Cofactor
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There are three types of cofactors that help enzymes function: prosthetic groups, coenzymes, and activators. Prosthetic groups are organic molecules that attach permanently to enzymes, such as the heme group in hemoglobin which enables it to carry oxygen. Coenzymes are small non-protein molecules that assist in bonding between enzymes and substrates without being permanently attached, such as NAD which acts as a coenzyme for dehydrogenase enzymes. Activators are inorganic metal ions that temporarily attach to enzymes and alter the active site, including magnesium which helps synthesize proteins and calcium which aids nerve impulses and muscle contraction.
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Co-factor
Cofactors are non-protein molecules that assist enzymes during catalysis. There are three main types of cofactors: prosthetic groups, metal ions, and coenzymes. Prosthetic groups are tightly bound organic or inorganic molecules that are integrated into the enzyme structure. Metal ions are commonly bound prosthetic groups that facilitate substrate binding and reactions. Coenzymes serve as recyclable carriers that transport substrates between where they are generated and utilized in reactions.
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1. Enzyme and substrate concentration - Reaction rate increases with increasing concentrations of enzyme and substrate up to a maximum.
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The key structures in a flower include the stigma, anther, style, ovary, and ovule. The stages of pollination begin when a pollen grain lands on the stigma and stimulates the formation of a pollen tube. The pollen tube grows down the style and carries the pollen grain nucleus and two male gametes. It continues growing until it reaches the micropyle opening of the ovary, where the male gametes are released. One male gamete fuses with the female gamete to form a zygote, while the other fuses with the diploid nucleus to form triploid endosperm.
Inheritance terms to learn
Inheritance is the passing on of characteristics from one generation to the next. Chromosomes are structures in cells that contain genes, which are segments of DNA that code for particular traits. Alleles are variations of a gene that can cause differences in a characteristic. A dominant allele will be expressed over a recessive allele. An individual's genotype refers to their genetic makeup, while their phenotype describes their observable physical traits.
Glycolysis
The document discusses glycolysis, which is the first stage of respiration. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of cells and involves splitting a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. It has two stages - phosphorylation and oxidation. In phosphorylation, glucose is phosphorylated using ATP to form glucose phosphate, which then splits to form two triose phosphates. In oxidation, the triose phosphates are oxidized to form two pyruvate molecules while collecting hydrogen ions to form NADH, and producing a net gain of two ATP molecules.
Need for energy
This document discusses several biological processes that require energy: movement through cilia, flagella, and muscle contraction; maintaining a constant body temperature in endotherms; anabolic processes that form complex molecules; active transport moving molecules against concentration gradients; bioluminescence converting chemical energy to light; and secretion involving packaging and transport of secretory products into vesicles.
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptx
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
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Chapter 5
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Chapter 6
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Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
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1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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Cofactor
- 1. There are three types of cofactors : Prosthetic groups Coenzymes Activators
- 2. Prosthetic group • Organic molecules • Attach permanently to enzyme • Eg. Hb contains haem ( iron ) and it is bound to protein Haem enables Hb to carry oxygen.
- 3. Coenzymes • Small , non protein molecules • They help enzymes and substrate to bond • Not attached permanently • Eg. NAD from nicotinic acid is coenzyme for dehydrogenase enzymes
- 4. Activators • Inorganic metal ions • Form temporary attachment to enzyme and change active site • Eg. Mg (synthesis of protein) Ca (nerve impulse, muscle contraction)
Editor's Notes
- Title slide.