This document proposes a new index for assessing coral reef resilience based on data collected from line-intercept transects. The index was modified from an existing soil resilience index. Six variables were statistically selected as resilience indicators: coral functional group, coral habitat quality, sand-silt cover, coral cover, coral small-size number, and algae-other-fauna cover. Maximum values of five variables were determined as the best state, while the maximum value of coral small-size number was determined from 1240 data sets of Indonesian reefs. The resilience index performed well in relation to changes in coral cover, algae-other-fauna cover, and sand-silt cover. Managers can use this tool to
Ecological Marine Units: A New Public-Private Partnership for the Global OceanDawn Wright
Invited keynote for the 2017 Marine GIS User Group meeting held Thursday, May 25th at Stanford’s Hopkins Marine Station, 120 Ocean View Blvd., Pacific Grove, CA. The main web site for this user group is walrus.wr.usgs.gov/MontereyBayMarineGIS. The event page for the talk: https://hopkinsmarinestation.stanford.edu/events/dawn-wright-oregon-state-university-new-public-private-partnership-global-ocean
Do fine-scale factors shape the use of riparian galleries by carnivores in a ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Riparian galleries are key structural elements of Mediterranean landscapes and their importance for carnivores has been widely demonstrated. However, humanization of the landscape has led to their degradation with consequences not fully understood. In this study we assessed the response of mesocarnivores to the fine-scale variation in the quality of a riparian gallery (Vale do Cobrão stream, central Portugal), evaluated on the basis of the QBR index (‘Qualitat del Bosc de Ribera’ in spanish) and an adaptation of the same considering mesocarnivore ecological requirements. These were represented through four parameters that could influence habitat quality for these species, namely refuge (total riparian cover, cover structure), disturbance and food availability. For the latter we considered the known main food resources for Mediterranean mesocarnivores: small mammals, lagomorphs, insects and fruits. Mesocarnivore use was evaluated through camera-trapping and sign surveys. For both indexes a concordance was observed between quality variation and its use by carnivores, and we also found a positive correlation between both indexes. The adapted QBR, being more laborious but also more realistic, could serve as guidance for conservation practice at the local scale, benefiting both land managers environmentally concerned, conservation practitioners and carnivore populations inhabiting humanized landscapes. However, for spatially wider approaches the original QBR proved to be a good indicator for the presence of mesocarnivores, being useful in the development of restauration or conservation strategies, as well as for research and monitoring activities of carnivore guilds.
Ecological Marine Units: A New Public-Private Partnership for the Global OceanDawn Wright
Invited keynote for the 2017 Marine GIS User Group meeting held Thursday, May 25th at Stanford’s Hopkins Marine Station, 120 Ocean View Blvd., Pacific Grove, CA. The main web site for this user group is walrus.wr.usgs.gov/MontereyBayMarineGIS. The event page for the talk: https://hopkinsmarinestation.stanford.edu/events/dawn-wright-oregon-state-university-new-public-private-partnership-global-ocean
Do fine-scale factors shape the use of riparian galleries by carnivores in a ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Riparian galleries are key structural elements of Mediterranean landscapes and their importance for carnivores has been widely demonstrated. However, humanization of the landscape has led to their degradation with consequences not fully understood. In this study we assessed the response of mesocarnivores to the fine-scale variation in the quality of a riparian gallery (Vale do Cobrão stream, central Portugal), evaluated on the basis of the QBR index (‘Qualitat del Bosc de Ribera’ in spanish) and an adaptation of the same considering mesocarnivore ecological requirements. These were represented through four parameters that could influence habitat quality for these species, namely refuge (total riparian cover, cover structure), disturbance and food availability. For the latter we considered the known main food resources for Mediterranean mesocarnivores: small mammals, lagomorphs, insects and fruits. Mesocarnivore use was evaluated through camera-trapping and sign surveys. For both indexes a concordance was observed between quality variation and its use by carnivores, and we also found a positive correlation between both indexes. The adapted QBR, being more laborious but also more realistic, could serve as guidance for conservation practice at the local scale, benefiting both land managers environmentally concerned, conservation practitioners and carnivore populations inhabiting humanized landscapes. However, for spatially wider approaches the original QBR proved to be a good indicator for the presence of mesocarnivores, being useful in the development of restauration or conservation strategies, as well as for research and monitoring activities of carnivore guilds.
Biodiversity conservation and global changeMarco Pautasso
Botanic gardens, human well-being, tree species distribution shifts, invasive species, risk management, sea-level rise, climate according to Walter & Lieth, land use patterns, carbon emissions of conservation biologists, NIMBY, topography
Dr Camille Mellin presents the topic ‘Predicting coral reef biodiversity patterns for conservation: A confederacy of ecological scales’. For a short synopsis of her seminar read on.
Coral reefs are currently undergoing an unprecedented and world-wide decline. Rapid climate change, increased ocean temperature and changes to ocean currents are expected to reduce dispersal distances and the spatial scale of population connectivity. Connectivity may also be compromised by the increased fragmentation of reef habitat due to the effect of coral bleaching and ocean acidification. Species distribution models can provide an essential tool in support of management and coral reef conservation, provided they successfully incorporate the spatial scales of connectivity, and how they are likely to change in the near future.
Ecological Marine Units: A 3-D Mapping of the Ocean Based on NOAA’s World Oce...Dawn Wright
This webinar to the Ecosystem Based Management Tools Network, May 17, 2017, reported progress on the Ecological Marine Units (EMU) project, a new undertaking commissioned by the Group on Earth Observations, to develop a standardized and practical global ecosystems classification and map for the oceans. The EMU is comprised of a global point mesh framework, created from 52,487,233 points from the NOAA World Ocean Atlas. Each point has x, y, z, as well as six attributes of chemical and physical oceanographic structure (temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, silicate, phosphate) that are likely drivers of many ecosystem responses. We identify and map 37 environmentally distinct 3D regions (candidate ‘ecosystems’) within the water column. These units can be attributed according to their productivity, direction and velocity of currents, species abundance, global seafloor geomorphology, and more. A series of data products for open access will share the 3D point mesh and EMU clusters at the surface, bottom, and within the water column, as well as 2D and 3D web apps for exploration of the EMUs and the original World Ocean Atlas data. This webinar provided an overview of the EMU project and cover recent developments and future plans for the EMUs. Webinar recording at https://www.openchannels.org/webinars/2017/ecological-marine-units-3-d-mapping-ocean-based-noaas-world-ocean-atlas
Biodiversity conservation in fragmented landscapesMarco Pautasso
Biodiversity conservation in fragmented landscapes, the importance of habitat and landscape connectivity, resilience to abrupt climate changes, roadless areas, protected areas
Changes in benthic communities in the Middle Atlas springs (Morocco) and thei...Innspub Net
The sources of the Moroccan Middle Atlas suffer not only the effects of anthropogenic pressures, but also those of climate change whose impact is difficult to predict. Our goal is to better understand the succession of processions fauna of the upper Guigou. It is a compendium comparative between the benthic fauna collected towards the end of the years 70 (1979) in the sources Arbalou Abrchane, Tit Zil and the Wadi Guigou. As well as those harvested in the same sites, thirty-four years after. This revealed a significant drop in dissolved oxygen concentration decreased from 7.4 (mg/l) in 1979 to 2.52 (mg/l) in 2015. We have also raised an increase in the workload in chlorides and major elements. Benthic fauna, a significant change in population since 1979, with the appearance and installation of more than a dozen of taxa were identified (Simulium pseudoquinum, Gammarus gauthieri, Phagocata sp., Dugesia gonocephala). Some of these species have become invasive, such as Amphipod crustaceans Gammarus gauthieri, either very abundant as Simulium pseudoquinum. We note the effect “medium” for the direct selection of the species. Other indirect effects due to the reduction of the three dimensional biogenic structures would have limited recognizably State niches by polluo-sensitive species (Ephemeroptera, Heteroptera, Coleoptera and Trichoptera) and could contribute to the total disappearance of all order plecoptera in favour of a dominance of the polluo-tolerant species (Oligochaetes). Over a period of 35 years, there is a deterioration of the health of the aquatic ecosystem studied, a State of art reflected by a decline of the benthic community that lives there.
Report outlining the University of Adelaide and TERN's mapping of the ecological facets for continental Australia using globally consistent methods. The new maps capture the three major factors driving ecosystem formation-macroclimate, lithology and landform-with multiple spatial indicators. Vegetation structure has also been mapped and combined with the three indicators of ecosystem formation to produce 'ecological facets'.
Foraminiferal Approach to Palaeoenvironmental Interpretations: Case Study of ...Premier Publishers
Palaeoenvironmental analysis was carried out on eighty (80) ditch cutting samples of the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene sediments from two wells (well C consist of 13 samples collected at 30metres interval from depth range of 2410 -2770m while well F consists of 67 samples collected at 20metres from depth range of 2000-3320m) in the Northern Depobelt of the Tertiary Niger Delta. This study was carried out using standard micropalaeontological sample procedures and analysis as well as interpretation of the foraminiferal biofacies assemblages taking into consideration the qualitative and quantitative approaches. The qualitative method involved comparison of the recovered foraminifera with extant forms while the quantitative method involved the use of tau index, palaeowater depth (Pwd), percent of calcerous to arenaceous benthic foraminifera ratios (%FOBC: %FOBA), Fisher diversity and foraminifera/ ostracoda ratio. The palaeoenvironmental analysis indicates that the sediments were deposited in a non-marine to outer neritic environmental setting with salinity conditions fluctuating between normal marine and slightly hypersaline.
BENTHIC DIVERSITY MAPPING AND ANALYSIS BASE ON REMOTE SENSING AND SEASCAPE EC...IAEME Publication
Mapping of coral reef ecosystem by using remote sensing either from satellite
platform has been acknowledging as an essential tool. Seascape ecology is the study
of seascape patterns, interaction among patches within a seascape mosaic and how
these patterns and interactions change over time. The objectives of this study are to
produce a benthic map, measure the benthic diversity matrix and to compare the
diversity matrix among different seascape area at Parang Islands shallow waters in
the eastern part of Karimunjawa National Park, Indonesia. The high-resolution
satellite image that has been used in this study was from GeoEye-1 to map the
benthic. Fragstats is used to measure and analyze the diversity metric values for the
benthic consist of live coral, DCA, seagrass, etc. This research produces benthic
ecosystem map consists of eight benthic classes. The diversity metric index shows that
the southern seascape region of this island has the highest diversity
Phyto climatic gradient of vegetation and habitat specificity in the high ele...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Phyto-climatic gradient and ecological indicators can be used to understand the requirements, long term management and conservation strategies of natural habitats and species. For this purpose phytosociological attributes were measured using quadrats along transects on different slope aspects across an elevation range of 2450-4400 m. The 198 recorded plant species were placed in five Raunkiaer life form classes among which the Hemicryptophytes (51%) dominate the flora of the study area followed by Phanerophytes and Cryptophytes (Geophytes) with 15 and 13% dominance respectively. Therophytes and Chamaephytes are represented by smaller numbers (12 & 10% each). The phyto-climatic gradient of the vegetation was evaluated using Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Phyto-climatic relationships show that Phanerophytes especially tree species are widely distributed on northern aspect slopes whilst shrubs are more dominant on southern aspect slopes. Woody plants are dominant at lower altitudes (2450-2800 m), with a much smaller proportion occurring at middle elevations (2800-3300 m) whilst higher (3300-3900 m) and highest elevations (3900-4400 m) are dominated mainly by hemi-cryptophytes and cryptophytes. Our findings further elucidate that vegetation changes gradually from moist-cool temperate Phanerophytic and Chamaephytic elements to dry-cold subalpine and alpine herbaceous Cryptophytic and Hemi-cryptophytic vegetation in the upper elevations. Assessment of life forms and ecological gradient provide a basis for more extensive conservation studies on biodiversity in mountain ecosystems. Our findings further advocate that the Naran Valley appears to be at a transitional floristic position bridging the contrasting moist and dry temperate zones of the Sino-Japanese and Irano-Turanian floristic regions.
Trends in seagrass research and conservation in Malaysian watersAbdullaAlAsif1
The seagrass ecosystems found in the marine and coastal areas, with substantial economic and ecological services and span all over the globe excluding the Antarctic region. The Coral Triangle and Southeast Asia are recognized as a worldwide hotspot of seagrass species and habitats, encompassing 10-21 species of seagrass in every nation , although the study, understanding, and quantity of publications on seagrass ecosystems are rather limited in the region, including Malaysia. Malaysia contains 18 seagrass species from three families, which occupy 16.8 km 2 of coastal area, where the study and discovery of seagrass species and meadows began in 1904 with the report of Beccari. All of the published papers reviewed reported on Malaysian seagrass-related research, which was divided into nine topic groups: biology and distribution, carbon sequestration, fauna, remote sensing, impact and pollution genetic study, restoration , microbiological investigation, and others. The extensive study of the seagrass ecosystem began in 1993, and we have identified 183 published papers from Scopus, 141 publications from Web of Science, and 42 from Google Scholar. However, the average trend of the number of publications from 1993 to 1999 was 0.71 ± 0.36, while from 2000 to 2022 was 7.70 ± 1.16 followed by the average trend of the yearly number of publications was 6.78 ± 1.08. The highest number of publications was found on faunal categories (43.17%), followed by biology and distribution (21.85%). The number of articles that were published on Malaysian seagrass meadows each year has been discovered to be rising, which indicates that the trends in seagrass study and publishing were progressively garnering the attention of researchers, academics, and the government. However, to better understand the sustainable ecology and ecosystem services provided by seagrass habitats, an emphasis on certain research niches, such as the genetic study of flora and fauna in seagrass meadows, microbial ecology, and restoration as well as conservation of seagrass species might be helpful.
Biodiversity conservation and global changeMarco Pautasso
Botanic gardens, human well-being, tree species distribution shifts, invasive species, risk management, sea-level rise, climate according to Walter & Lieth, land use patterns, carbon emissions of conservation biologists, NIMBY, topography
Dr Camille Mellin presents the topic ‘Predicting coral reef biodiversity patterns for conservation: A confederacy of ecological scales’. For a short synopsis of her seminar read on.
Coral reefs are currently undergoing an unprecedented and world-wide decline. Rapid climate change, increased ocean temperature and changes to ocean currents are expected to reduce dispersal distances and the spatial scale of population connectivity. Connectivity may also be compromised by the increased fragmentation of reef habitat due to the effect of coral bleaching and ocean acidification. Species distribution models can provide an essential tool in support of management and coral reef conservation, provided they successfully incorporate the spatial scales of connectivity, and how they are likely to change in the near future.
Ecological Marine Units: A 3-D Mapping of the Ocean Based on NOAA’s World Oce...Dawn Wright
This webinar to the Ecosystem Based Management Tools Network, May 17, 2017, reported progress on the Ecological Marine Units (EMU) project, a new undertaking commissioned by the Group on Earth Observations, to develop a standardized and practical global ecosystems classification and map for the oceans. The EMU is comprised of a global point mesh framework, created from 52,487,233 points from the NOAA World Ocean Atlas. Each point has x, y, z, as well as six attributes of chemical and physical oceanographic structure (temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, silicate, phosphate) that are likely drivers of many ecosystem responses. We identify and map 37 environmentally distinct 3D regions (candidate ‘ecosystems’) within the water column. These units can be attributed according to their productivity, direction and velocity of currents, species abundance, global seafloor geomorphology, and more. A series of data products for open access will share the 3D point mesh and EMU clusters at the surface, bottom, and within the water column, as well as 2D and 3D web apps for exploration of the EMUs and the original World Ocean Atlas data. This webinar provided an overview of the EMU project and cover recent developments and future plans for the EMUs. Webinar recording at https://www.openchannels.org/webinars/2017/ecological-marine-units-3-d-mapping-ocean-based-noaas-world-ocean-atlas
Biodiversity conservation in fragmented landscapesMarco Pautasso
Biodiversity conservation in fragmented landscapes, the importance of habitat and landscape connectivity, resilience to abrupt climate changes, roadless areas, protected areas
Changes in benthic communities in the Middle Atlas springs (Morocco) and thei...Innspub Net
The sources of the Moroccan Middle Atlas suffer not only the effects of anthropogenic pressures, but also those of climate change whose impact is difficult to predict. Our goal is to better understand the succession of processions fauna of the upper Guigou. It is a compendium comparative between the benthic fauna collected towards the end of the years 70 (1979) in the sources Arbalou Abrchane, Tit Zil and the Wadi Guigou. As well as those harvested in the same sites, thirty-four years after. This revealed a significant drop in dissolved oxygen concentration decreased from 7.4 (mg/l) in 1979 to 2.52 (mg/l) in 2015. We have also raised an increase in the workload in chlorides and major elements. Benthic fauna, a significant change in population since 1979, with the appearance and installation of more than a dozen of taxa were identified (Simulium pseudoquinum, Gammarus gauthieri, Phagocata sp., Dugesia gonocephala). Some of these species have become invasive, such as Amphipod crustaceans Gammarus gauthieri, either very abundant as Simulium pseudoquinum. We note the effect “medium” for the direct selection of the species. Other indirect effects due to the reduction of the three dimensional biogenic structures would have limited recognizably State niches by polluo-sensitive species (Ephemeroptera, Heteroptera, Coleoptera and Trichoptera) and could contribute to the total disappearance of all order plecoptera in favour of a dominance of the polluo-tolerant species (Oligochaetes). Over a period of 35 years, there is a deterioration of the health of the aquatic ecosystem studied, a State of art reflected by a decline of the benthic community that lives there.
Report outlining the University of Adelaide and TERN's mapping of the ecological facets for continental Australia using globally consistent methods. The new maps capture the three major factors driving ecosystem formation-macroclimate, lithology and landform-with multiple spatial indicators. Vegetation structure has also been mapped and combined with the three indicators of ecosystem formation to produce 'ecological facets'.
Foraminiferal Approach to Palaeoenvironmental Interpretations: Case Study of ...Premier Publishers
Palaeoenvironmental analysis was carried out on eighty (80) ditch cutting samples of the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene sediments from two wells (well C consist of 13 samples collected at 30metres interval from depth range of 2410 -2770m while well F consists of 67 samples collected at 20metres from depth range of 2000-3320m) in the Northern Depobelt of the Tertiary Niger Delta. This study was carried out using standard micropalaeontological sample procedures and analysis as well as interpretation of the foraminiferal biofacies assemblages taking into consideration the qualitative and quantitative approaches. The qualitative method involved comparison of the recovered foraminifera with extant forms while the quantitative method involved the use of tau index, palaeowater depth (Pwd), percent of calcerous to arenaceous benthic foraminifera ratios (%FOBC: %FOBA), Fisher diversity and foraminifera/ ostracoda ratio. The palaeoenvironmental analysis indicates that the sediments were deposited in a non-marine to outer neritic environmental setting with salinity conditions fluctuating between normal marine and slightly hypersaline.
BENTHIC DIVERSITY MAPPING AND ANALYSIS BASE ON REMOTE SENSING AND SEASCAPE EC...IAEME Publication
Mapping of coral reef ecosystem by using remote sensing either from satellite
platform has been acknowledging as an essential tool. Seascape ecology is the study
of seascape patterns, interaction among patches within a seascape mosaic and how
these patterns and interactions change over time. The objectives of this study are to
produce a benthic map, measure the benthic diversity matrix and to compare the
diversity matrix among different seascape area at Parang Islands shallow waters in
the eastern part of Karimunjawa National Park, Indonesia. The high-resolution
satellite image that has been used in this study was from GeoEye-1 to map the
benthic. Fragstats is used to measure and analyze the diversity metric values for the
benthic consist of live coral, DCA, seagrass, etc. This research produces benthic
ecosystem map consists of eight benthic classes. The diversity metric index shows that
the southern seascape region of this island has the highest diversity
Phyto climatic gradient of vegetation and habitat specificity in the high ele...Shujaul Mulk Khan
Phyto-climatic gradient and ecological indicators can be used to understand the requirements, long term management and conservation strategies of natural habitats and species. For this purpose phytosociological attributes were measured using quadrats along transects on different slope aspects across an elevation range of 2450-4400 m. The 198 recorded plant species were placed in five Raunkiaer life form classes among which the Hemicryptophytes (51%) dominate the flora of the study area followed by Phanerophytes and Cryptophytes (Geophytes) with 15 and 13% dominance respectively. Therophytes and Chamaephytes are represented by smaller numbers (12 & 10% each). The phyto-climatic gradient of the vegetation was evaluated using Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Phyto-climatic relationships show that Phanerophytes especially tree species are widely distributed on northern aspect slopes whilst shrubs are more dominant on southern aspect slopes. Woody plants are dominant at lower altitudes (2450-2800 m), with a much smaller proportion occurring at middle elevations (2800-3300 m) whilst higher (3300-3900 m) and highest elevations (3900-4400 m) are dominated mainly by hemi-cryptophytes and cryptophytes. Our findings further elucidate that vegetation changes gradually from moist-cool temperate Phanerophytic and Chamaephytic elements to dry-cold subalpine and alpine herbaceous Cryptophytic and Hemi-cryptophytic vegetation in the upper elevations. Assessment of life forms and ecological gradient provide a basis for more extensive conservation studies on biodiversity in mountain ecosystems. Our findings further advocate that the Naran Valley appears to be at a transitional floristic position bridging the contrasting moist and dry temperate zones of the Sino-Japanese and Irano-Turanian floristic regions.
Trends in seagrass research and conservation in Malaysian watersAbdullaAlAsif1
The seagrass ecosystems found in the marine and coastal areas, with substantial economic and ecological services and span all over the globe excluding the Antarctic region. The Coral Triangle and Southeast Asia are recognized as a worldwide hotspot of seagrass species and habitats, encompassing 10-21 species of seagrass in every nation , although the study, understanding, and quantity of publications on seagrass ecosystems are rather limited in the region, including Malaysia. Malaysia contains 18 seagrass species from three families, which occupy 16.8 km 2 of coastal area, where the study and discovery of seagrass species and meadows began in 1904 with the report of Beccari. All of the published papers reviewed reported on Malaysian seagrass-related research, which was divided into nine topic groups: biology and distribution, carbon sequestration, fauna, remote sensing, impact and pollution genetic study, restoration , microbiological investigation, and others. The extensive study of the seagrass ecosystem began in 1993, and we have identified 183 published papers from Scopus, 141 publications from Web of Science, and 42 from Google Scholar. However, the average trend of the number of publications from 1993 to 1999 was 0.71 ± 0.36, while from 2000 to 2022 was 7.70 ± 1.16 followed by the average trend of the yearly number of publications was 6.78 ± 1.08. The highest number of publications was found on faunal categories (43.17%), followed by biology and distribution (21.85%). The number of articles that were published on Malaysian seagrass meadows each year has been discovered to be rising, which indicates that the trends in seagrass study and publishing were progressively garnering the attention of researchers, academics, and the government. However, to better understand the sustainable ecology and ecosystem services provided by seagrass habitats, an emphasis on certain research niches, such as the genetic study of flora and fauna in seagrass meadows, microbial ecology, and restoration as well as conservation of seagrass species might be helpful.
Benthic macrofaunal assemblage in seagrass-mangrove complex and adjacent ecos...AbdullaAlAsif1
Present study dealt with the on faunal and in faunal assemblage from seagrass bed, mangrove area, and adjacent non-mangrove and seagrass (NMS) in Punang-Sari estuary, Lawas, Sarawak, Malaysia. Samples were collected from June to July 2019 using quadrates and handpicking from the outside the sampling area to know the real checklist of surface macrofauna in this area. A ten-meter transect line was settled in three habitat areas where sampling was performed by putting three quadrates (0.35m×0.35m). Epifauna and infauna samples were collected from inside the quadrate and sieved using 0.4 mm mesh size sieve. A total of 111 species of gastropod (87 species from 30 families), bivalve (18 species from 9 families), Polychaeta (2 species), echinoderms (1 species), and crustacean (3 species) were recorded during the study period. Seagrass meadows comprised most diverse and abundant faunal (50 species) assemblage followed by mangrove habitats (48 species), and NMS (20 species). The dendrogram revealed two significant habitats in the sampling site. PCA analysis revealed, seagrass habitat sheltered a higher number of species followed by mangrove and NMS area. Jaccard similarity index revealed seagrass and mangrove habitats (0.42) contains the highest similar species amongst all habitats compared to mangrove and non-seagrass-mangrove area (0.26). Out of total species recorded (101), only ten species were reported as least concern, and 2 species hold deficient data status, and the rest are not evaluated. Bio-assemblage in seagrass habitat was found rich compared to other habitats, which could be useful for future ecological investigation and marine ranching.
Diversity and species composition of mangroves species in Pilar, Siargao Isla...Innspub Net
Mangroves are considered as the most significant components of the coastal ecosystem and among the most productive and biologically complex ecosystems on the planet. Assessment of mangrove species plays a critical role in the preservation and protection of the mangroves forest. The study aimed to assess the mangrove species in Pilar, Siargao Island. The belt transect was employed with a dimension of modified 10 m x 12 m and was installed per quadrat. Eight mangrove species were identified under four families, and these are B. sexanguela, C. decandra, R. apiculata, R. mucronata, A. alba, A. marina, L. littorea, and X. granatum. One species, C. decandra is categorized by the IUCN as a near-threatened state. Results from the mangroves vegetation structure show that R. apiculata got the highest relative frequency (26.32%), density (35.46%), and dominance (55.08%) therefore; it has the highest importance value (116.85%). This further implies that R. apiculata is the most important and acclimated mangrove species in the study area. The species diversity in Pilar, Siargao Island falls under very low diversity (H’=1.63) which might be attributed to some human-related disturbances. Thus, further consideration in future planning and conservation to increase the resiliency of the mangrove ecosystem is needed.
Freshwater gastropod diversity in the selected lotic environment, Betong, Sar...AbdullaAlAsif1
Freshwater Gastropoda can be considered as the biological indicator in ecosystems such as rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds. The objectives of this study are to identify freshwater gastropod species, diversity, and distribution along Sungai Penebak, Sungai Nanga Tiga, and Sungai Kabo in the Betong division. The study was conducted on 10 November 2020. A 50 m transect was laid on the riverbank of all three stations. The existing specimens were counted and collected from each sampling point and stored were taken to the laboratory for species identification. The diversity index and morphological study of freshwater gastropods were performed. Five species of freshwater gastropods belonging to four families were discovered. The five species of freshwater gastropods consisted of Sulcospira pageli, which shows great abundance, followed by Clea nigricans, Brotia costula, Pila ampullacea, and Vittina pennata. The diversity indices of collected Gastropoda species from the different stations, for instance, Shannon Weiner diversity index (H’), Pielou’s evenness index (J’), and Margalef’s richness index were assessed; where station 3 showed higher diversity of Gastropoda compared to other two stations. The information presented in this paper might be helpful for ecological wealth studies and considered as the baseline data for the stream ecosystem in Sarawak, Malaysia.
Status of seagrass ecosystem in Kauswagan, Lanao Del Norte and Laguindingan, ...Innspub Net
The study was conducted to determine the present status of seagrass resources of Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental and Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte and compared this through time with secondary data. It employed the transect-quadrat methods. Perpendicular to the shoreline, three (3) 100-m transect lines at 200-m interval between each transect were laid. Seven seagrass species were recorded comprising 38.6% of the total number (19) of seagrass species found in the Philippines. The seagrass community in all sites surveyed showed that it is highly dominated by Thalassia hemprichii species. However, there were no significant differences in species richness and diversity based on single-factor ANOVA statistical analysis (p>0.5). The abundance of T. hemprichii could probably be due to the prominent characteristic of this species where it could grow well in different types of habitat with various environmental conditions. The condition of seagrass beds in both areas were fair and the low Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index of seagrass in Kauswagan, Lanao del Norte (H’=0.76±0.22) and in Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental respectively (H’=0.40±0.35) indicate low stability in the community, which means that the condition of the seagrass ecosystem could be under threat, both from natural and anthropogenic activities. Over time, a fluctuating trend in species composition and a notable decline in seagrass species diversity and abundance have been observed in both areas. This present status calls an immediate response from the decision makers concerned for the sustainable management and conservation of the seagrass resources.
Reforestation is one of the Philippines’ government efforts to restore and rehabilitate degraded mangrove ecosystems. Although there is recovery of the ecosystem in terms of vegetation, the recovery of closely-linked faunal species in terms of community structure is still understudied. This research investigates the community structure of mangrove crabs under two different management schemes: protected mangroves and reforested mangroves. The transect-plot method was employed in each management scheme to quantify the vegetation, crab assemblages and environmental variables. Community composition of crabs and mangrove trees were compared between protected and reforested mangroves using non-metric multi-dimensional scaling and analysis of similarity in PRIMER 6. Chi-squared was used to test the variance of sex ration of the crabs. Canonical Correspondence Analysis was used to determine the relationship between crabs and environmental parameters. A total of twelve species of crabs belonging to six families were identified in protected mangroves while only four species were documented in reforested mangroves. Perisesarma indiarum and Baptozius vinosus were the most dominant species in protected and reforested mangrove, respectively. Univariate analysis of variance of crab assemblage data revealed significant differences in crab composition and abundance between protected mangroves and from reforested mangroves (P<0.05).><0.05).Environmental factors and human intervention had contributed to the difference in crab assemblages in mangrove ecosystems.
UNVEILING MEIOFAUNA DIVERSITY: A STUDY OF COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND ABUNDANCE I...indexPub
Serangan Island is a small island that administratively located in South Denpasar District, Town of Denpasar, and Province of Bali. All of Serangan Island region stated as a village that named Serangan Village which have 4435 peoples. Because Serangan Island is tourist destination, so Serangan Island certainly exposed by tourism development process. As a part of tourism development process is shore reclamation process, an effort to widening Land of Serangan Island which has occured in 1997.
Diversity and abundance of Macrobenthos in a subtropical estuary, BangladeshAbdullaAlAsif1
Soft bottom macrobenthos are important component of the marine and coastal trophic chain. There has been sparse information regarding the distribution of soft bottom macrobenthos form the coastal water of Bangladesh. Consequently, the present study was an effort to reveal the diversity and abundance of macrobenthos in the Feni Estuary in a seasonal pattern together with the hydrological factors. A total of 17 taxa families of soft-bottom invertebrates were found over the two sampling seasons. The current study yielded a total number of 34,726 ind./m 2 (mean 2480ind./m 2) including 18,909ind./m 2 in wet season (mean 2682ind./m 2) and 15,817 ind./m 2 in dry season (2259ind./m 2). The highest density of soft-bottom invertebrates was in the wet season while the lowest number in the dry season. A total of 5 groups of macrobenthos were found over the two sampling seasons. The dominant group was Polychaeta that contributed 43.60% of the total soft-bottom invertebrates. The values of biodiversity indices were higher in dry season compare to the wet season in most of the sampling station during the study period.
Research Proposal - Are the Adélie penguin, Pygoscelis adeliae, populations w...ElizabethHowarth1
Rational - The focus on this study is to evaluate how the population size and health of Adélie penguin, Pygoscelis adeliae, colonies at Cape Royds, Cape Bird and Cape Crozier have changed over time, especially in relation to the Ross Sea region Marine Protected Area, MPA, established in 2017 and considering major environmental and biological factors that could have an effect on these populations. We will continue to collect new data annually to look at any affects the Ross Sea region MPA is having on these populations. Using data about population sizes of colonies and health of individuals from within the colonies, we will evaluate the overall health of the colonies and predict how we expect them to change in the near future. This is an important study as P. adeliae are an indicator species for their local ecosystem – the health of the penguin colonies reflects the health of the local ecosystem.
Spatial Mapping: Diversity and Distribution of Demersal Fish in the Southern ...robert peranginangin
In the future, fisheries management must not be based on biomass measure only, but must use an integrated ecosystem approach. This study was aimed to discover the species diversity level of demersal fish resources in spatial distribution and its relation to the environment. The study was conducted in May and June 2015 by operating a trawl in the assigned stations. The spatial distribution was based on the Bray-Curtis index which divided the distribution of demersal fish resources into three clusters. Inshore sites of Kalimantan’s western waters (KLBR) was dominated by Leognathidae, inshore sites of the eastern of Riau Islands waters (KPRI) was dominated by Lutjanidae, and offshore sites of the southern of South China Sea (SSCS) was dominated by Nemipteridae. Offshore sites of the southern of South China Sea (SSCS) had a much better community stability level than that of inshore sites of Kalimantan’s western waters (KLBR) and inshore sites of the eastern of Riau Islands waters (KPRI). This study also demonstrated that environmental factors such as depth, sediment type, salinity, and temperature, affect the distribution and species diversity of demersal fish communities in the southern of South China Sea.
Species composition of benthic macroalgae in the coastal areas of Surigao Cit...Innspub Net
This study aimed to determine the species composition of the benthic macroalgae in relation to the environmental parameters in one of the coastal areas in Surigao City, Philippines. It is conducted along the coasts of Barangay Day-asan with established three stations. The macroalgae species were observed and collected using line transect method. The water quality parameters were obtained in situ using water quality apparatus and the species composition were determined through diversity indices such as Shannon H, dominance and evenness and abundance. There were six (6) species observed in the study site. Sargassum polycystum is the most abundant and is present in three stations. As to diversity indices, the benthic macroalgae has a moderate category in terms of Shannon H, low dominance and almost a uniform distribution of species in all three stations. The coastal water parameters of Barangay Day-asan passed the DAO standards and still within the limits and ranges based on the diversity indices of Shannon H, dominance and evenness. Depth has a strong correlation to Codium fragile and pH to Amphiroa fragillissima and Halimeda opuntia. As indicated by the diversity indices of the benthic macroalgae species composition, the coastal water of Barangay Day-asan has still a suitable environmental condition for their growth. Hence, it is recommended to have strong information, education and communication environmental campaign and policies for locals and tourists as ecotourism starts to kick off in the locality to ensure sustainable conservation and protection of the natural environment with benthic macroalgae as good bioindicators.
Species Diversity and Above-ground Carbon Stock Assessments in Selected Mangr...Innspub Net
Mangrove ecosystems are known for being the rainforest of the sea. Philippines is bestowed with this naturally rich mangrove ecosystem with diverse floral and faunal species. Despite this natural abundance, mangrove ecosystems are subjected to natural and human induced degradations specifically conversion to fish shrimp ponds that resulted in diminution aside from its effect on terrestrial and oceanic carbon cycling and could also affect its important role in terms of terrestrial and oceanic carbon cycling. This study is conducted to determine
the mangrove diversity, distribution and the above-ground biomass and C-stocks in Glan and Malapatan, Sarangani Province. Purposive sampling is implemented in establishing the plots on both sites. Results show eight (8) mangrove species belonging to four (4) families are observed in both areas. Data also reveal that the mangrove ecosystem in Glan Padidu, Glan is undisturbed. Rhizophora apiculata and Sonneratia alba are found to be dominant on the two sites. Because of the large tree girths and high density of species observed on the studied areas, both forests have the potential to sequester and store large amount of atmospheric carbon. Thus, this study quantifies mangrove tree biomass in view of carbon trading as significant in lessening the effects of global warming.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.
OSJ 2019 : Practical Resilience Index for Coral Reef Assessment
1. Available online at http://link.springer.comOcean Sci. J. (2019)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12601-019-0002-1
pISSN 1738-5261
eISSN 2005-7172
Article
Practical Resilience Index for Coral Reef Assessment
Imam Bachtiar1,2
*, Suharsono2
, Ario Damar3
, and Neviaty P. Zamani4
1
Department of Math and Science Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, University of Mataram, Kota Mataram
83125, Indonesia
2
Department of Magister Pendidikan IPA, Program Pascasarjana, University of Mataram, Kota Mataram 83125, Indonesia
3
Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jakarta 12710, Indonesia
4
Department of Aquatic Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Bogor Agricultural University, West Java
16680, Indonesia
5
Department of Marine Science and Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Bogor Agricultural University, West Java
16680, Indonesia
Received 14 January 2018; Revised 9 May 2018; Accepted 27 September 2018
KSO, KIOST and Springer 2019
Abstract Assessing coral reef resilience is an increasingly
important component of coral reef management. Existing coral reef
resilience assessments are not practical, especially for developing
countries.South-eastAsiancountrieshavebeenusingline-intercept-
transect (LIT) in coral reef monitoring for a long time. The present
studyproposesanindexforassessingcoralreefresiliencebasedon
data collected from the LIT method. The resilience index formula
was modified from an existing resilience index for soil communities
developed by Orwin and Wardle. We used an ideal resilient coral
reef community as a reference point for the index. The ideal coral
reefwasdefinedfromdatacollectedfrom1992to2009.Sixvariables
were statistically selected for the resilience indicators: coral functional
group (CFG), coral habitat quality (CHQ), sand-silt cover (SSC),
coral cover (COC), coral small-size number (CSN), and algae-
other-fauna (AOF) cover. Maximum values of five variables were
determinedasthebeststate,whilethemaximumvalueofCSNwas
determinedfrom1240data-setsofIndonesianreefs.Theresilience
index performed well in relation to changes in COC, AOF, and SSC
variables. Managers can use this tool to compare coral reef resilience
levels among locations and times. This index would be applicable
for global coral reef resilience assessment.
Keywords recovery, food security, reef health, indicators,
monitoring
1. Introduction
Coral reef ecosystems are increasingly affected by global
climate change (Kleypas et al. 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg et al.
2007) and human-induced stress and disturbances (Jackson
1997;Jacksonetal.2001).Coralreefmanagementcanmitigate
the potential impact of these disturbances by improving
coralreefresilience(Hughesetal.2007;Hoegh-Guldberget
al. 2007) regardless of its ecological limitations (Mora et al.
2016). Ecological resilience in terms of capacity to recover
from disturbance to the same level of organization (Holling
1973) is increasingly important in coral reef management.
The theory of resilience has improved to the point where it
should be able to be implemented in coral reef management
practices (Nystrom et al. 2008).
Resilience assessment of coral reef ecosystems, however,
is still at a development stage (Lam et al. 2017). At present,
two methods have been available for measuring coral reef
resilience.OburaandGrimsditch(2009)providedacomprehensive
method which included 61 variables and 5 protocols. This
large number of variables and protocols requires significant
financial support and considerable expertise, unlikely to be
available in developing countries. Maynard et al. (2010)
developed a more practical method in assessing coral reef
resilience.Thisonly needsa discussionforum tocollectdata
based on the personal judgment ofmanagers, scientists, policy
makers, and other important stakeholders. This method could
be very practical in many countries, but it needs people with
sufficient knowledge in coral reef ecology. In many developing
countries where coral reef scientists are rare, the Maynard
method might still be hard to implement. McClanahan et al.*Corresponding author. E-mail: imambachtiar@unram.ac.id
2. 2 Bachtiar, I. et al.
(2012) listed 11 key factors of coral reef resilience, but how
thefactorswillbeusedinmanagementisnotyetformulated.
Cumming et al. (2016) reviewed resilience theory on social-
ecological systems that might be very difficult to use in
managementbecauseofitscomplexity.Anewpracticalresilience
assessment is therefore needed for coral reef management in
developing countries with few coral reef ecologists.
The aim of the present study was to formulate an index for
assessing the resilience state of a coral reef ecosystem using
multivariate data extracted from line intercept transects
(LIT). LIT has been widely used and extensively learned
about in the region of ASEAN countries, including Indonesia
(English et al. 1994; Suharsono 2008). This method would
be practical in resilience assessment of the ASEAN countries.
Despite the range of multivariate data available from LIT
(Marsh et al. 1984; English et al. 1994), the majority of
extracted data is merely living coral cover (%). Coral reef
managers mostly did not knowhow to integrate multivariate
data into a single interpretation of the quality of a coral reef
ecosystem. Lam et al. (2017) found that existing coral reef
resilience assessment and monitoring programs differ as
much as 75%. Here, we show that data collected on an
ordinary monitoring program can also be used in resilience
assessment. Coral reef resilience is defined as recovery
potential to a coral predominated community. When using
the resilience index developed in the present study, a coral
reef manager will be working with multivariate data but
interpreting them in a univariate way.
2. Methods
Data collection
The present study used monitoring data collected by the
Research Center of Oceanography (RCO), Indonesian Institute
of Sciences (Bahasa Indonesia, LIPI). All the collected data
were taken from LIT methods by trained- and supervised-
researchers of the same institution. Data were collected
within the period of 1992–1998 and 2009; all 1240 transects
were 10 m length. This long period may provide samples of
the best and the worst coral reefs resilience levels in Indonesia.
In the first period LIT were laid at various depths, from 3 to
15 m; in the second period LIT were at ~5 m depth. All
positions of transect sites in 2009 were recorded aboard
using GPS (Global Positioning System).
Theresilienceindexcalculationisbasedonatransectunit.
TheLITdatausedinthepresentstudycouldspatiallyrepresent
the coral reefs of Indonesian waters (Fig. 1). Data collected
in 2009 encompassed coral reefs of the Indian Ocean (Tapanuli
Tengah, Nias, Nias Selatan, Mentawai), Indonesian Seas
(Sunda Strait, Karimata Strait, Makassar Strait, Java Sea,
Fig. 1. Locations of data collection used in the present study. Locations with green background showed data collected in 1992–1998,
light-brown background showed data in 2009
3. Practical Resilience Index for Coral Reef Assessment 3
FloresSea,ArafuraSea),South ChinaSea (Natuna,Bintan),
and Pacific Ocean (Biak, Raja Ampat). The older data
(1992–1998) added locations at the Java Sea (Seribu Islands,
Karimun Jawa), Sunda Strait (Bakahauni, Merak) and Raja
Ampat.Theolderdataprovidedsomereferencetoearliercoral
reef conditions when anthropogenic impacts were smaller
and the intervals between natural disturbances (bleaching)
were longer. These data were all used to compose the “resilient
coral reef” as the reference point in the formulation of the
resilience index.
Data analysis
The coral reef resilience index used in this study was a
modificationofthesoilcommunityresilienceindexdeveloped
by Orwin and Wardle (2004). The modification included
redefining indicator variables and constructing a single
reference (control) community. The original formula of the
Orwin and Wardle (2004) index was
RSt = Resiliece index at t, D0 = difference between before and
after disturbance at control community, Dx = differerence
between before and after disturbance at impact community.
The ecological index modification has two main processes,
i.e. determining indicator variables and building the formula.
Indicator variables were identified from a literature review
and classified into six resilience components: biological
legacy, structural legacy, and mobile link (Lundberg and
Moberg 2003), coral reef regimes (productivity), herbivory,
and water quality. These variables are briefly discussed in
this paper and listed in Table 1.
(a) Biological legacy, i.e. surviving coral colonies. It has
been long understood that coral species exhibit different
resistance to the same disturbance (Brown and Suharsono
1990; Ninio and Meekan 2002). Surviving colonies could
enhance recolonization of opened spaces from both larvae
produced (Miller and Mundy 2003; Starger et al. 2010) and
vegetative propagation (Golbuu et al. 2007; Williams et al.
2008). Biological legacy is therefore related to biological
diversity (Peterson et al. 1998) and larval dispersal. In the
present study, diversity at genera level (coral genera
richness, CGR) and functional level (coral functional group,
CFG) were used to represent biological diversity. Species
richness is hard to determine on LIT since coral taxonomists
are rare in many developing countries (Erdinger and Risk
RSt
2 D0
D0 Dx +
------------------------------- 1–=
Table 1. Indicator variables used in development of the coral reef resilience index
Components Variables Unit Justifications References
a) Biological legacy
(Biodiversity)
Coral genera richness (CGR) # genera High resistance, surviving
colonies contribute to sexual
and asexual recruitment
Miller and Mundy (2003);
Williams et al. (2008);
Starger et al. (2010)
Coral functional group (CFG) # life form Functional diversity augment
robust community
Bellwood et al. (2004)
b) Structural legacy
(Complexity)
Coral massive and sub-mas-
sive cover (CMS)
% CM+CS covers High resistance, high habitat com-
plexity, but low water quality
Erdinger and Risk (2000);
Ninio and Meekan (2002)
Unsuitable settlement
substrate (SSC)
% sand and silt covers Inhibit coral settlement and
growth
Hodgson (1990);
Babcock and Davies (1991)
c) Mobile link
(Recruitment)
Coral colony size (CCS)
classes; 10 cm interval
#size classes Continuing recruitment
increase recovery
Peterson et al. (1998)
Coral small-size colonies
(CSN); D 10 cm
#small colonies Existing recruitment enhance
recovery
Van Moorsel (1985);
Golbuu et al. (2007)
d) Productivity
(Regimes)
Coral cover (COC) % coral cover Healthy coral reef, high
productivity
Done (1992); Hughes (1994)
Algal total cover (ATC) % algal cover Unhealthy reef, low herbivory Done(1992);Hughes(1994);
Bahartan et al. (2010)
Other fauna cover (OTF) % OTF cover Unhealthy reef, low productivity Tkachenko et al. (2007);
Cruz et al. (2016)
e) Herbivory Macroalgal cover (AMC) % cover Unhealthy reef, low herbivory Hughes et al. (2007);
Roff and Mumby (2012)
f) Water quality Coral acroporiid cover (CAC) % acroporidae cover Good water quality, rapid
recovery, but low habitat
complexity
Done (1982);
Erdinger and Risk (2000);
Roff and Mumby (2012)
4. 4 Bachtiar, I. et al.
2000). It is assumed that adequate coral larval recruitment
will occur with sufficient coral colonies.
(b) Structural legacy, i.e. habitat complexity and settlement
substrate availability. A complex habitat provides a suitable
substrateforlarvalsettlement,hostsfishdiversity(Wilsonet
al. 2007), and maintains herbivory processes (Ledlie et al.
2007). Previous studies measured habitat complexity using
a spatial index (Rogers et al. 1983), surface index (Robert
andOrmond1987),orvisualassessment(Wilsonetal.2007). In
thepresentstudy,habitatcomplexitywasindicatedbyabundance
of massive- and sub-massive- corals (CMS). Both coral life
forms are structurally resistant to biological and physical
disturbanceswhenothercorallifeforms(branching,foliose,
encrusting, etc.) become rubble. Availability of settlement
substrate is also very important to facilitate sexual coral
recruitment. Measuring unsuitable settlement substrate (USS)
is easier than the opposite, since some suitable settlement
substrates may have been temporarily occupied by benthic
community.
(c) Mobile link, i.e. incoming mobile organism. Planulae
larvae are one of the important mobile link organisms that
facilitate coral recolonization.Incoming fish and other benthic
larvae and juveniles are also important but indirectly related
to coral recolonization and therefore do not directly affect
coral reef recovery. In the present study, coral colony size
was chosen as an indicator of incoming coral recruitment.
When recruitment is continuing, the range of the coral colony
sizeshouldbewide.Thisconditioncouldbeindicatedbythe
number of colony size classes (coral colony size-classes,
CCS), at 10 cm intervals. The abundance of the smallest
colony size ( 10 cm) could also indicate current coral
recruitment. Indicator variable of coral small-size number
(CSN) is chosen to represent the mobile link, coral recruitment
or colonization. Marsh et al. (1984) provided a formula for
measuring colony diameter on a line transect which is too
complex for coral reef managers. In this study, colony size
was defined as the length of colony size at the intercept. This
approach would not affect the results of the study as colony
size measurement was not one of the objectives. Confounding
data on CSN might happen whether it comes from recruitment
or coral fragment. This could also be neglected since index
as an ecological indicator will be working on a macro scale
instead. McClanahan et al. (2012) also recognized coral size
distribution as important factor in coral reef resilience.
(d) Intensity of herbivory is an important factor controlling
algal abundance on reefs. Using herbivorous fishes as an
indicatorvariableofherbivoryintensity,however,mightnot
be very appropriate. Phase-shift could happen without
reduction on herbivorous fishes abundance, e.g. in the Great
Barrier Reefs (Cheal et al. 2010). Important herbivores are
dependent on the composition of the algal community (Fox
and Bellwood 2008; Hoey and Bellwood 2008). Redundancy
of herbivory roles between herbivorous fishes and sea urchins
could also vary among locations (Carpenter 1990). A coral
reef could still maintain its resilience in conditions of low
abundance of herbivorous fishes, when sea urchins are
sufficiently abundant (Hughes 1994). Furthermore, important
herbivory could be carried out by non-herbivorous fishes,
such as Platax pinnatus (Bellwood et al. 2006). In the present
study, abundance of macroalgae (AMC) and total algal
abundance (ATC) were used as indicator variables of
herbivory. Both indicator variables could represent the impact
of herbivory intensity and nutrient availability (Littler et al.
2006).
(e) Ecosystem productivity. Coral reefs exhibit multi-stable
states with different productivity levels. Highly productive
coral dominated communities could shift into alternate
stable states which are predominated by macroalgae (Hughes
1994), soft corals (Fox et al. 2003), or anemone (Tkachenko
et al. 2007). Indicator variables that represent the productivity
of a coral reef ecosystem are COC (coral cover), OTF (other
fauna cover), and ATC(algae totalcover). A high productivity
coral reef should be high in COC but low in OTF and ATC
variables.
(f) Waterquality.Whiletemperature,chlorophyllandturbidity
can be easier to measure than nutrients and contaminants in
reef waters, they still require more specialized equipment
and training, difficult to access in a developing country. To
simplify assessment, a bioindicator can be chosen to represent
waterquality.ParticularcoralspeciessuchasAcroporahave
been linked with good water quality (Done 1982; Erdinger
and Risk 2000). Thus the cover acroporid corals (CAC)
were used as an indicator variable of good water quality.
Among the 11 variables in Table 1, there were variables
thatneedtobecombined.Therewerevariableshavingsmall
abundance but high variances, i.e. algae total cover (ATC),
macroalgae cover (AMC), and other fauna cover (OTF).
These variables are ecologically important but statistically
too small to detect their effect. ATC, AMC and OTF variables
were therefore combined as one variable AOF (algae and
other fauna) so that its importance will not be neglected in
statistical analysis.
5. Practical Resilience Index for Coral Reef Assessment 5
There were also variables with contrasting characteristics.
Coralmassive+sub-massive(CMS)coverandcoralacroporid
cover (CAC) play different roles in ecosystem resilience.
High CMS cover could indicate high coral reef complexity
butitcouldalsoindicatepoorerwaterqualityandslowrecovery.
Massive and sub-massive corals found on inshore reefs are
relatively tolerant to low water quality from sedimentation
and land-based pollution (Erdinger and Risk 2000). In contrast,
high CAC could indicate less coral reef complexity but also
indicates rapid recovery (Ninio and Meekan 2002). Both
CMS and CAC are equally important in determining coral
reef resilience.
Combining CMS and CAC into a single variable CHQ
(coral habitat quality) needs a special approach, based on
existing studies on Indo-Pacific reefs. Cumulative coverage
of CMS and CAC has a maximum value of 100%. It was
therefore assumed that the best resilience of a coral reef
would be composed of 50% of CMS and 50% of CAC. This
composition ensures rapid coral recovery as CAC (Ninio
and Meekan 2002) promotes high growth rates and adaptation
(Guest et al. 2016), and CMS promotes habitat complexity
by maintaining the abundance and diversity of herbivorous
fishes(Ledlieetal.2007;Guestetal.2016).CHQismathematically
calculated as follows:
CAC=coral Acropora cover, CMC=coral massive cover,
CSC=coral sub-massive cover
Algal and other fauna (AOF) was defined to integrate
AMC,ATCandOTF.DataofIndonesiancoralreefsshowed
that each AMC, ATC and OTF variables have a very high
coefficientofvariability,i.e.349%,87%,and140%respectively.
The three variables were then pooled into a new variable,
AOF, which is the sum of total algal cover (ATC) and other
fauna cover (OTF). Macroalgal cover (AMC) is part of the
ATC. They were separately measured as different variables
since macroalgae predominance has been shown to be the
most common phase shift condition on coral reefs (Hughes
1994; Hughes et al. 2007).
Statistical analysis was applied to refine indicator variables.
Pearsoncorrelationindexwascalculatedtoidentifyredundancies
among variables. Non-parametric multivariate statistics, BEST
(Biological Environmental STepwise) analysis was applied
to find the best combinations in variable reduction for
several correlated variables. BEST is a multivariate tool to
select environmental variables or species that best explain
community pattern. Reduction of the number of variables
could be carried out using BEST analysis, as long as its
correlation coefficient is higher than 95% (Clarke et al. 2008).
Prior to data analysis, data were transformed into log (x + 1)
and normalized, since some variables had different scales.
PCA (Principal Component Analysis) was performed to
weight each indicator variable based on its contribution to
the first principal component, as suggested in Primpas et al.
(2010). All multivariate statistics were carried out using
Primer 6 version 6.1.13 software.
3. Results
Refining indicators
After grouping the five indicator variables (CAC and
CMS as CHQ; AMC, ATC, and OTF as AOF), there were 8
remaining indicator variables of coral reef resilience. Among
these, three variables were interdependently related, i.e. COC,
AOF and SSC. Potentially, coverage of COC and AOF is
dependent on the coverage of SSC, i.e. sand and silt covers.
Maximum cover of COC and AOF is 100%, when SSC is
zero. The maximum cover of COC and AOF decreases with
increasing SSC.
Among 8 indicator variables of the resilience index, many
variables showed significant correlation, as the number of
data was robust (N = 1240 transects). Two pairs of variables
showed a considerably high correlation index. Correlation
indices between CFG and CGR was 0.691, and between
COC and CCS was 0.833 (Table 2). The number of variables
needs to be reduced, to avoid redundancy and to improve its
applicability without significant reduction in the quality of
the index.
BEST analysis provided combinations of seven and six
variables that may be used to reduce the number of variables.
The highestpriority for omissionisthe coralgenera richness
(CGR) due to difficulties in underwater genera identification.
From the BEST combinations (Table 3), while six or seven
variables do not reduce the performance very much, in contrast
thereisahugedifferenceintheeffortspentonmeasurement.
It was decided to omit CGR and CCS from indicators of
coral reef resilience. Leaving out CGR and CCS variables
the index still maintained representativeness of each resilience
component, CFG represents biodiversity and CSN represents
mobile link resilience components.
CHQ CAC* CMC CSC+ =
6. 6 Bachtiar, I. et al.
Defining a reference community
An ideal ‘resilient’ coral reef must be set up as a reference
community of the index. It must show a maximum value of
resilience index, which happens when it has maximum
values in all six indicator variables. On the other hand, a
‘non-resilient’coralreefmusthaveaminimumvalueofindex.
Amongthesixindicatorvariables,themaximumandminimum
theoretical values of five variables are known. Coral cover
(COC), for example, theoretically has a minimum and
maximumvalueof0.00and100.00%respectively(Table4).
Coral functional group (CFG), i.e. coral life form, theoretically
between 0–13 groups, as it has been standardized in English
et al. (1994). The theoretical maximum value of one variable,
CSN, however, was not known. The maximum value of
CSN was therefore determined from 1240 transects. Since
its maximum value from transects was 23 colonies, the
maximum value of CSN was set up at 25, which has a very
low probability of occurrence (0.048%).
Formulating resilience index
The coral reef resilience index uses a single reference
community, the ideal resilient coral reef community, i.e. a
community with the best (maximum) values in all n indicator
variables. Orwin-Wardle index modification resulted in a
coral reef resilience index as described in Eq. 1.
(1)
RIj = Resilience index of transect j, Ximax = maximum
value of variable Xi., Xi.min = minimum value of variable Xi.,
RIj
2 Ximax Ximin–
Ximax Ximin– Xij Ximin– +
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1–
i 1=
n
=
Table 2. Matrix of correlation coefficients among eight resilience variables (N = 1060)
CGR CFG SSC CHQ CCS CSN COC AOF
CGR 1.000
CFG 0.691 1.000
SSC -0.224 -0.277 1.000
CHQ 0.299 0.550 -0.222 1.000
CCS 0.343 0.382 -0.287 0.395 1.000
CSN 0.512 0.443 -0.155 0.055 0.015 1.000
COC 0.511 0.526 -0.389 0.478 0.833 0.175 1.000
AOF 0.046 0.023 -0.113 -0.100 -0.280 0.123 -0.313 1.000
Table 3. Combinations of seven and six variables provided by BEST analysis
No. Number variables Correlation index Variable combinations Omitted variable
1 7 0.992 CGR, SSC, CHQ, CCS, CSN, COC, AOF CFG
2 7 0.991 CFG, SSC, CHQ, CCS, CSN, COC, AOF CGR
3 7 0.990 CGR, CFG, SSC, CHQ, CCS, CSN, AOF COC
4 7 0.988 CGR, CFG, SSC, CHQ, CSN, COC, AOF CCS
5 6 0.974 CGR, SSC, CHQ, CSN, COC, AOF CFG, CCS
6 6 0.973 CGR, SSC, CHQ, CCS, CSN, AOF CFG, COC
7 6 0.973 CFG, SSC, CHQ, CSN, COC, AOF CGR, CCS
8 6 0.971 CFG, SSC, CHQ, CCS, CSN, AOF CGR, COC
9 6 0.970 CHQ, CCS, CSN, SSC, COC, AOF CGR, CFG
10 7 0.969 CGR, CFG, CHQ, CCS, SSC, COC, AOF CSN
Table 4. Variable composition of the “super coral reef” as the reference point of the resilience index assessment
Resilience indicator From transects Unit Minimum Maximum
1) Coral Functional Group (CFG) 0–10 Group 0 13
2) Sand and Silt cover (SSC) 100–0 % 100 0
3) Coral Habitat Quality (CHQ) 0–42 % 0 50
4) Coral Small-size Number (CSN) 0–23 Colony 0 25
5) Coral Cover (COC) 0–100 % 0 100
6) Algae-Other-Fauna cover (AOF) 100–0 % 100 0
7. Practical Resilience Index for Coral Reef Assessment 7
Xij = real value of Xi at transect j.
Using data of the resilient coral reef, the formula for the
coral reef resilience index is defined as follows.
+
(2)
Each indicator variable in Eq. 2 might have a different
magnitude of contribution to the index, as they could have
different variances. Indicator variables need to be weighted
toimproveindexsensitivity.PCAwasperformedtoobjectively
weight each of the resilience indicators. PCA showed that
the PC1 contributed 47.7% of the total variances. This number
determined its liability to be used as a weighting factor.
Variables were weighted using PC1 as listed in Table 5.
Weighting of indicator variables changed the index value.
The maximum value of the resilience index was 1.930, while
the minimum was -0.200. A correction factor is required to
ensure that the minimum value was close to 0.000, i.e. when
a coral reef was 100% covered by SSC (sand and silt). The
finalformulaofthecoralreefresilienceindexisasEq.3or4.
+ +
(3)
+ +
(4)
Using the present index, a single transect has a theoretically
resilienceindexbetween0.000and2.130,butwehardlyfind
coralreefwitharesilienceindexmorethan1.00.Assessment of
~1240 transects from Indonesian reefs revealed a range
between 0.021 and 1.070, with an average (± SD) of 0.468 ±
0.225, and a median of 0.469. Proportion of transects with a
resilience index 1.000 was only 0.403%. This proportion
is very small and not usually found in natural habitats.
Furthermore, resilience index assessment on a reef must be
carried out using more than one transect, as such assessment
needs replications. From the present data, at any location
(site) with a minimum of three transects, there was no reef
with an average resilience index of 1.000. The highest
average resilience index (± SD) found was 0.976 ± 0.107.
Theoretically, we rarely encounter any reefs with a resilience
index 1.000.
Validating resilience index
Comparing resilience index with COC, AOF and SSC
showed a positive relationship between the increase of COC
and an increase in the resilience index. On the other hand, an
increase in AOF and SSC coincided in a decrease in the
resilience index. Recovery of a coral dominated community
depends on the composition of the coral community and the
other two opposing factors, AOF and SSC. This suggests
that coral cover alone may not be a good measure of coral
reef resilience since it does not necessarily show diversity of
coral functional group and coral recruitment.
The resilience index provides a more meaningful metric
forassessmentofresiliencelevelsthancoralcover,although
regression analysis for both variables COC and AOF shows
its significant dependency. Resilience index increases with
increasing coral cover but decreases with increasing algal-
other-fauna and sand-silt covers (Fig. 2). Coral reefs with poor
coral cover (< 25%) show a wide range of resilience levels,
from 0.021 to 0.663. Coral reefs with algal cover > 50%,
however, have a resilience index range between 0.100 and
0.802. This high resilience index was found at a transect in
Biak (BIALT11) which has 36.0% COC and 52.4% AOF.
Coral reef with the best resilience index (1.000) may still
have AOF about 0 and 17%, with coral cover ranging from
71.0 to 89.70%.
The present resilience index is also readily applicable for
extreme situations. An extreme reef which is covered by
100% sand and silt (SSC) will have a resilience index of
0.000. This means that such a reef would never be recolonized
RI
2 13 0–
13 0– 13 CFG– +
-------------------------------------------------- 1–
2 50 0–
50 0– 50 CHQ– +
-------------------------------------------------- 1–
+=
2 25 0–
25 0– 25 CSN– +
------------------------------------------------- 1–
2 100 0–
100 0– 100 COC– +
-------------------------------------------------------- 1–
+
2 100 0–
100 0– SSC 0– +
------------------------------------------------ 1–
2 100 0–
100 0– AOF 0– +
------------------------------------------------- 1–
–
RI 0.56
2 13 0–
13 0– 13 CFG– +
-------------------------------------------------- 1–
0.42
2 50 0–
50 0– 50 CHQ– +
-------------------------------------------------- 1–
+=
0.43
2 25 0–
25 0– 25 CSN– +
------------------------------------------------- 1–
0.52
2 100 0–
100 0– 100 COC– +
-------------------------------------------------------- 1–
0.20
2 100 0–
100 0– SSC 0– +
------------------------------------------------ 1–
0.10
2 100 0–
100 0– AOF 0– +
------------------------------------------------- 1–
+0.20–
RI 0.56
26
13 13 CFG– +
-------------------------------------- 1–
0.42
100
50 50 CHQ– +
-------------------------------------- 1–
+=
0.43
50
25 25 CSN– +
------------------------------------- 1–
0.52
200
100 100 COC– +
-------------------------------------------- 1–
0.20
200
100 SSC 0– +
---------------------------------------- 1–
0.10
200
100 AOF 0– +
------------------------------------------ 1–
– 0.20+
Table 5. Weighting factors of the indicator variables
Indicator variables PC 1
CFG -0.560
SSC 0.204
CHQ -0.423
CSN -0.430
COC -0.520
AOF 0.103
8. 8 Bachtiar, I. et al.
by coral communities. A transect with 100% algal or soft
coral (AOF) covers will have a resilience index of 0.047,
whileatransectthathas100%rublecoverwillhavearesilience
index of 0.094. Regarding these situations, coral population
recovery is still possible and dependent on other ecological
processes.
The present index can be used to compare the resilience
status of coral reefs among locations and times. Fig. 3A
shows coral reef resilience indices among four locations in
theProvinceofKepulauanRiau,Indonesia.Usingthisindex
we could also determine that coral reef resilience was
significantly different among the four locations (F = 3.935,
df = 3,225, P < 0.01). Coral reef resilience is dynamic as a
results of its interaction with fluctuating stress and disturbances
from the surrounding environment over time. Fig. 3B shows
how the present index compares temporal variation in coral
reef resilience. These figures confirmed the practical uses
of the index to detect resilience variation spatially and
temporally.
4. Discussion
The present study shows that assessment of coral reef
resilience level can be carried out using LIT data. Using this
index,managersareabletomoreobjectivelycompareresilience
levels spatially among coral reefs and more accurately make
decisions on coral reef management. They could also describe
Fig. 2. Performance of resilience index in relation to COC, AOF, and SSC
Fig. 3. Comparison of coral reef resilience indices among locations
(A) and times (B). Error bars indicate 1 SE
9. Practical Resilience Index for Coral Reef Assessment 9
temporal variation of the resilience level to predict future
trends for management purposes.
The present resilience index is merely ecological resilience.
Severalauthorshaveproposedemployingamorecomplicated
resilience measurement which covers not only ecological
butalsophysicaloceanography,socialfactors,andmanagement
practices(Maynardet al. 2010;Obura and Grimsditch2009;
Cummingetal.2016).Suchcoralreefresiliencemeasurements
are more comprehensive than the present study, but they are
also impractical for coral reef managers. The present study
provides a complementary resilience index to Maynard’s
index. The Maynard’s index provides a broad assessment of
the resilience state, while this present resilience index focuses
on ecological assessment.
The resilience state represented by the index may only
operatemaximallyundergoodmanagementpractices.Improper
management could impose additional stress and disturbances
on coral reefs. The resilience index should be viewed as the
resiliencestateofcoralreefecosystemsatthetimeofassessment.
A resilience index will likely decrease in response to
disturbances, due to reduction in coral cover, loss of coral
functional groups, increasing coverage of rubble, or increasing
algae and other fauna cover.
The present index is very practical. A coral taxonomist or
biologist is not always available in many provinces in
Indonesia. Coralgenera richness (CGR) is thereforeomitted
fromtheoperationalresilienceindicators.OburaandGrimsditch
(2009) resilience assessment uses 61 indicators covering
ecological, social, physical, and management factors. This
complex resilience measurement would require a high level
of financial support and a lot of expertise. On the other hand,
the use of the presentindex can be utilized by nearly all coral
reef managers with basic training experience in the LIT
method and a spreadsheet computer program.
The resilience index enable managers to make the right
management decisions. When SSC is high due to coastal
erosion, a possible management response is to deploy suitable
settlement substrate to reduce SSC cover, for example concrete
blocks (Bachtiar 2002) or reef balls (Bachtiar and Prayogo
2010).Howeverthiswouldonlybepracticaliferosionorthe
disturbance could be reduced over the long term.
The index may be used as an alternative and predictive
measurementofcoralreefrecoveryafterdisturbance.Recovery
of the ecosystem may be measured in terms of time to return
to a former pre-disturbance resilience index. Conventional
recovery time has mostly been measured as returning coral
cover(Golbuuetal.2007;Gilmouretal.2013;Grahametal.
2015) and community composition or species diversity
(Brown and Suharsono 1990; Done et al. 1991; Smith et al.
2008). Returningcoral covercould takeplaceover adecade,
but returning species diversity might need many decades.
The present index supports the efforts of Timpane-Padgham
et al. (2017) to integrate resilience metrics in coral reef
restorationefforts.Usingtheresilienceindex,coralreefrecovery
doesnot only meanrecoveryof coralcoverbutalsofunctional
group diversity, habitat quality and recruitment.
Thepresentresilienceindexwouldbegloballyapplicable,
sincereferencepointsofallvariableindicatorsweretheoretically
their maximum values. Only the CSN value was determined
from data collected from Indonesian waters. Since many
Indonesian waters show the best places for coral growth
(Tomascik et al.1996)andcenter of coraldiversity(Veron et
al.2009),itmightbeinferredthatthebestinIndonesiamight
also represent the best state worldwide. This means that the
maximum value of CSN on the index would also be the
maximum value in most other coral reef areas in the world.
Furthermore, the index can be easily adapted to various
transect lengths by using new CSN values related to the
transect length, for example 30 or 50 meter length. The CSN
variable is additively linear to transect length.
The resilience index needs to be interpreted in relation to a
specific disturbance. Carpenter et al. (2001) advised that
resiliencemeasurementshouldclearlycomparetheresilienceof
‘what to what’. Interpretation of the resilience index used in
this study should be developed for that purpose. When a
coral reef with a resilience index of 0.450, for example, is
reduced to 0.250 due to coral bleaching, the length of time
for recovery to its former state is important. Time series data
from permanently laid LIT, particularly in areas of mass
coral mortality related to bleaching, will assist in further
development and interpretation of the resilience index. It is
recommended that the index should be validated through
applicationbycoralreefresearchersfromotherIndo-Pacific
regions.
In the future, index interpretation should also be developed
in relation to human-induced acute disturbances, such as
blastfishingandshipgrounding.Indexinterpretationinrelation
tochronicdisturbancemightbebestusedasawarningsignalof
a potential greater ecological loss if it is accompanied by an
acute disturbance. This system of resilience index assessment
needs to be developed as a standard protocol.
10. 10 Bachtiar, I. et al.
Acknowledgements
This paper is supported by USAID through Sustainable
Higher Education Research Alliances (SHERA) Program –
Center for Collaborative Research Animal Biotechnology and
CoralReefFisheries(CCRANBIOCORE).Authorswouldlike
to thank Dr. Pamela Hallock-Muller of USF USA, Dr. Claudia
BaldwinofUSCAustraliaandDr.AustinHumphriesofURIUSA
fortheirassistancesonwritingand restructuringthemanuscript.
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