This document provides an overview of discourse analysis techniques for analyzing conversations. It discusses universal constraints that apply to all communication systems, such as turn-taking signals and repair messages. It also describes specific transcription conventions used in discourse analysis, including symbols for overlap, pauses, stress, and intonation. Finally, it outlines ritual constraints that govern conversation, such as open/close signals and backchannel responses.

1. Presented by:
Ahmad Ahlan, S.Pd.
Kuntum Trilestari, S.Pd.
Discourse Analysis
Prof. Dr. Indawan Syahri, M.Pd.
Drs. Akhyar Burhan, M.Pd.

2. Universal Constraints
Communication Constraints
System Constraints Ritual Constraints

3.  The components required for all
communication systems.
 For example: open/close conversation, turn-
taking signals, repair message, bracketing and
so forth.
 Natural conversational data  Conversational
analysis

4. 1. Overlap symbols
a. Slash : // or /
b. Bracket : [
c. An asterisk : *
d. Equal : =
2. Elapsed time
a. Numbers in parenthese : (.2) (elapsed time in tenths of a second)
b. Dot in parenthese : (.) (micropause)
c. Plus : +, ++, or +++ (short, longer or long pause)
3. Punctuation for Intonation
a. Question mark : ? (rising intonation)
b. Comma : , (a slight rise)
c. Collon : :, ::::: (lengthened or more prolonged syllable)
4. Stress (pitch and volume)
a. Uppercase type : e.q A: to my BOYfriend ann NOTHING else.

5. 5. Talk softly
a. Degree : (○)
6. Aspiration
a. h in parenthese : (h) (explosive aspiration)
b. h without parenthese : h (audible breathing)
c. Dot : . (in-breath)
7. Unsure of accuracy
a. Single parenthese : ()
8. Nonverbal sounds
a. Double parenthese : (( ))
9. Part of the transcript relevant to the analyst’s description
a. A right arrow :
b. Underline :_

6.  The spellings of words are altered to try to capture some
of the detail of natural speech.
 For example:
 “see you in ten minutes”  “see yuh „n ten minutes”
 “give me the key”  “gimme the key”

7.  Channel open/close signals
 Backchannel signals
 Turnover signals
 Acoustically adequate and interpretable message
 Bracket signals
 Nonparticipant constraints
 Preempt signals
 Gricean norms for communication

8. Open Signals
1. Summon-answer sequence 3. Greeting sequence
Example: Example:
((phone ringing)) ((phone ringing))
A: Hello:, E: Hello?
B: Hi. S: Hi,
((phone ringing)) E: Hi, Sue.
C: Hello:, S: Hi, Mom,
D: Smith Residence,
2. Identification sequence 4. How-are-you sequence
Example: Example:
((phone ringing)) ((phone ringing))
E: Hello:, E: Huh-lo?
C: Dr. Hatch? S: He-LO!
((phone ringing)) E: Hi, Sue, How are yuh.
S: hh Hello, S: Fine, how’re you.
D: Hi Sue, E: hhhh Oh, not so good. I hadda a run-in
S: Hi. = with B.
D: = It’s Denise. =
S: = ohh HI, Denise

9. Close signals
Pre-closing signals
Such as: “well”, “so”, and “okay” used with falling
intonation
Example:
E: okay. So::
S: Yeh.
E:Yeh. so I’ll call yuh tomorrow then.
S: Okay mom, talk to you later.
E: Bye.
S: Bye.

10.  Eye contact, head nods, smiles, body alignment, and make
noises like “umhmm,” “uhhuh,” “yeh,” “yerright” are the
examples of backchannel signals.
 Backchannel signals encourages the speaker to continue.
 Backchannel or feedback signals differ across settings
and according to the roles of speakers.

11.  Slowing tempo
 Vowel elongation
 Falling intonation
 A change in gaze direction

12. Collaborative turn completion:
Example 1:
Teacher : Who did that land already belong to?
Students: Spain ((a few students respond at the same time))
Teacher : And now + explores coming + and claiming it for?
Students: England ((several students respond at the same time))
Example 2:
M: Mmhmm sometimes it dangerous because if you go out of chair =
chair is name of it?
S: Yeah the saddle
M: Maybe you die because if you (pause)
S: Yeah you hit your head. ((completes turn for Miguel))

13.  Communication requires ungarbled and interpretable
message.
 TWO ways in dealing with difficulty adequate and
interpreting message because of their language level
competence :
1. Fake it
2. Use backchannel cues

14.  Pretending to understand and continuing to interact in the
hope that we will catch the theme or focus of the
conversation.
 Communication can continue fairly smoothly, but it may
also break down completely since information that allows
the participants to build a common theme or focus is
missing

15.  Use backchannel cues to let the speaker know we do not
understand. The speakers then repairs the message.
 The message becomes comprehensible during the repair
process, but both the native speaker and language learner
may find the need for constant negotiation of repairs too
burdensome to make the conversation worth-wile

16.  To overcome communication breakdowns when one
partner is not yet proficient in the language or in the
content of the material being talked about, we may use :
 a fill in the blank cooperative completion.
 rephrase questions so that less language is demanded
of the learner.
 supply answers.
 model the learner‟s response.
 model better forms of answer.

17.  Signals to show that parts of the message, “side sequences” ,
are not right on-line with the message of the moment.
 For example:
LF: (reading a lecture paper) ... to the total – ((looks up and
directly at audience)) I’m reading this as fast as I
can because I bet you’re as hungry as I am. I
didn’t eat any breakfast this morning – ((audience
laughter; looks back down and continues reading the text))...

18.  one strategy used to move from non participant to
participant status is to repeat parts of what one
overhears in the ongoing communication.
 Laughter (non-verbal signals) can be used as a cue to
move from non participant to participant status
 Eye contact
 Hand waving.

19.  to interrupt an ongoing channel message
 in conversation, nonverbal signals are used such as:
 leaning forward,
 shifting forward in our seats,
 opening our eyes wide
 raising eyebrows,
 waving a pencil in the air

20.  Communication cannot truly work unless participants
generally observe four major norms of cooperation:
relevance, truthfulness, quantity, and clarity. These norms,
called maxims, were proposed by Grice (1975) as criteria
for cooperative communication.

21.  Communication messages cannot be random, but must
relate to what has gone before.
 Topics in a conversation are dynamic and are negotiated
as a conversation progress.
 In writing, only one person is building the text, trying to
put information into appropriate sequence so that the
pieces most highly related to each other come together.

22.  When we violate truthfulness, we often do so using
special intonation for sarcasm, for testing, or for
playfulness.
 Learning how to move in and out of “truthfulness” with
appropriate marking may be acquired early in in life, but
the successful execution and recognition of irony,
teasing, and joking is not an easy matter.

23.  In conversation, everyone should have his or her “fair”
share of talk time. No one should “hog” the floor without
permission.
 In writing, some of us are very long winded, while others
too brief.

24.  We should avoid obscurity and ambiguity.
 Our message should be constructed in an orderly way.

25. Hatch, E. (1992). Discourse and language
education. Los Angeles: Cambridge
University Press.