Common structure of fly

Veterinary Entomolgy
Presentation
Topic: List and discussion common structure
of fly during diagnosis and identification
13/03/2019 1
By Hamze Suleiman H. Nour ( DVM, MSc Candidate
Tropical Veterinary Medicine
Mekelle University
CVM-MU, 2018
Hamze Suleiman H. Nour

Introduction: Basic structure of
the flies
• The body of the flies is composed of three main parts;
• head;
• thorax, (central portion)
• legs ( three pair of )
• wings, (one pair of)
• abdomen (five segments)
• head have pair of relatively enormous compound eyes, the pair
of antennae and the mouthparts, or beak,. antennae are located
in front of the head between eyes, and sensory organs.
• The mouthparts extend from the lower portion of the head and
may be either of the biting type or of the nan-biting structure.
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2

Cont.…
• The biting flies have rigid beak containing the
labium, which forms the piercing organ.
• The labium of the nan-biting flies consists of the soft
fleshy structure suspended from the lower part of the
head, it may be retracted or extended at will normally
folded up close under head. Is not capable of
piercing the skin.
• Some species have spines and teeth in the Labium.
13/03/2019 3Hamze Suleiman H. Nour

Cont.…
• The thorax, is composed three segments, each of which bears
a pair of legs.
• Only the middle or largest thoracic segment, however is
adorned with wings, on each side of the fly’s thorax,
• the centrally located wings, there are two spiracles, or
breathing holes. Below the wing there is located an other
projection structure, the halter, that is actually an undeveloped
wing. This utilized as a balancing organ.

Cont..
• The two wings, one of each side of the fly, are composed
a large transparent membrane stiffened by rigid wing vein.
At the base of each wing is a small hairy plate-like
projection that looks like flap. It is usually called tegula,
sguama, calypter.
• From the lower portion of each thoracic segment a pair of
legs projects. Each of these six pair of legs is made up of
eight parts, or movable section; coxa, femur, tibia,
basitarsus, and four tarsi.
• The last tarsal segment, have a special claw is formed
by two stout, pent spines, acentral hook-like
empodium, and two hairy adhesive pads or pulvilli.

Cont.….
• the relatively large abdomen of the fly is composed
cylindrical segments. The posterior tips contains the
genital structure of the male and female fly.
• The external morphology of the fly is the variety of types
of the spines and hairs in the body covering.
• These range from strong sharp pike-like spines, used for
projection and for grasping project, to fain sensitive hairs
and thin-walled spines that are really special sensory
organ.

Cont..
• Some of these on the tarsi of legs, proboscis and the antenna are chemo-
sensitive test and odder detecting spines.
• The fine hairs or aristae, of antenna are very sensitive to air pressure
changes and enable the fly to escape crushing by falling objects. This
sensitivity is what often enables the fly to evade fly-swatter.

Classification of insect based on Anatomy
To identify insects and understand their role in the environment, you need
to know something about their basic anatomy. Important body parts and
ways they are modified include:
• Mouthparts (chewing, piercing/sucking)
• Legs (jumping, grasping, digging, swimming, running, etc.)
• Wings (flying ).
• Antennae ( sense organ)

Common things that share all arthropods
•Arthropods are the most diverse group of
animals. some characteristics of arthropods
that may have contributed are their strong
and flexible exoskeleton made of chitin.

 According number of wings
• Four wings; Lepidoptera - Butterflies & moths, Hyemenoptera –wasps, bees.
• Two Winged ; Culicidae (mosquitoes), Psychodidae (sandflies). Simuliidae (blackflies)
• Wingless: Phthiraptera(lice), Siphonaptera:- Fleas
 Feeding habits of the vector:-
• Anthropophilic species – preference to man
• Anthropophagic species - man-feeder(s)
• Zoophilic species -preference to animals
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Cont.…

Cont..
• Ornithophilic/ornithophagic- bird loving/bird feeding
• Exophagic species – feeding outdoors
• Endophagic species –feeding indoors
• Endophagic/Exophagic species – require different control strategies
 Resting habits of the vector:-
• Exophilic species -resting outdoors
• Endophilic species – resting indoors

Arthropod Classification
 There are two major classes of arthropods of veterinary importance,
namely the Insecta and Arachnida
Insecta:
• Have three pairs of legs,
• The head, thorax and abdomen are distinct seperately
• They have a single pair of antennae.
• The body is covered with exoskeleton consisting of a chitinous
cuticle.
• Insects have internal fertilization and lay fertilized eggs. The life
cycle is based on complete metamorphosis

Cont.….
Arachnida:
• The adults have four pairs of legs
• The body is divided into a Cephalo-thorax and abdomen, and there are
no antennae.
• sexes are separate; eyes may or may not be present; always wingless.
• They have incomplete metamorphosis i.e. the adult lay eggs.
• their mouth part is characterized by arachnid structure: consisting of
a pair of chelicerae (with mobile digits adapted for cutting) and pair
of Sensory palps. 13/03/2019 14Hamze Suleiman H. Nour

13/03/2019Hamze Suleiman H. Nour 15

Order Diptera
• Contains all of the flies of veterinary importance.
• Have a single pair of membranous wings and a pair of halteres.
• Some are important as external parasites
• In others the larvae parasitize the tissues of the host
• Divided into three suborders, namely, the Nematocera, Brachycera and
Cyclorrhapha.

Suborder Nematocera
• Family Ceratopogonidae
• Very small flies which are commonly known as biting midges.
• The females feed on man and animals and are known to transmit
various viruses, protozoa and helminths.
• The only important genus from a veterinary standpoint is Culicoides

Culicidae
(Mosquitoes)
• Host:
• All domestic animals and man.
Species:
• There are over 800 species of Culicoide,
commonly known as midges.
Distribution:
• Worldwide (from tropics to arctic).
Identification:
• Long and narrow wings with scales along
veins and wing margin

Culicidae (Mosquitoes)
 Anophelinae
• Adults rest with abdomen tilted at steep angle to substrate
• Larvae rest horizontally on water surface, Larvae have a siphon used as
respiratory organ
• Eggs are laid on damp areas such mud, detritus, clay and rock.
 Culicinae
• Genera Aedes & Culex (arboviruses & filarial worms)
• Adults rest with abdomen parallel to substrate
• Larvae hang at angle from water surface
• a long and narrow siphon with more than one pair of sub-ventral tufts. As
used respiratory organ. 13/03/2019 20Hamze Suleiman H. Nour

Cont..
 Morphology of adult mosquitoes (culicines
and anophelines)
 Three body regions: head, thorax and
abdomen
 Four characters that describe mosquitoes:
1. Long and erect proboscis
2. A pair of wings
3. Body covered with scales
4. Wings have veins that show a defined
pattern.
• 1. Head
 A pair of compound eyes
 A pair of antennae (pilose in females and
plumose in males)
13/03/2019 21
Anten
na
Ant
enn
a
Ant
enn
a

Developmental stage Anophelines Culicines
Eggs •Oviposited singly
•Boat shaped
•Have floats
•Oviposited singly (Aedes) or
together in a “raft” (Culex)
•Oval or cylindrical
•Lack floats
Larvae •Rest parallel to the surface of water
•Lack siphon
•Subtend or hang
•Possess siphon
Pupae •Breathing trumpet is short and has
wide opening
•Peg-like structure on abdomen
•Breathing trumpet is long and
slender with a narrow opening
•Lack such structure
Adults •At rest, they form an angle with the
surface
•Palps are as long as proboscis
(females)
•Palps are as long as proboscis and
club-shaped at tip (males)
•Salivary glands Middle lobe is
shorter
•Rest parallel to resting surface
•Palps are short (in females)
•Palps are longer than proboscis with
tapered tips (males)
•Salivary glands Middle lobe is longer

Culicidae (Mosquitoes)
Biology
• Almost all blood-sucking; only females take blood;
males take nectar and plant juices
• Eggs laid in flowing or still water; water collected
in containers, tree cavities and leaf axils of plants
• Eggs laid singly or together in floating raft
• Larvae and pupae are aquatic; active swimmers
and breathe via siphon tube .

Simuliidae (Black Flies)
• The genus Simulium is the most important
• Hosts:
• All domestic animals and man
• Species:
• Numerous and often divided into sub-species.
• Distribution:
• Worldwide except New Zealand, Hawaii and some minor island groups.

13/03/2019 27
Features
• Black flies are small, dark flies with a humped
back
• Females are blood-feeders which sucks up blood
through a proboscis.
• They have short antenna and legs.
• Body is black & white (some species are yellow
or orange).
• Head bears large eyes and short mouth parts
which are biting / cutting in nature. Blood
sucking

 Wings are colourless and thorax is humped. Eyes in
males are holoptic and dichoptic in females.
 Their larvae and pupae usually attach themselves to
rocks and vegetation in flowing streams.
 Identification
• Small (2-5 mm) stocky grey-black flies
• Humped thorax (buffalo gnats)
• Clear wings without hairs or scales transparent

 Biology
• Aquatic larvae live in fastest
flowing parts of streams and
rivers
• Larvae attach to rocks and
vegetation (via silk and hooks)
• Larvae are filter-feeders using
complex labral fans on head
• Pupate on rocks underwater
• Adults may occur several km
from water

Ceratopogonidae (Biting midges)
 Females of some genera (Culicoides) are blood suckers; males visit flowers Only adult females
feed on blood
• Painless bite is followed by intense irritation & itchiness outdoor biters
• long antennae and short mouthparts. There is a par of narrow wings which may be hairy or
spotted.
 Identification
• Very small flies (0.5-2mm)
• Grey or yellowish bodies
• Wings folded over body at rest
• Wings have thick radial veins crowded close to wing margin
 Life cycle (stages) ·
• Eggs are laid in water (fresh or salt) · Larvae are aquatic or semi-aquatic · There is a pupal stage
·

Ceratopogonidae (Biting
midges) Biology
• Larvae carnivores or detritivores
• Larvae mostly live in water bodies with high organic content;
some live in moist or terrestrial habitats
• Flight range is very limited (only a few hundred meters).
Adult females transmit arboviruses in livestock
• Bluetongue virus in sheep African horse sickness
• Breeding habitat: - wet sand, mud along sea coast, rivers banks,
lake shores & in swamps & shores. Eggs are laid on such wet
habitats

Tabanidae (Horse flies, Deer flies and Clegs)
 Tabanidae
• The largest families of order Diptera (8000
spp. divided into three genera)
• Tabanus (horse flies), Haematopota and
Crysops (deer flies) are the three species of
major veterinary importance
• Female horse flies are voracious blood
feeders

Tabanidae (Horse flies, Deer flies and
Clegs)• Biology
• Adults feed on nectar & plant juices; females take
vertebrate blood
• Larvae develop in moist habitats, often in mud at
edges of water bodies
• Most larvae feed on decaying plant matter; some are
predaceous
• These suck blood during late afternoon or early
morning. Only female feed on blood. · Some species
also bite indoor. The female feed on blood and plant
juices and the male on plant juices only.

Tabanidae (Horse flies, Deer flies and
Clegs)Identification
• Large, stoutly built flies
• Often have iridescent eyes
• Antennae have 3 segments; 3rd segment is
elongated and annulated
• Wings have large calypters
• Wing veins diverge at wing tip to form an open
‘V’

Glossinidae (tsetse flies)
• Important as vectors of African Trypanosomosis in animals and man.
• Both sexes are host-specific blood-suckers (bites are painful)
• Larviparous giving birth to larvae ready to pupate.
• The larva is deposited in loose, dry soil, and soon completes
development.
• They have a fascinating reproductive biology because the entire egg
and larval development occurs in the female.
• Females lay the mature larva on the ground and it then pupates within
its own skin. Each female is able to produce a maximum of only 8-10
offspring in her lifetime.

Glossinidae tsetse flies
Identification
• Medium sized flies with very tough and leathery body
(survive swatting)
• Flattened body and short forward-pointing proboscis,
short antenna
• Wings folded scissor-like at rest; conceal abdomen
• Wings have ‘hatchet cells’. Tsetse flies are large
yellow or brown or brown black in colour.
• The mouth parts are biting and sucking type.

Glossinidae tsetse flies
 Biology
• Adults active during day
• Occupy habitats with trees (e.g. grasslands & woodlands)
• Both sexes feed on large mammals; humans only attacked in
absence of game
• Females incubate single maggot in their bodies
• Nourished by ‘milk gland’
• Larvae pupate in soil; very soon after deposited

Muscidae (house flies)
 Identification
• Nuisance flies and mechanical disease transmitters
• The adult house fly is dark gray in color and 6 to 9 mm long. The thorax bears 4
black stripes, mostly based on presence or absence of bristles on thorax, and its
abdomen is yellowish. The mouthparts are sponging in nature.
 Biology
• Larvae live in various types of organic matter; manure, garbage, rotting
vegetation
• Life cycle (stages) · Females prefer to lay eggs in horse manure, but will use
feces of other animals, decaying organic material, garbage, spilled feed, straw
bedding · Larvae hatch, feed, mature to 3rd instar and burrow into loose ground
to pupate · Adults emerge and mate · Complete life cycle takes 10-21 days
(temperature dependent)

sub-family: Muscinae
• Non-biting species – short fleshy proboscus for
mopping up surface liquids
• Some species extract fluids from human food and
faeces (e.g. house fly, Musca domestica)
• Such species mechanically transfer bacteria and
viruses causing diseases in humans
• Cholera, poliomyelitis, leprosy, typhoid fever,
dysentery.
• Others feed on wounds or run off from wounds,
myiasis

sub-family: Stomoxyinae
• Biting species – long piercing mouth parts
• Some species are aggressive and persistent
blood-suckers (e.g. stable fly, Stomoxys
calcitrans)
• Torment wild and domestic animals (e.g. ears
of dogs).

Stomoxys calcitrans - Stable fly
Stomoxys calcitrans - Stable fly
• Looks like a house fly but has long pointed proboscis
• Palpi much shorter than proboscis.
• About 6 or 8 mm long, it has 4 distinct, dark longitudinal stripes
on the thorax and several dark spots on the abdomen with sharp
mouthparts protruding from the head.
Life cycle - approximately three weeks
• Eggs laid in manure/straw, decaying vegetation (lawn
clippings), sea weed . Bimodal spring and fall population peaks

Gasterophilidae (horse bot flies)
Identification
• Adults are dull yellow & bee-like
• Short-lived adults lack mouth parts & don’t feed;
rarely seen
• Genus Gasterophilus associated with myiasis
• Larvae inhabit guts of large mammals
• Larvae are barrel-shaped & armed with rows of
spines

Gasterophilidae (horse bot flies)
 Biology
• Eggs laid on host’s fur; near mouth or on forelegs
• Larvae enter mouth of host
Burrow through skin into mouth
Eggs are licked & swallowed by host before hatching
• Larvae move to stomach & attach to wall
Nourished by horse’s blood
May damage guts & weaken animals
• Mature larvae pass out in faeces & pupate in soil

Oestridae (warble flies, bot flies)
 Identification
• Large, stout, hairy flies with large inflated head and
mottled grey colour
• Adults don’t feed; short-lived and rarely seen
• Larvae are involved with myiasis
• Larvae are white, spiny, barrel-shaped and have black
mouth parts
• The adults morphologically look like bumble bees.
They are 15 mm long with non-functional mouthparts.
The eggs of these flies are slender in shape, white in
color and about 1 mm long. The larvae are light to dark
brown in color;

Oestridae (warble flies, bot flies)
 Biology
• Larvae are internal parasites of mammals
• Nasal cavities of sheep, horses, antelope etc.
• Under skin of cattle, antelope, rodents etc.
• Sheep nasal bot fly (Oestrus ovis).
• Living larvae deposited into nostrils; attack
to sinus membrane and feed on mucous
• Sneezed out and pupate in soil
• Other species of Oestrus and Gedoelstia live
in pulp cavity in horns of antelope and sheep

BLOW FLY
• Blow flies are a diverse group ranging from 6 to
14 mm in length and generally having a
metallic sheen to their bodies. Most blow fly
larvae feed in carrion or other decaying organic
matter. green blue or copper color. They have
basic morphological features of flies except that
they bear bristles on thorax
• Adult fly feeds on dead organic matter, and
soiled fleece.
• diagnosis is done on the basis of maggots
collected from lesions.

SAND FLIES
• Sand Fly, common name applied to a minute, biting fly.
• They are somewhat smaller than 0.42 cm (0.16 in) in length. Female sand flies have
piercing mouthparts and subsist on mammalian blood, biting mostly at night. They breed
in dark, damp, mossy ground or in crevices in shady rock walls.
• Sand flies are small, hairy, yellow or gray colored insects, long 16 segmented antennae.
Eye are black and large, wings are pointed and upward. Mouth parts are short to medium
and remain hanged downwards. The mouth parts are piercing and sucking in nature.
• Life cycle · Eggs are laid in dark humid animal burrows, cracks or crevices, or under
dead leaves · There are 4 larval instars, the larval stage lasting a total of 4-6 weeks · The
pupa requires 10 days for development · Only adult females suck blood

FACE FLY
• Face flies are one of the most difficult pasture pests to control.
• which is difficult to treat with insecticides. Face flies use an abrasive
sponging mouthpart to stimulate tear flow from the eyes. These flies lap
up the protein rich secretions from the eye as well as nasal discharges,
saliva, or blood oozing from wounds. Most of the time they are off of the
animals, resting on plants, fence posts, or other objects.
• Adult flies are larger than the house fly. The abdomen in females is black,
and orange in males. The mouthparts are sponging-rasping.

HORNE FLIES
• Horn flies are small (3/16 inch), dark gray, blood-sucking flies that
stay on cattle almost continuously.
• Both males and females are blood feeders that spend most of their
time on the shoulders and backs of cattle.
• females leave occasionally to lay their eggs in fresh manure piles.
• The horn fly is half the size of the common house fly and is more
slender, and the horn fly has piercing-sucking mouthparts. This fly has
a brownish-gray to black body with a slight yellowish cast, a set of
parallel stripes just behind the head, brownish-red antennae and two
wings with a smoky tinge.

LIFE CYCLE HORNE
FLIES
• Female horn flies lay their eggs in fresh cattle manure within a few minutes after it has been
deposited. The immature, or maggot state, develop best in the grass manure of pastured cattle,
few can survive in the manure of cattle fed concentrates or silage. The horn fly life cycle is
completed in 10 to 14 days; since each female can lay up to 500 eggs, These pests over-winter
as pupae beneath manure pads or in the soil.
• Egg -- Tan, yellow or white at first, the egg darkens to reddish-brown before hatching. It is
oval-elongate in outline, flat or concave on one side, convex on the other and 1.2 mm long.
• Larva -- The newly hatched maggot, about 1.5 mm long, develops through three instars.
Slender and white, it narrows to a point at the head.
• Pupa -- Enclosed within the shrunken skin of the last larval instar. Barrel-shaped and white at
first, the outer covering (puparium) soon turns a dark reddish-brown.

FLESH FLIES
• Flies in the family Sarcophagidae are commonly known as flesh flies.
They differ from most flies in that they are ovoviviparous,
opportunistically depositing hatched or hatching maggots instead of eggs.
• Flesh flies are often mistaken for houseflies due to their coloration and
markings. Adult - Flesh flies usually have gray bodies with three black
stripes on the thorax. The abdomen has a light and dark gray checkerboard
pattern and is often red at the tip.

LIFE CYCLE FLESH FLIES
• They overwinter as pupae in North Carolina and other temperate climates.
Rarely very numerous, the flies emerge in spring and mate. Eggs are laid
only under very unusual circumstances. As a rule, eggs hatch within the
body of the adult. Females of most species deposit 20 to 40 larvae directly
onto the host or substrate. As many as 325 larvae have been known to be
borne by a single female. Flesh fly maggots feed for 3 or 4 days and
develop through 3 instars. Soon afterward, these mature maggots enter the
pupal stage.

DEER FLY
• Deer flies are a biting fly species very similar in appearance to horse flies, although they
are slightly smaller. In both species, only females feed on blood, while males feed on
pollen. Females use scissor-like mandibles to slice the flesh of bite victims.
• have clear or solidly colored wings and brightly colored eyes. Deer flies, which
commonly bite humans, are smaller with dark bands across the wings and colored eyes
similar to those of horse flies.
• These flies apparently are attracted to such things as movement, shiny surfaces, carbon
dioxide, and warmth.
• Once on a host, they use their knife-like mouthparts to slice the skin and feed on the
blood pool that is created.

LIFE CYCLE DEER FLY
Life cycle
• Eggs deposit vegetation, or other water near larva habitat. Eggs hatch 5-12 days. small
larvae drop down and burrow into moist, wet soil found in marshes, stream banks, and
bottoms of lakes and ponds.
• Larvae: feed on organic debris, other insects, tiny crustaceans, snails, earthworms, and
aquatic or semiaquatic organisms.
• Pupa: the pupal period may range from 6 to 12 days depending on temperature and
species. The life cycle may require from two months to two or three years, depending on
the species and geographical region.

GREEN FLIES
• Green flies, or green bottle flies, are shiny metallic green in color. Their
eyes are large, compound and tinted red. Like other blow and bottle flies,
found on farms.
• Female flies choose dead and wounded animals, as well as feces, within
which to lay their eggs, yellow-gray larvae feed, their upcoming pupal
stage.

Phthiraptera (Lice)
• Small, flattened and wingless
• Short stout legs; end in strong claws
• Permanent ectoparasites on birds and mammals.
• Lice are small, flat-bodied insects with legs
modified for grasping hairs.
• Sucking lice, with their narrow, pointed heads,
are blood feeders.

Biting Lice
13/03/2019 57
 Biting lice
• Biting and chewing mouth parts
• Head is as wide as or wider than thorax
• Previously Suborder Mallo-phaga; now three suborders
• Biting lice feed by scraping material from the skin and base of the hairs
• They are small, wingless insects living as external parasites.Head region is broad, with very
small eyes and short antennae which are often concealed. Mouthparts are modified biting type.
• Body usually flattened, with the prothorax distinct from the other two thoracic segments,
which may be partly fused together. The legs have two claws with which the insect clings
tightly to the feathers or fur of its host.

Sucking lice
 Sucking lice, with their narrow, pointed heads, are blood feeders.
• Piercing and sucking short mouth parts
• Head generally narrower than fused thorax, and legs possess one strong claw.
• Suborder Anoplura
• eyes are reduced or absent, and antennae are short, Body is usually flattened.
• The eggs, or nits, of both types are glued singly to hairs and hatch in about two weeks.
The nymphs, or immature stages, resemble the adults but are smaller. They mature in
about three weeks.
• Adults live two to three weeks and females lay about one egg per day.

THE LIFE CYCLE PHTHIRAPTERA (LICE)
That is egg (nits) nymph and adult. Eggs: The eggs which are called nits are
cream colored and are laid on hairs or feathers, where they remain firmly
attached by a ghee like substance secreted by female during egg laying.
• On hatching the nymph emerge out of eggs. Nymph: Nymph is tiny with
soft body.
• There are three nymphal instar which feed on host body.
• Only 2-3 weeks are required for a nymph to become adult.
• The whole cycle is completed on host body. Life cycle takes 3-4 weeks
to complete.
• incomplete metamorphos

Siphonaptera (fleas)
• Small, laterally flattened, wingless insects
• Large hind legs and spectacular jumps
• Parasitic on birds and mammals
All adults have piercing and sucking mouth parts and
feed on blood
Females need blood to lay eggs
Some species are host specific, but most feed on
several hosts
Annoying pests due to blood sucking, skin burrowing
and transmission of diseases and parasites

Siphonaptera (fleas)
• Most fleas locate host by CO2 , specific odours, light/dark contrast, vibrations, and
air currents.
• Fleas are small, dark, reddish-brown, wingless, blood-sucking insect, with piercing
and sucking mouthparts.
• Fleas have genal and pronotal 113 comb on the cheek and on the posterior border
of the 1st thoracic segment.
• Their bodies are laterally compressed, (i.e., flattened side to side) permitting easy
movement through the hairs on the host's body.
• Their legs are long and well adapted for jumping. The flea body is hard, polished,
and covered with many hairs and short spines directed backward.
• The mouthparts of an adult flea are adapted for sucking blood from a host.

• ·
Eggs are laid in the host's bed, den, etc. (called environmental hot spots); or laid
on the host, where they fall off easily because they are not sticky · Larvae feed
on dry blood, feces, etc. and may remain in this stage as long as 200 days ·
Pupal stage is the most tolerant stage and can last from 10 days up to 50 weeks
as pre-emergent adult, depending on environmental conditions ·
Pre-emergent adults are stimulated to emerge by heat, carbon dioxide,
movement (human or pet activity). Without stimuli, emergence will be delayed.
·
Life cycle takes an average of 18-21 days but may take 20 months or more ·
The female fleas starts to lay eggs 36-48 hours after taking her first blood meal.
She may lay upto 50 eggs per day and often as many as 1500 in a lifetime.
13/03/2019 62
• LIFE CYCLE (STAGES)

Diagnosis
• Diagnosis Insects are arachnids are best diagnosed on the basis of their
morphology and life cycle stages. And its habitat this not usually important.

COLLECTING EQUIPMENT
• The equipment needed to start collecting is fairly simple and inexpensive.
Most equipment can be made at home, or purchased from nature supply
stores. Essential equipment includes a collecting net, killing bottles,
insect pins, spreading board for butterflies and moths, insect labels,
specimen boxes, a fine pen and India ink.

Common structure of fly

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