating tsunami run-up through coastal forests
1. Volume 36 Number 3 2017
COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR SIMULATING TSUNAMI RUN-UP THROUGH
COASTAL FORESTS
Benazir1
, Radianta Triatmadja2*
, Adam Pamudji Rahardjo2
, and Nur Yuwono2
1
Ph.D Student at Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Universitas
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia.
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia.
*Corresponding author: radianta@ugm.ac.id, Kompleks Yadara V/12 Babarsari Yogyakarta, Indonesia,
55281.
ABSTRACT
The research is aimed at reviewing two numerical methods for modeling the effect of coastal
forest on tsunami run-up and to propose an alternative approach. Two methods for modeling the
effect of coastal forest namely the Constant Roughness Model (CRM) and Equivalent Roughness
Model (ERM) simulate the effect of the forest by using an artificial Manning roughness
coefficient. An alternative approach that simulates each of the trees as a vertical square column is
introduced. Simulations were carried out with variations of forest density and layout pattern of the
trees. The numerical model was validated using an existing data series of tsunami run-up without
forest protection. The study indicated that the alternative method is in good agreement with ERM
method for low forest density. At higher density and when the trees were planted in a zigzag
pattern, the ERM produced significantly higher run-up. For a zigzag pattern and at 50% forest
densities which represents a water tight wall, both the ERM and CRM methods produced
relatively high run-up which should not happen theoretically. The alternative method, on the other
hand, reflected the entire tsunami. In reality, housing complex can be considered and simulated as
forest with various size and layout of obstacles where the alternative approach is applicable. The
alternative method is more accurate than the existing methods for simulating a coastal forest for
tsunami mitigation but consumes considerably more computational time.
Keywords: modeling; long wave; vegetation; greenbelt; density; layout; dam break.
ISSN 8755-6839
SCIENCE OF TSUNAMI HAZARDS
Journal of Tsunami Society International
Vol 36. No. 3, page 167 (2017)
2. 1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia has suffered from many tsunami disasters, especially in Sumatera Island. After the
destructive tsunami attacked at Aceh and Nias Island in 2004, several mitigation methods have
been implemented such as the development of evacuation routes, construction of escape buildings,
relocation of victim houses, and the utilization of buffer zones along the coastal areas. The buffer
zone with relatively densely populated vegetation may be classified as a permeable structure
prevention. Nowadays, this method is widely implemented at vulnerable tsunami regions due to its
relatively low cost and ease of maintenance.
A sustainable buffer zone (coastal forest) requires suitable vegetation for tsunami prevention
system. Mangrove as a natural barrier against tsunami is not suitable for sandy beaches and it
grows only in the estuary area (Hiraishi & Harada, 2003). On the contrary, the Casuarina
Equisetifolia species has been proven suitable for sandy beach type such as along Pacitan Bay in
southern Java Island (Muhari et al., 2012). A similar buffer zone can be found along Geureute
Valley in Aceh Jaya District as shown in Figure 1. Another type of coastal vegetation is Cocos
Nucifera (coconut palm) which is commonly grown in tropical areas.
Figure 1. Coastal vegetation at Aceh Jaya District (Source: Google Earth captured on September
29th
, 2015)
The devastating tsunami power depends on the height and the surge velocity, whilst the coastal
morphology affects the extent of such power on land. A mild slope beach allows the tsunami to
propagate further inland and may create great damage. The land use, especially with relatively
dense vegetation, has also an important role in protecting the beach against run-up and inundation.
The degree of such protection depends on tsunami scale. A large scale of tsunami attack such as
the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 at Banda Aceh, was capable of uprooting a lot of coastal
vegetation resulting in further inland inundation. During Tsunami 2004 disaster, the maximum
tsunami run-up was recorded at Leupung Beach, Aceh Besar District. Shibayama et al. (2005)
reported that the highest run-up reached 49.43 m in Ritieng Hill. This event was verified by
Lavigne et al. (2009) where their post-survey yielded 51 m at the same location. In the absence of
forest protection, the tsunami could have been even more severe.
Vol 36. No. 3, page 168 (2017)
3. Forbes & Broadhead (2007) mentioned that the effectiveness of tsunami mitigation offered by
various types of coastal forests depends on a number of parameters including forest width, tree
density, age, tree diameter, tree height, and species composition. Therefore, a quantitative
evaluation of coastal forest effectiveness against tsunami, especially in term of run-up and
inundation, is required for mitigation purposes. This can be done by using numerical simulation.
Figure 2. Sketch of tsunami run-up climbing up a sloping beach (the terminology is based on
UNESCO-IOC)
Run-up is the maximum vertical elevation of a point located on initially dry land that is
inundated by the waves Synolakis et al. (2005) as illustrated in Figure 2 and is the essential
parameter of tsunami hazards that directly related to inland destructions. Synolakis (1987) used the
shallow water wave equations to solve run-up problem on a sloping beach. He derived a run-up
law based on the physical model as shown in Eq. (1).
(1)
In Eq. (1), R refers to run-up, d is the undisturbed water depth, H is wave height at the shore,
and stands the slope angle. Eq. (1) may be used for a first approximation of tsunami run-up but a
comprehensive run-up study involving coastal land use such as the existence of coastal forest
using numerical simulation is required to determine more accurate run-up. A number of tsunami
run-up against coastal forests have been carried out for example by Harada & Kawata (2004) and
Yanagisawa et al. (2009). Basically, the effect of the forest was represented by using the Manning
roughness coefficient. Higher roughness coefficient represents higher density of the forest. Despite
their usefulness and efficiency in term of computer time, representing a forest barrier by Manning
roughness coefficient seems to have a drawback. The effect of the trees layout within the forest
and the effect of reflection may not be properly simulated which in turn may result in significantly
different run-up patterns and height. In this paper, an alternative method of modeling coastal forest
or similar barrier against tsunami run-up is proposed. The performance of the method is compared
with the other existing methods i.e. CRM and ERM methods.
2. TSUNAMI PROPAGATION THROUGH A FOREST
Mathematical models based on a set of Nonlinear Shallow Water Equation (NSWE) has been
widely used for tsunami simulation. A notable program that used second-order explicit leap-frog
finite difference scheme to discretize a set of NSWE was developed by Goto et al. (1997) and
Imamura et al. (2006). We rewrote the program in Visual Basic .Net where some additional input-
output facilities were added for convenience. The shallow water equations in Cartesian coordinate
are as follows Imamura et al. (2006).
(2a)
Vol 36. No. 3, page 169 (2017)
4. (2b)
(2c)
D = h + represents the total water depth, where h stands for the still water depth and denotes
the sea surface elevation. M and N are the mass fluxes in the x and y-direction, respectively.
(3a)
(3b)
Bottom friction in the x and y-direction are respectively represented by terms x and y, which is a
function of friction coefficient f. This coefficient can be computed from Manning roughness (n0)
by the following relationship.
(4)
Eq. (4) describes that the friction coefficient increases when the total water depth decreases.
Manning roughness is usually chosen as a constant for a given condition of the land surface. The
bottom friction terms are expressed by:
(5a)
(5b)
2.1. Constant Roughness Model
The Constant Roughness Model (CRM) which represents the effect of coastal forest based on
Manning roughness coefficient (n0) is widely used. Aida (1997), Kotani et al. (1998), and Latief &
Hadi (2007) used Manning coefficients of 0.040, 0.030, and 0.048, respectively for the coastal
forest. The variation of the above roughness coefficient suggests that the Manning coefficient
representing coastal forest is site specific.
2.2. Equivalent Roughness Model
Petryk & Bosmajian (1975) introduced an important concept to present the Manning roughness
form as hydraulic resistance. Based on their concept, Goto & Shuto (1983) and Aburaya &
Imamura (2002) developed the ERM method where the equivalent roughness (ne) can be defined
by the following equation.
(6)
where di and θ stand for the tree diameter and the percentage of the bottom area occupied by the
trees in a grid on the numerical domain, respectively and CD as drag coefficient. USAC (1984)
stated that CD value is a function of Reynolds number (Re).
if (7a)
if (7b)
if (7c)
FEMA (2003) suggested that the drag coefficient values should be between 1.25 and 2,
depending on the ratio between the width of a model and the flow depth. Yanagisawa et al. (2009)
Vol 36. No. 3, page 170 (2017)
5. also defined the CD value in Eq. (6) based on their investigation among several species such as
Rhizophora sp. and Bruguiera sp. Eq. (6) accommodates both the resistance force due to the forest
and the bottom friction to land use condition. The Equivalent Roughness Model (ERM) has been
used by Harada & Imamura (2000) to model tsunami propagation through a forest. It uses the
resistance of the coastal forest to represent the equivalent roughness. Besides that, Koshimura et
al. (2009) and Muhari et al. (2011) also implemented this method to simulate tsunami through
spaces between buildings at coastal area.
2.3. The Alternative Model for Tsunami Propagation through Forest
The effect of a forest on tsunami propagations is reflection over the trees’ trunk and flow
deceleration due to friction against the surface of the trees trunks, branches, and leaves. In the
model, the trees can be represented using hypothetical columns for simulating the reflection. The
effect of the friction against the surface of the trees’ trunks can be represented by using the
Manning roughness coefficient. Therefore, the proposed alternative method for simulating the
propagation of tsunami through a forest is by using a Manning roughness coefficient as if there is
no forest, but all the trees were simulated as vertical square columns. The size of the columns are
equals to the size of the trees’ trunk or slightly larger to accommodate the effect of the branches
and leaves.
ERMProposed Method
∆𝑥
Solid WallSolid Wall
Incident Wave Incident Wave
Figure 3. An extreme situation that shows the difference between the alternative method and the
ERM method.
The alternative method resulted in the changes of the flow direction because of the coastal
forest whereas the CRM and ERM methods reduce the flow through the coastal forest due to the
use of equivalent roughness. The effect of a solid wall as illustrated in Figure 3 clearly shows the
difference between the proposed alternative method and the existing methods. The figure shows
that the alternative model accommodates the total reflection process without run-up downstream
whilst the ERM method somehow produces run-up downstream of a solid wall.
3. RESEARCH PROCEDURE
The numerical model was applied to simulate a physical model of tsunami run-up on a 1:20
sloping beach in a flume for comparison. The flume was 15.00 m long x 0.60 m wide x 0.44 m
high. The flume area was divided into two sections where the upstream part was a 4 m long
reservoir (l0) of 0.20 m deep (d0) that was used as tsunami source whilst the downstream was a
sloping beach model. The tsunami was generated by using a dam break system as used by
Chanson (2005), Triatmadja & Nurhasanah (2012), and Triatmadja & Benazir (2014). At the
downstream area, until 3 m downstream of the gate the initial depth (d1) was 0.10 m after which
Vol 36. No. 3, page 171 (2017)
6. the water depth decreased due to the beach slope. Hence, the shoreline was 5 m downstream of the
gate. The arrangement of the model is depicted in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Area of tsunami simulation and the position of the forest model
initial downstream depth
Figure 4. Arrangement of tsunami simulation
The physical model has been carried out and was reported as shown in Figure 4 in Benazir et al.
(2016A) and (2016B).
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00
Run-up,R(m)
Inundation, Xi (m)
Sloping Beach 1:20 PH_d0 = 0.30|d1 = 0.1 PH_d0 = 0.25|d1 = 0.1
PH_d0 = 0.20|d1 = 0.1 PH_d0 = 0.15|d1 = 0.1 NU_d0 = 0.30|d1 = 0.1
NU_d0 = 0.25|d1 = 0.1 NU_d0 = 0.20|d1 = 0.1 NU_d0 = 0.15|d1 = 0.1
A
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00
Run-up,R(m)
Inundation, Xi (m)
Sloping Beach 1:20 PH(M10)_d0 = 0.30|d1 = 0.1 PH(M10)_d0 = 0.25|d1 = 0.1 PH(M10)_d0 = 0.20|d1 = 0.1
PH(M10)_d0 = 0.15|d1 = 0.1 NU(M10)_d0 = 0.30|d1 = 0.1 NU(M10)_d0 = 0.25|d1 = 0.1 NU(M10)_d0 = 0.20|d1 = 0.1
NU(M10)_d0 = 0.15|d1 = 0.1 PH(M15)_d0 = 0.30|d1 = 0.1 PH(M15)_d0 = 0.25|d1 = 0.1 PH(M15)_d0 = 0.20|d1 = 0.1
PH(M15)_d0 = 0.15|d1 = 0.1 NU(M15)_d0 = 0.30|d1 = 0.1 NU(M15)_d0 = 0.25|d1 = 0.1 NU(M15)_d0 = 0.20|d1 = 0.1
NU(M15)_d0 = 0.15|d1 = 0.1
B
Figure 5. (A) The relation between run-up and maximum inundation and (B) the effect of the
building against run-up based on the physical and numerical model. Higher and larger
buildings are indicated by larger symbol (Benazir et al. (2016A) and (2016B))
Vol 36. No. 3, page 172 (2017)
7. These results showed that the numerical model provides fairly consistent results with the
experimental data as indicated in Figure 5A. Besides that, the dimension of the square building
was found to be an important factor that affected the run-up height and the distance of the
inundation (Figure 5B). These findings confirmed that the numerical model results produced fairly
accurate tsunami run-up with or without obstacles on a sloping beach and hence may be used with
confidence to examine the tsunami run-up against the hypothetical coastal forest model.
3.1. Hypothetical Model of Coastal Forest
In order to evaluate the performance of the ERM method, CRM method and the proposed
alternative method, hypothetical forests of different densities and trees layout were selected for
simulations. The hypothetical forests model consisted of uniform square columns that represent
the trees that were high enough and above the tsunami water surface. The dimension of the model
of the tree was 0.02 m by 0.02 m. The hypothetical model layout is shown in Figure 6A. The
densities of the forests depend on the total area of the trees relative to the area of the forest.
Figure 6. The hypothetical model of coastal forest and its layout variations
The parameters for the simulation were given in Table 1. During the investigation, two layout
conditions were tested (Figure 6B-C). Both the uniform and the zigzag layouts have a total of 195
trees at G = 0.02 m and 90 trees at G = 0.04 m. The forests model front rows were at 0.10 m from
the shoreline.
Table 1. The model of hypothetical coastal forest
Length (m) Width (m) Diameter (m) Gap (m) Density Layout
0.50 0.60 0.02 0.02 25% uniform & zigzag
0.50 0.60 0.02 0.04 11% uniform & zigzag
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Tsunami Propagation on Sloping Beach without Forest Model
A typical tsunami heights at the shallow water region and at the land region are shown in
Figure 7A. The relative tsunami height (H/do) was approximately 0.22 at 1 m from the source or Xi
= -4 m seaward from the shoreline model. Along the horizontal bottom of the flume (Xi = -5 m to -
2 m) the tsunami height fluctuated with time as can be seen in Figure 7A. The total depth and the
maximum tsunami height at certain points along the flume which occurred at different time are
shown in Figure 7B. The solid line connecting each of the maximum tsunami height indicates the
envelope of maximum tsunami height along the flume.
Vol 36. No. 3, page 173 (2017)
8. 0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
H/d0
TIME (S)
1 m from source (Xi = -4 m)
2 m from source (Xi = -3 m)
3 m from source (Xi = -2 m)
4 m from source (Xi = -1 m)
shoreline (Xi = 0 m)
1 m from shoreline (Xi = +1 m)
2 m from shoreline (Xi = +2 m)
initialdownstream
shallowwaterlandregion
A
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
-5.00 -4.50 -4.00 -3.50 -3.00 -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50
MAXTSUNAMIHEIGHT(M)
BEACH PROFILE (M)
WITHOUT CF MODEL Beach Profile Initial Depth
B
Figure 7. (A) The tsunami heights measured at various positions as a function of time and (B) the
maximum tsunami height along the flume.
The performance of the methods related to the maximum run-up was tested using a variety of
the reservoir depth, d0. Figure 8 shows the corelation between the dimensionless tsunami height
(H/d) and the dimensionless run-up height (R/d), where d = 0.05 m is the undisturb water depth at
one meter distance from the shoreline model. The results match with Eq. (1), for H/d > 0.4. This
range of H/d is used for further experiment.
Vol 36. No. 3, page 174 (2017)
9. 0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10
R/d
H/d
Synolakis (1987) Numerical Data
Figure 8. The relation between non-dimensional parameter R/d and H/d together with the run-up
law (Eq. 1). Higher d0 is indicated by larger symbol
4.2. The Effect of Coastal Forest on Tsunami Run-up
Forests of uniform and zigzag layouts (plantation patterns) of different densities were used to
study the performance of CRM and ERM methods. The results of both methods are given in
Figure 9. It is indicated in the figure that the tsunami run-ups of these models were significantly
different. The ERM method produced lower run-up and hence less inundation than the CRM
method. The land inundation was affected by the gap size between the trees where the smaller gap
size yields lower run-up as expected. Besides that, the difference of the layouts also gives a
significant effect on run-up height. Using the ERM method, the uniform layout produced higher
run-up than the zigzag layout as can be seen in the figure (blue symbol). The CRM method, on the
other hand, produced almost the same run-up value irrespective of the forest layout as can be seen
in Figure 9.
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
-5.00 -4.50 -4.00 -3.50 -3.00 -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00
R(M)
Xi (M)
Sloping Beach (Without CF)
Beach Profile
Initial Depth
ERM | Uniform
ERM | Zigzag
CRM, n0 = 0.030 as used by Kotani et al.
(1988) | Uniform
CRM, n0 = 0.030 as used by Kotani et al.
(1988) | Zigzag
CRM, n0 = 0.040 as used by Aida (1977) |
Uniform
CRM, n0 = 0.040 as used by Aida (1977) |
Zigzag
CRM, n0 = 0.048 as used by Latief & Hadi
(2007) | Uniform
CRM, n0 = 0.048 as used by Latief & Hadi
(2007) | Zigzag
CRM
Figure 9. The run-up heights of CRM and ERM methods. Higher G is indicated by larger symbol
Theoretically, the zigzag layout may block the entire run-up path of the tsunami when there is
no gap between each row of the trees. Hence, all the tsunami energy will be reflected back to the
sea and no further run-up should exist behind the trees. As the gap between each row increases, the
Vol 36. No. 3, page 175 (2017)
10. run-up behind the trees existed but at a reduced quantity. It may be concluded that in this case, the
ERM is better than the CRM method in term of sensitivity against forest layout. The CRM method
produced higher run-up than the ERM method for all variations of the model.
4.3. The Performance of the Alternative Method
The alternative model was tested to simulate tsunami propagation through a hypothetical
coastal forest of 0.50 m long (along with the flume) and 0.60 m wide (across the flume). The tree's
diameter was 0.02 m whilst the gaps were 0.02 m and 0.04 m. These models represented very
dense forests which probably rarely happen. The selection of such densities was to make a clear
comparison between the performances of the methods. The snapshots of the model simulation
where the gap size was 0.02 m at zigzag layout are illustrated in Figure 10.
Figure 11. Snapshots of tsunami propagation along the numerical domain (left) and the water
fluctuations at the upstream and the downstream of the model (right) for the case of 𝐺 =
0.02 𝑚 of zigzag layout.
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
WATERFLUC(M)
TIME (S)
without protection
hypothetical CF | G = 0.02 m
hypothetical CF | G = 0.02 m | zigzag
hypothetical CF | G = 0.04 m
hypothetical CF | G = 0.04 m | zigzag
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
WATERFLUC(M)
TIME (S)
without protection
hypothetical CF | G = 0.02 m
hypothetical CF | G = 0.02 m | zigzag
hypothetical CF | G = 0.04 m
hypothetical CF | G = 0.04 m | zigzag
Figure 10. Snapshots of tsunami propagation along the numerical domain (left) and the water
fluctuations at the upstream and the downstream of the model (right) for the case of zigzag layout
with G = 0.02 m
The right side of Figure 10 shows that the water surface reduced over the distance of inundation
incursion. Note that the water level increased in front of the forest model due to the reflection by
the forest. The scale of the reflection and hence the backwater depends on the gap size and the
model arrangement. It may be said that the velocity of the water at the upstream of the model
decreased.
4.3.1.The Effect of Forest Layout against Tsunami Reduction
Figure 11 shows the tsunami water level at the maximum run-up at different layout (planting
pattern) of coastal forests. In order to examine the effect of the layout, two different layouts were
tested i.e. uniform and zigzag at constant gap size. The zigzag layout yields lower tsunami run-ups
Vol 36. No. 3, page 176 (2017)
11. than the uniform layout. The reflection due to the trees plays more important role than the friction
between the water and the surface trunk of the tree. Moreover, as the tsunami inundation decreased
at the downstream of coastal forest, both the velocity and the energy reduced.
-0.75
-0.50
-0.25
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
-5.00 -4.50 -4.00 -3.50 -3.00 -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00
HM/HM0
Xi (m)
G = 0.02 m G = 0.04 m G = 0.02 m | Zigzag G = 0.04 m | Zigzag Beach Profile Model Coastal Forest Initial Depth
Figure 11. Distribution of maximum tsunami height near the coastline
4.3.2.The Effect of Forest Density against Tsunami Height
In order to examine the effectiveness of the forest density in reducing tsunami run-up, a
dimensionless parameter HMdo/HM0 that represents the ratio between the maximum tsunami
height with and without forest model, are shown in Figure 12. In this case HMdo/HM0 was
measured at 0.10 m downstream of the forest model. In Figure 12, Vc/V represents the area of the
trees relative to the total area of the forest. As Vc/V increases, HMdo/HM0 decreases. This means
that the higher is the forest density the more effective is the forest in reducing tsunami as expected.
The effectiveness of the forest density increases more significantly for zigzag layout at high value
of Vc/V.
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22
HMdo/HM0
Vc/V
Uniform Layout Zigzag Layout
Figure 12. The effect of density variation over the maximum tsunami height behind the forest
model. The higher density is indicated by larger symbol
Vol 36. No. 3, page 177 (2017)
12. 4.3.3.Run-up and Inundation
The alternative method is in good agreement with the ERM method, especially for uniform
layout as shown in Figure 13. The figure shows that the smaller gap size (larger forest density)
produced lower run-up where more wave energy is reflected back to the sea. The alternative
method resulted in lower run-up than the ERM method for the case of the zigzag layout. With the
alternative method, the reflections of wave energy due to the trees were simulated better without
modifying the roughness. It seems that the effect of reflection was larger than the change of
roughness as simulated using ERM method as described further below.
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
-5.00 -4.50 -4.00 -3.50 -3.00 -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00
R(M)
Xi (M)
Sloping Beach (Without CF)
Beach Profile
Initial Depth
Proposed model | Uniform
Proposed model | Zigzag
ERM | Uniform
ERM | Zigzag
Figure 13. Tsunami run-up simulated using the alternative method and ERM method. The higher
G value is indicated by larger symbol
The ERM method and the proposed method were further tested for highly dense hypothetical
forest of zigzag layout. These were Case 1, Case 2, and Case 3 with 33%, 45.4%, and 50% of
forest densities respectively as can be seen in Figure 14. The 50% density of forest model totally
blocks the tsunami from propagating downstream as there is no space left for tsunami to flow
through.
Figure 14. The layout of zigzag models. The arrows indicate the direction of tsunami
The result of the simulation using the ERM method indicated that the tsunami run-up through
the forest of Case 1 was still relatively high as shown in Figure 15. Even with the hypothetical
forest of 50% density and layout that totally blocked the space, the run-up was still relatively high.
The alternative method yields more realistic result for 50% forest densities of the zigzag layout.
Theoretically, such a forest represents a solid wall that is water tight. While the alternative method
reflects the entire tsunami back to the sea (no run-up), the ERM method allowed for tsunami to
flow through the forest and even run-up on the beach. Hence, it may be said that the alternative
Vol 36. No. 3, page 178 (2017)
13. method performs better than both CRM and ERM methods. The drawback of the alternative
method, however, is clearly the much longer computational time as smaller grids should be
employed for the computation. The ERM method can be used in much larger cell grids since it
requires only the bottom roughness of land use information, and the percentage of forest
occupancy (see Muhari et al. (2011)).
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
-5.00 -4.50 -4.00 -3.50 -3.00 -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00
R(M)
Xi (M)
Sloping Beach (Without CF)
Beach Profile
Initial Depth
Proposed model_Case1 (density 33%)
Proposed model_Case2 (density 45.4%)
Proposed model_Case3 (density 50%)
ERM_Case1 (density 33%)
ERM_Case2 (density 45.5%)
ERM_Case3 (density 50%)
Figure 15. The relation of run-up against inundation for the zigzag case with different density
4.4. The Influence of Grid Size in Tsunami Simulation including Coastal Forest
Realizing the importance of certain variables namely gap size (G), grid size (x), tree diameter
(D), run-up with coastal forest (R), and run-up without forest model (R0), a dimensional analysis
was performed to group the variables into dimensionless parameters as can be seen in Figure 16.
Based on the figure, it may be concluded that the performance of the alternative method depends
on the ratio of grid size and the model size. A smaller grid size produces better result. However,
Figure 16 indicates that the difference between run-up was less than 3% even after refinement of
x2
/DG from 1.0 to 0.01 where x ≤ D.
0.614
0.616
0.618
0.620
0.622
0.624
0.626
0.628
0.630
0.632
0.634
0.636
0.000 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 1.000 1.100
R/R0
x2/DG
Figure 16. Correlation between the grid sizes in generating tsunami run-up based on the alternative
method. The larger x is indicated by larger symbol
Vol 36. No. 3, page 179 (2017)
14. 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The ERM method is better than the CRM method where the ERM somehow accommodates for
different types of forest layout. The alternative method is more accurate than both the CRM and
ERM methods when simulating tsunami run-up through the highly dense coastal forest. Even with
moderately high density (11%), the difference between the alternative method and the ERM is
significant, where the alternative method produced lower tsunami run-up. At much lower density,
however, the ERM and the proposed method are expected to produce a very similar result. The
alternative method is more time to consume, however, with the advancement of technology, it is
hoped that in the future such alternative method will be more applicable. For relatively low forest
density the ERM method is recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research was fully funded by Lembaga Pengelolaan Dana Pendidikan (LPDP) Kementerian
Keuangan Republik Indonesia via Scholarship of Indonesia Education (BPI). We would like to
express our sincere gratitude for the funding.
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