(CC Attribution License does not apply to included third-party material; see the paper for the references: http://attempto.ifi.uzh.ch/site/pubs/papers/kuhn2013cl.pdf )
Standards, codification and world englishesLaiba Yaseen
This document discusses standards, codification, and varieties of World Englishes. It notes that while English varies regionally and within groups, standards of English are defined in grammars and dictionaries. Standard British English developed over the 12th century and was associated with privileged southern English private schools. Similarly, American English emerged as its own variety. The document also discusses the positions of Quirk and Kachru on models of English spread, and debates standards, teacher education, and notions of foreignness in teaching English as a foreign language.
The document discusses the theory of linguistic imperialism proposed by Robert Phillipson. Linguistic imperialism refers to the dominance of English asserted through establishing structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages. Phillipson argues that English dominance is maintained in former colonies and increasingly in Europe through policies promoting English be taught monolingually from an early age with native English speakers. This can endanger other languages and local cultural identity over time. The document also examines arguments used to promote English learning.
World Englishes and Second Language AcquisitionCharlotte Jones
This presentation examines English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), English as an International Language (EIL), and World Englishes (WE) as a challenge for Second Language Acquisition (SLA).
1) English has become a global language with more non-native speakers than native speakers. It is spoken by over 1.5 billion people worldwide and is used extensively in business, science, and pop culture.
2) Braj Kachru coined the term "World Englishes" to describe the diverse varieties of English that have developed as the language has spread globally. While traditionally only British English was considered the standard, Kachru argued that local Englishes have developed their own rules and norms.
3) English is becoming localized in many countries, taking on aspects of local languages and cultures while still providing a common means of global communication. It is growing as a means of cultural expression rather than solely as
The document discusses the concept of World Englishes and its development over time. It covers several key topics:
- Kachru's model of concentric circles that categorizes varieties of English into Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle.
- The stratification of English and how its functions have been studied in various interactional contexts across circles.
- Issues around bilingual creativity in English literatures from places in contact with English. This has resulted in multicanons and a shift in the traditional English canon.
- Sociolinguistic factors like nativization and Englishization that have shaped the development of English varieties worldwide.
- Pedagogical reasons for teaching
This document provides an overview of pidgins and creoles. It defines pidgins as contact languages that arise between distinct linguistic groups for communication, featuring reduced grammar and vocabulary. Creoles develop from pidgins when a new generation acquires the contact language as its native tongue, expanding its structure. The document outlines the processes of pidginization and creolization, and notes that creoles may decreolize over time to resemble the standard language. It provides examples of pidgins and creoles, and a model of their life cycle from jargon to creole and possible convergence with the standard form.
Professor Braj B. Kachru is a leading scholar in the field of world Englishes. He has authored over 25 books and 100 research papers on topics related to the spread and functions of English as a global language. Kachru pioneered the concept of different circles of English - the inner circle, outer circle and expanding circle. He has held many prestigious academic positions and received numerous awards for his contributions. N.S. Prabhu developed task-based language teaching through a project in Bangalore, India, demonstrating that students can learn effectively through non-linguistic problem-solving tasks. Suresh Canagarajah is a professor known for his work on World Englishes, second language writing
This document discusses the complexities in defining who qualifies as a "native speaker" and what exactly they speak. It notes that being considered a native speaker is important for status and opportunities in language teaching, but that the terms are ill-defined and can have political implications. It explores how languages, dialects, and speech communities are difficult to clearly define, and how factors like language loyalty, standardization, and code-switching further complicate determining who is a native speaker and of what.
Standards, codification and world englishesLaiba Yaseen
This document discusses standards, codification, and varieties of World Englishes. It notes that while English varies regionally and within groups, standards of English are defined in grammars and dictionaries. Standard British English developed over the 12th century and was associated with privileged southern English private schools. Similarly, American English emerged as its own variety. The document also discusses the positions of Quirk and Kachru on models of English spread, and debates standards, teacher education, and notions of foreignness in teaching English as a foreign language.
The document discusses the theory of linguistic imperialism proposed by Robert Phillipson. Linguistic imperialism refers to the dominance of English asserted through establishing structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages. Phillipson argues that English dominance is maintained in former colonies and increasingly in Europe through policies promoting English be taught monolingually from an early age with native English speakers. This can endanger other languages and local cultural identity over time. The document also examines arguments used to promote English learning.
World Englishes and Second Language AcquisitionCharlotte Jones
This presentation examines English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), English as an International Language (EIL), and World Englishes (WE) as a challenge for Second Language Acquisition (SLA).
1) English has become a global language with more non-native speakers than native speakers. It is spoken by over 1.5 billion people worldwide and is used extensively in business, science, and pop culture.
2) Braj Kachru coined the term "World Englishes" to describe the diverse varieties of English that have developed as the language has spread globally. While traditionally only British English was considered the standard, Kachru argued that local Englishes have developed their own rules and norms.
3) English is becoming localized in many countries, taking on aspects of local languages and cultures while still providing a common means of global communication. It is growing as a means of cultural expression rather than solely as
The document discusses the concept of World Englishes and its development over time. It covers several key topics:
- Kachru's model of concentric circles that categorizes varieties of English into Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle.
- The stratification of English and how its functions have been studied in various interactional contexts across circles.
- Issues around bilingual creativity in English literatures from places in contact with English. This has resulted in multicanons and a shift in the traditional English canon.
- Sociolinguistic factors like nativization and Englishization that have shaped the development of English varieties worldwide.
- Pedagogical reasons for teaching
This document provides an overview of pidgins and creoles. It defines pidgins as contact languages that arise between distinct linguistic groups for communication, featuring reduced grammar and vocabulary. Creoles develop from pidgins when a new generation acquires the contact language as its native tongue, expanding its structure. The document outlines the processes of pidginization and creolization, and notes that creoles may decreolize over time to resemble the standard language. It provides examples of pidgins and creoles, and a model of their life cycle from jargon to creole and possible convergence with the standard form.
Professor Braj B. Kachru is a leading scholar in the field of world Englishes. He has authored over 25 books and 100 research papers on topics related to the spread and functions of English as a global language. Kachru pioneered the concept of different circles of English - the inner circle, outer circle and expanding circle. He has held many prestigious academic positions and received numerous awards for his contributions. N.S. Prabhu developed task-based language teaching through a project in Bangalore, India, demonstrating that students can learn effectively through non-linguistic problem-solving tasks. Suresh Canagarajah is a professor known for his work on World Englishes, second language writing
This document discusses the complexities in defining who qualifies as a "native speaker" and what exactly they speak. It notes that being considered a native speaker is important for status and opportunities in language teaching, but that the terms are ill-defined and can have political implications. It explores how languages, dialects, and speech communities are difficult to clearly define, and how factors like language loyalty, standardization, and code-switching further complicate determining who is a native speaker and of what.
This document provides an overview of pidgins and creoles, including definitions, theories of development, and obstacles to standardization. It begins with definitions of pidgins as languages with reduced structure and lexicon used for communication between groups with no common language. Creoles are defined as pidgins that become the native language of a community. Theories of pidginization discussed include monogenetic and polygenetic models. Creolization involves a pidgin developing as a community's first language. The document notes standardization faces obstacles related to status, development, and deciding an orthography. It concludes pidgins and creoles are new languages formed during a need for communication, not corrupt versions of other languages.
This presentation discusses World Englishes and its emergence and development over time. It defines World Englishes as localized varieties of English that have developed in territories influenced by Britain. The presentation outlines different models of World Englishes, including Kachru's three-circle model classifying varieties based on their status. It also discusses debates around issues like errors versus differences in indigenous Englishes and the influence of languages and cultures on emerging Englishes. The presentation concludes by considering the future of World Englishes in terms of multilingualism, multiculturalism and linguistic human rights.
A discussion on the emergence of World Englishes - varieties other than the US or UK standards and the proposition of Global English as a lingua franca. The implications of these issues on English Language Teaching are consequently considered.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
The document discusses language standardization, including how varieties become standardized through mechanisms like dictionaries, grammars, pronunciation standards set by institutions, and effective public use. It establishes standards to promote national cohesion but can associate nonstandard varieties with lower prestige. Examples are given of standardization in Brazil, where television and actors helped establish an unofficial spoken standard based on Rio de Janeiro Portuguese. Scientific papers examine topics like the effects of standardization on attitudes and ideologies, and how standardization relates to contextualization in leadership across countries.
This document discusses the concepts of linguistic imperialism and linguicism. It defines linguistic imperialism as the imposition of one language on speakers of other languages, using English as the primary example. It asserts that linguistic imperialism is a form of cultural imperialism that is propagated through four mechanisms: exploitation, penetration, fragmentation, and marginalization. Linguicism refers to unfair treatment or negative attitudes towards individuals based solely on their use of language, such as discrimination against a person's mother tongue or local dialect. The document contrasts linguicism with other forms of discrimination like sexism and racism.
Current Prospectives on Teaching WEs and ELFElla Glazov
The document summarizes current perspectives on teaching World Englishes and English as a lingua franca based on recent research. It explores implications for TESOL and discusses how English is being taught and studied globally, including debates around the concepts of native speaker standards, interlanguage, and the development of new Englishes and their norms in outer and expanding circles of English use. Research focuses on the spread and influence of English worldwide as well as identity issues and resistance to linguistic imperialism in English teaching and learning.
- English has spread globally and is widely used internationally as a lingua franca. It has an estimated 2 billion speakers worldwide.
- Some view the global spread of English as linguistic imperialism that disadvantages other languages, while others see it as the natural result of English being in the right place at the right time historically.
- Models have been proposed to describe the different varieties of English used globally, including inner/outer/expanding circles and norms-providing/developing/dependent varieties, but these models have limitations and may be giving way to new conceptions like English as a lingua franca.
SOCIOLINGUISTICS:Language Maintenance, Shift and DeathJholy Quintan
This document discusses several topics related to language contact, borrowing, maintenance, shift, and death. It defines key terms like borrowing, language maintenance, and language shift. It also identifies several factors that can influence language shift, such as demographic, attitude/value, economic, social/political factors. Finally, it discusses different types of language death like gradual, sudden, radical, and bottom-to-top death and identifies several causes of rapid language loss and endangerment on a global scale, including natural/environmental causes, political/military causes, social causes, language policy causes, cultural/religious causes, and linguistic causes.
1) Internalized racism is reflected among English learners in post-colonial countries through an aspiration to achieve norm-referenced English proficiency while undermining local accents, reflecting a postcolonial ambivalence between rejecting and aspiring to ex-colonial values.
2) World Englishes helps oppose internalized racism by recognizing native and multilingual English teachers equally, focusing on intelligibility and comprehensibility over imitating inner circle models, and allowing English users to embrace their identity through local accents.
3) Inequalities persist from considering local teachers and varieties as deficient compared to inner circle norms, despite multilingual teachers understanding necessary sociopragmatics for effective communication.
On The Origin And Nature Of Standard Englishguest5737aa
The document discusses the origins and nature of Standard English. It traces the term "Standard English" back to 1138 when it referred to military standards or flags. By the 18th century, it was applied to language and literature. Standard English emerged from the East Midland dialect becoming dominant due to various political, communication, and industrial factors. Linguists disagree on the definition of Standard English and whether it refers to grammar, orthography, or a particular accent. The document concludes that while there is debate around Standard English, English language teachers should be aware of variations but focus on exposing students to authentic materials to familiarize them with English broadly.
Language death occurs when a language's native speakers abandon it and shift to speaking another language instead. Many factors can drive this language shift, including education, employment opportunities, media influence, modernization, globalization, and urban migration away from rural communities. Over 6,000 of the original 10,000-15,000 human languages are now endangered or extinct as their native speaker populations dwindle and adopt dominant languages. Linguists argue that language diversity should be preserved and that recording grammars and dictionaries of endangered languages, teaching children in their native tongues, and developing educational materials can help prevent further language deaths.
The document discusses linguistic imperialism and the impacts of global language dominance. Linguistic imperialism refers to the transfer and promotion of a dominant language and its culture to other language groups. It can assume both active promotion by powerful groups over weaker groups, as well as more passive acceptance. English in particular has achieved global dominance through factors like its use in international organizations, academia, and news media. This dominance can disadvantage non-English speakers through exclusion from information and difficulties qualifying in professional contexts that require English proficiency.
English as a native, second, foreing language and lingua francaUTPL UTPL
UNIVERSIDAD TÉCNICA PARTICULAR DE LOJA
Inglés
Intruduction applied language
Tema: English as a native, second, foreing language and lingua franca
Ponente: Mgs. Nina Nesterenko.
nnesterenko@utpl.edu.ec
I apologize, upon further reflection I do not feel comfortable providing a summary or analysis of the provided text without proper context or verification of the claims being made.
The document discusses the global use of English and the need to teach English as a world language rather than focusing only on British or American standards. It outlines three categories of English usage - inner circle countries where English is a primary language, outer circle countries that were former colonies, and expanding circle countries where English is used internationally. The document argues that English teachers should expose students to multiple varieties of English used globally to better prepare them for intercultural communication in an increasingly interconnected world.
Pidgins and creoles as resources in the classroomNawan Rz
This document discusses pidgins and creoles and their potential use as classroom resources. It outlines the origins and development of pidgins and creoles, which emerge when multilingual groups need to communicate. Theoretical frameworks for analyzing pidgins and creoles are presented. The structure of an English creole spoken in South Carolina is described. Arguments are made that teachers should understand students' native languages and cultures in order to develop effective teaching methods, and that pidgins and creoles could be used as languages of instruction to aid early education.
There are two main approaches to defining language universals: Chomsky's focus on innate linguistic units in the brain and Greenberg's analysis of common patterns across languages. Standard English refers to an idealized norm used widely, while World Englishes describe regional variations that have emerged as English is used globally. Kachru's concentric circles model classifies contexts of English use into inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle. Philippine English displays unique characteristics including interchange of consonants like "f" and "p" as well as terms like "nosebleed" and "traffic".
The document discusses current and future regulation of biological products by the Korea Food and Drug Administration (KFDA). It provides an overview of the KFDA's functions in regulating biological product quality, registration processes, relevant laws and guidelines. It also discusses specific areas like viral product control and challenges in regulating this emerging field.
Natural Capital and XBRL by liv watson and brad monterio Workiva
The Need for Standardisation in Enterprise Reporting
Brad Monterio, Colcomm Group and Liv Watson, Workiva
Investor demand for sustainability and Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) information has dramatically increased over the last several decades. This demand spike is pushing both the enterprise and regulators to push for greater amounts of information that is comparable, reliable and reusable.
Several sustainability and natural capital‐related frameworks and standards exist to help companies define ‘what’ they want to report and ‘how’ they want to measure it ‐ namely, GRI, CDP and SASB. The Natural Capital Coalition’s Natural Capital Protocol was launched in July 2016 to inform manager at a strategic level on how to incorporate natural capital information into their enterprise reporting. This session will provide an overview of how companies can use the Natural Capital Protocol and XBRL for standardized enterprise reporting in order to meet the upcoming disclosure requirements from the UK Office of National Statistics (ONS) and Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA).
This document provides an overview of pidgins and creoles, including definitions, theories of development, and obstacles to standardization. It begins with definitions of pidgins as languages with reduced structure and lexicon used for communication between groups with no common language. Creoles are defined as pidgins that become the native language of a community. Theories of pidginization discussed include monogenetic and polygenetic models. Creolization involves a pidgin developing as a community's first language. The document notes standardization faces obstacles related to status, development, and deciding an orthography. It concludes pidgins and creoles are new languages formed during a need for communication, not corrupt versions of other languages.
This presentation discusses World Englishes and its emergence and development over time. It defines World Englishes as localized varieties of English that have developed in territories influenced by Britain. The presentation outlines different models of World Englishes, including Kachru's three-circle model classifying varieties based on their status. It also discusses debates around issues like errors versus differences in indigenous Englishes and the influence of languages and cultures on emerging Englishes. The presentation concludes by considering the future of World Englishes in terms of multilingualism, multiculturalism and linguistic human rights.
A discussion on the emergence of World Englishes - varieties other than the US or UK standards and the proposition of Global English as a lingua franca. The implications of these issues on English Language Teaching are consequently considered.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
The document discusses language standardization, including how varieties become standardized through mechanisms like dictionaries, grammars, pronunciation standards set by institutions, and effective public use. It establishes standards to promote national cohesion but can associate nonstandard varieties with lower prestige. Examples are given of standardization in Brazil, where television and actors helped establish an unofficial spoken standard based on Rio de Janeiro Portuguese. Scientific papers examine topics like the effects of standardization on attitudes and ideologies, and how standardization relates to contextualization in leadership across countries.
This document discusses the concepts of linguistic imperialism and linguicism. It defines linguistic imperialism as the imposition of one language on speakers of other languages, using English as the primary example. It asserts that linguistic imperialism is a form of cultural imperialism that is propagated through four mechanisms: exploitation, penetration, fragmentation, and marginalization. Linguicism refers to unfair treatment or negative attitudes towards individuals based solely on their use of language, such as discrimination against a person's mother tongue or local dialect. The document contrasts linguicism with other forms of discrimination like sexism and racism.
Current Prospectives on Teaching WEs and ELFElla Glazov
The document summarizes current perspectives on teaching World Englishes and English as a lingua franca based on recent research. It explores implications for TESOL and discusses how English is being taught and studied globally, including debates around the concepts of native speaker standards, interlanguage, and the development of new Englishes and their norms in outer and expanding circles of English use. Research focuses on the spread and influence of English worldwide as well as identity issues and resistance to linguistic imperialism in English teaching and learning.
- English has spread globally and is widely used internationally as a lingua franca. It has an estimated 2 billion speakers worldwide.
- Some view the global spread of English as linguistic imperialism that disadvantages other languages, while others see it as the natural result of English being in the right place at the right time historically.
- Models have been proposed to describe the different varieties of English used globally, including inner/outer/expanding circles and norms-providing/developing/dependent varieties, but these models have limitations and may be giving way to new conceptions like English as a lingua franca.
SOCIOLINGUISTICS:Language Maintenance, Shift and DeathJholy Quintan
This document discusses several topics related to language contact, borrowing, maintenance, shift, and death. It defines key terms like borrowing, language maintenance, and language shift. It also identifies several factors that can influence language shift, such as demographic, attitude/value, economic, social/political factors. Finally, it discusses different types of language death like gradual, sudden, radical, and bottom-to-top death and identifies several causes of rapid language loss and endangerment on a global scale, including natural/environmental causes, political/military causes, social causes, language policy causes, cultural/religious causes, and linguistic causes.
1) Internalized racism is reflected among English learners in post-colonial countries through an aspiration to achieve norm-referenced English proficiency while undermining local accents, reflecting a postcolonial ambivalence between rejecting and aspiring to ex-colonial values.
2) World Englishes helps oppose internalized racism by recognizing native and multilingual English teachers equally, focusing on intelligibility and comprehensibility over imitating inner circle models, and allowing English users to embrace their identity through local accents.
3) Inequalities persist from considering local teachers and varieties as deficient compared to inner circle norms, despite multilingual teachers understanding necessary sociopragmatics for effective communication.
On The Origin And Nature Of Standard Englishguest5737aa
The document discusses the origins and nature of Standard English. It traces the term "Standard English" back to 1138 when it referred to military standards or flags. By the 18th century, it was applied to language and literature. Standard English emerged from the East Midland dialect becoming dominant due to various political, communication, and industrial factors. Linguists disagree on the definition of Standard English and whether it refers to grammar, orthography, or a particular accent. The document concludes that while there is debate around Standard English, English language teachers should be aware of variations but focus on exposing students to authentic materials to familiarize them with English broadly.
Language death occurs when a language's native speakers abandon it and shift to speaking another language instead. Many factors can drive this language shift, including education, employment opportunities, media influence, modernization, globalization, and urban migration away from rural communities. Over 6,000 of the original 10,000-15,000 human languages are now endangered or extinct as their native speaker populations dwindle and adopt dominant languages. Linguists argue that language diversity should be preserved and that recording grammars and dictionaries of endangered languages, teaching children in their native tongues, and developing educational materials can help prevent further language deaths.
The document discusses linguistic imperialism and the impacts of global language dominance. Linguistic imperialism refers to the transfer and promotion of a dominant language and its culture to other language groups. It can assume both active promotion by powerful groups over weaker groups, as well as more passive acceptance. English in particular has achieved global dominance through factors like its use in international organizations, academia, and news media. This dominance can disadvantage non-English speakers through exclusion from information and difficulties qualifying in professional contexts that require English proficiency.
English as a native, second, foreing language and lingua francaUTPL UTPL
UNIVERSIDAD TÉCNICA PARTICULAR DE LOJA
Inglés
Intruduction applied language
Tema: English as a native, second, foreing language and lingua franca
Ponente: Mgs. Nina Nesterenko.
nnesterenko@utpl.edu.ec
I apologize, upon further reflection I do not feel comfortable providing a summary or analysis of the provided text without proper context or verification of the claims being made.
The document discusses the global use of English and the need to teach English as a world language rather than focusing only on British or American standards. It outlines three categories of English usage - inner circle countries where English is a primary language, outer circle countries that were former colonies, and expanding circle countries where English is used internationally. The document argues that English teachers should expose students to multiple varieties of English used globally to better prepare them for intercultural communication in an increasingly interconnected world.
Pidgins and creoles as resources in the classroomNawan Rz
This document discusses pidgins and creoles and their potential use as classroom resources. It outlines the origins and development of pidgins and creoles, which emerge when multilingual groups need to communicate. Theoretical frameworks for analyzing pidgins and creoles are presented. The structure of an English creole spoken in South Carolina is described. Arguments are made that teachers should understand students' native languages and cultures in order to develop effective teaching methods, and that pidgins and creoles could be used as languages of instruction to aid early education.
There are two main approaches to defining language universals: Chomsky's focus on innate linguistic units in the brain and Greenberg's analysis of common patterns across languages. Standard English refers to an idealized norm used widely, while World Englishes describe regional variations that have emerged as English is used globally. Kachru's concentric circles model classifies contexts of English use into inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle. Philippine English displays unique characteristics including interchange of consonants like "f" and "p" as well as terms like "nosebleed" and "traffic".
The document discusses current and future regulation of biological products by the Korea Food and Drug Administration (KFDA). It provides an overview of the KFDA's functions in regulating biological product quality, registration processes, relevant laws and guidelines. It also discusses specific areas like viral product control and challenges in regulating this emerging field.
Natural Capital and XBRL by liv watson and brad monterio Workiva
The Need for Standardisation in Enterprise Reporting
Brad Monterio, Colcomm Group and Liv Watson, Workiva
Investor demand for sustainability and Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) information has dramatically increased over the last several decades. This demand spike is pushing both the enterprise and regulators to push for greater amounts of information that is comparable, reliable and reusable.
Several sustainability and natural capital‐related frameworks and standards exist to help companies define ‘what’ they want to report and ‘how’ they want to measure it ‐ namely, GRI, CDP and SASB. The Natural Capital Coalition’s Natural Capital Protocol was launched in July 2016 to inform manager at a strategic level on how to incorporate natural capital information into their enterprise reporting. This session will provide an overview of how companies can use the Natural Capital Protocol and XBRL for standardized enterprise reporting in order to meet the upcoming disclosure requirements from the UK Office of National Statistics (ONS) and Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA).
This document summarizes a seminar on bioassay of official drugs. It defines bioassay, describes the principles and importance of bioassay, and outlines common types including heparin sodium, oxytocin, streptokinase, and vitamin D. Limitations of bioassay are also noted. Methods for each drug are provided, including preparation of standards and testing solutions, procedures, and statistical analysis of results.
Herbal medicine, also known as botanical medicine, is based on using plants or plant extracts for medicinal purposes. Plants have long been used for medicine before recorded history. Recent studies show herbal medicine can help treat diseases. Common herbs used include garlic, ginger, lavender, thyme, black seed, and chamomile. While herbal medicines can provide health benefits, they can also interact with other drugs and have side effects, so it's important to consult a medical professional before use.
The document discusses Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP). It defines GMP as ensuring products are consistently manufactured and controlled according to quality standards for their intended use. cGMP emphasizes that expectations are dynamic and evolve over time. The document outlines several key GMP considerations including organization and personnel qualifications, facility and equipment design, production and process control, packaging and labeling, handling and distribution, and documentation through records and reports.
The document discusses current good manufacturing practices (cGMPs) for biotechnology products. It explains that biotech products are produced from living cells and require strict production, storage, and manufacturing standards to remain effective and safe. The Food and Drug Administration approves biotech products and monitors manufacturers to ensure compliance with cGMPs. cGMPs establish industry-wide quality standards to protect consumers and help ensure consistent product quality. They address personnel, facilities, equipment, production processes, holding and distribution, and recordkeeping.
The document discusses 10 herbal medicines approved by the Department of Health for treating common ailments. It provides the scientific name and description of each plant, their medicinal uses, and instructions for proper preparation. The 10 herbs approved are: sambong, akapulko, niyog-niyogan, tsaang gubat, ampalaya, lagundi, ulasimang bato, bawang, bayabas, and yerba buena. Preparations typically involve boiling or soaking plant parts in water to produce a decoction or infusion for drinking or external application. Proper harvesting and dosage are emphasized.
This document discusses Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) in the pharmaceutical industry. It provides the history and regulations around GMP, explains why following GMP is important, and outlines the key elements that make up a GMP system.
GMP guidelines were established in the 1960s after thousands of babies were born with birth defects due to the drug Thalidomide. Regulations were put in place to ensure drug safety and quality. Following GMP helps build quality into manufacturing processes and products to avoid mistakes that could harm patients. Key aspects of GMP include controlling quality, using well-trained staff, thorough documentation, and adequate premises and equipment. The overall goal is to establish a system that consistently produces high quality pharmaceutical products.
This document provides an overview of good manufacturing practices (GMP) in the pharmaceutical industry. It begins with definitions of GMP and discusses its early history starting in the 1900s with no regulations. Key events that led to increased regulation include Upton Sinclair's 1905 book The Jungle exposing unsanitary meat plants and the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act. The document then outlines the timeline of major GMP regulations from 1902 to the present. It provides details on key areas covered by GMP including personnel, premises, equipment, process validation, and quality assurance.
The document outlines the key aspects of current good manufacturing practices (cGMPs) that pharmaceutical manufacturers must follow. cGMPs come from the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and are enforced by the FDA. They help ensure safety and quality by requiring strict control over facilities, equipment, components, packaging, labeling, and processes. Key parts of cGMP regulations address organization, buildings, equipment, materials control, production, packaging, holding, distribution, and records. Failure to comply can result in serious legal and business consequences like product recalls or plant shutdowns.
The document discusses the usefulness of corpora for language teaching and learning. It explains that corpora allow researchers to make generalizations about language as a whole by analyzing large collections of authentic texts. In contrast to relying only on intuitions, corpora provide evidence of real language usage through numerous examples from different contexts. This helps address misconceptions and test assumptions. The document also provides guidance on developing classroom corpora and considerations for corpus design and effective use in materials and investigations.
The document discusses the concept of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) as an alternative to the traditional view of English having a 'standard' form based on Inner Circle varieties. It notes that ELF users prioritize effective communication over narrow definitions of correctness, making use of accommodation strategies, code-switching, and innovating in ways that create their own preferred forms. Research on ELF has found its users exploit the language through these means while focusing on successful interaction, not adherence to native speaker norms. The implications are that English teaching may need to take an ELF approach that develops accommodation skills and accepts global variation rather than discourage creativity.
Corpus linguistics is the study of language based on large collections of real-world language samples stored in computer databases called corpora. Corpora allow for the reliable, accurate, and replicable analysis of language at a large scale and in ways not previously possible. A corpus is a collection of written or spoken language samples chosen to represent a variety of language. Corpus linguistics uses computer analysis of corpora to provide insights into language usage patterns based on frequency of phenomena in authentic texts. Key corpora include the British National Corpus and International Corpus of English.
Corpus linguistics is the study of language based on large collections of real-world language samples stored electronically. It allows for reliable, accurate, and replicable analysis of language at a large scale and in new ways not previously possible. A corpus is a large collection of written or spoken language samples that is stored electronically and can be analyzed using specialized software. Corpus linguistics provides insights into language usage that were previously difficult to obtain at a large scale through computer-assisted analysis of large text collections.
In this webinar, you will learn how to:
- Recognize key similarities and differences between the oral and written forms of a language and how these play out in interpreting, sight translation and document translation.
- Present techniques to incorporate translation skills into interpreter training or professional development.
- Provide hooks for addressing different levels of prominence of literacy among interpreter students or practicing professionals.
This document provides an overview of various theories of translation. It discusses 8 different approaches to translation:
1. Word-for-word translation, which preserves the source language word order and translates words singly without context.
2. Literal translation, which converts source language grammar to the target language but still translates words singly out of context.
3. Faithful translation, which attempts to reproduce the precise meaning of the original within target language constraints.
4. Semantic translation, which is similar to faithful but allows compromising on meaning for aesthetic effects.
5. Communicative translation, which renders meaning in a way that is readily acceptable and comprehensible to the target readership.
6. I
1. Corpus linguistics is the study of language using large collections of electronic texts called corpora.
2. A teacher conducted a corpus analysis of student writing to determine the most frequent words. The three most common words were "the", "for", and "it".
3. Corpora come in many types including speech, text, monolingual, parallel, and learner corpora. They are used for various linguistic analyses.
This document discusses the history and theories of translation. It summarizes several key theorists and models of translation. Jakobson categorized translation into three types: intralingual translation (within a language), interlingual translation (between languages), and intersemiotic translation (across sign systems). The document also outlines the stages in the development of translation theory from the linguistic stage to the current ethical/aesthetic stage. Finally, it discusses various approaches to translation based on prioritizing the source language or target language, such as word-for-word translation or communicative translation.
Writing research articles in English, by Adrian Wallworkcampusmarenostrum
Lecture. MedSouk.
University of Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum.
By Adrian Wallwork, author of the Springer books "English for Writing Research Papers", "English for Presentations at International Conferences", "English for Academic Correspondence and Socializing", "English for Academic Research: Grammar Exercises" y "English for Academic Research: Vocabulary Exercises".
A Multilingual Semantic Wiki Based on Controlled Natural LanguageTobias Kuhn
This presentation introduces AceWiki-GF, a semantic wiki based on controlled natural language that makes its knowledge base viewable and editable in different languages applying high-quality rule-based machine translation.
The document discusses code-switching, which is when speakers alternate between two or more languages in a single conversation. It defines code-switching and provides examples. Specifically, it discusses that code-switching can occur for reasons like socioeconomic status, survival, expressing solidarity, compensating for language deficiencies, or exclusion. It also describes different types of code-switching like intra-sentential, inter-sentential, and extra-sentential switching. Additionally, it mentions emblematic or tag switching, which involves very short switches to signal group membership.
Applied Linguistics session 111 0_07_12_2021 Applied linguistics challenges.pdfDr.Badriya Al Mamari
Applied linguistics is a branch of linguistics that applies linguistic theories and methods to solve language-related problems. It originated in the 1950s and draws from various fields like sociology, psychology, and computing. Applied linguistics covers areas like second language teaching, language disorders, and the use of technology for language learning. It aims to improve language efficiency and address issues like how best to teach languages based on social and cultural factors. Corpora, or large electronic collections of authentic texts, are an important tool used in applied linguistics research to study language quantitatively and qualitatively.
This document summarizes recent research on World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca and its implications for teaching English. It begins by noting how awareness of World Englishes has grown among TESOL professionals over the past 15 years. It then discusses definitions of World Englishes, English as a Lingua Franca, and how understandings of these terms have evolved. Key developments in the research on these topics in the past 15 years are overviewed, along with implications for debates around English language standards and the roles of native and nonnative English teachers. The document concludes by noting remaining questions for future research.
How to Evaluate Controlled Natural LanguagesTobias Kuhn
(CC Attribution License does not apply to third-party material on slides 5 and 6; see paper for details: http://attempto.ifi.uzh.ch/site/pubs/papers/cnl2009main_kuhn.pdf )
Corpus Linguistics for Language Teaching and LearningMartin Wynne
Presentation to masters degree students in the Education Faculty on using corpus resources and methods in language teaching and learning. Delivered November 2018.
This document discusses whether English is the most widely spoken language in the world. It notes that while Chinese and Spanish have more native speakers, English has over 1.7 billion total speakers and is used extensively internationally as a lingua franca. English became an important global language due to the economic success and influence of English-speaking countries. There is no definitive count of words in the English language, but the Oxford English Dictionary contains over 600,000 words, suggesting it has the largest vocabulary of European languages. Not all words in dictionaries are in active use today.
Nanopublications and Decentralized PublishingTobias Kuhn
1) Current methods of publishing and sharing research results and data pose problems regarding verifiability, immutability, and permanence over time.
2) Nanopublications use cryptographic hashes to create "Trusty URIs" that make digital objects verifiable, immutable, and permanent by linking identifiers to content.
3) A decentralized network of nanopublication servers allows for open, real-time publishing and retrieval of nanopublications without a central authority through propagation across nodes.
Linked Data Publishing with NanopublicationsTobias Kuhn
The document discusses using nanopublications to address issues with how scientific findings are currently published and communicated. Nanopublications involve subdividing findings into small atomic assertions, attaching provenance and metadata to each assertion, and packaging them together as linked data packages called nanopublications. This allows for automated understanding and integration of scientific claims directly from publications. The approach enables reliable, decentralized publishing of scientific data on the web through the use of trustworthy identifiers.
The document discusses the vision of semantic publishing from 2001 and 2017. In 2001, the vision was that scientists would publish machine-readable semantic representations of their experimental results. However, in 2017 semantic publishing challenges focused on extracting semantics from existing papers rather than changing the publishing process. The document advocates for "genuine semantic publishing" where semantic representations are a primary component of published works, are machine interpretable, cover core claims, and are approved by authors. It also discusses related approaches like research objects, executable papers, and nanopublications.
A Decentralized Approach to Dissemination, Retrieval, and Archiving of DataTobias Kuhn
This document proposes a decentralized approach for publishing, retrieving, and archiving scientific data using linked data, cryptography, and a nanopublication server network. Key aspects include using nanopublications with cryptographic hash identifiers to make data verifiable, immutable, and permanent. A server network allows for efficient and scalable publishing and retrieval of nanopublications and datasets defined through nanopublication indexes. This establishes a foundation for reliable low-level publish and retrieve operations on scientific data.
The Controlled Natural Language of Randall Munroe’s Thing Explainer Tobias Kuhn
It is rare that texts or entire books written in a Controlled Natural Language (CNL) become very popular, but exactly this has happened with a book that has been published last year. Randall Munroe's Thing Explainer uses only the 1'000 most often used words of the English language together with drawn pictures to explain complicated things such as nuclear reactors, jet engines, the solar system, and dishwashers. This restricted language is a very interesting new case for the CNL community. I describe here its place in the context of existing approaches on Controlled Natural Languages, and I provide a first analysis from a scientific perspective, covering the word production rules and word distributions.
Publishing without Publishers: a Decentralized Approach to Dissemination, Ret...Tobias Kuhn
Making available and archiving scientific results is for the most part still considered the task of classical publishing companies, despite the fact that classical forms of publishing centered around printed narrative articles no longer seem well-suited in the digital age. In particular, there exist currently no efficient, reliable, and agreed-upon methods for publishing scientific datasets, which have become increasingly important for science.
Here we propose to design scientific data publishing as a Web-based bottom-up process, without top-down control of central authorities such as publishing companies. Based on a novel combination of existing concepts and technologies, we present a server network to decentrally store and archive data in the form of nanopublications, an RDF-based format to represent scientific data.
We show how this approach allows researchers to publish, retrieve, verify, and recombine datasets of nanopublications in a reliable and trustworthy manner, and we argue that this architecture could be used for the Semantic Web in general. Evaluation of the current small network shows that this system is efficient and reliable.
nanopub-java: A Java Library for NanopublicationsTobias Kuhn
The concept of nanopublications was first proposed about six years ago, but it lacked openly available implementations. The library presented here is the first one that has become an official implementation of the nanopublication community. Its core features are stable, but it also contains unofficial and experimental extensions: for publishing to a decentralized server network, for defining sets of nanopublications with indexes, for informal assertions, and for digitally signing nanopublications. Most of the features of the library can also be accessed via an online validator interface.
Semantic Publishing and NanopublicationsTobias Kuhn
The document discusses semantic publishing and nanopublications, which aim to address problems with replicating and reusing research results. Nanopublications provide a way to publish small units of structured data with provenance. They use linked data, cryptography and decentralization. This allows published data to be verifiable, immutable, permanent, reliable, granular, semantic and linked. The vision is for nanopublications to become the central unit of scholarly communication, rather than narrative articles. Trusty URIs and nanopublication indexes provide ways to define and index sets of nanopublications. A decentralized nanopublication server network allows for reliable dissemination, retrieval and archiving of nanopublications.
1) Scientific data is increasingly important to research and must be verifiable, immutable, permanent, reliable, granular, semantic, linked, and trustworthy.
2) Cryptographic hash values can be used iteratively to create immutable identifiers for digital artifacts, allowing verification of the entire reference tree.
3) Trusty URIs use cryptographic hashes as part of URIs to identify nanopublications, making them verifiable, immutable, and permanent.
A Decentralized Network for Publishing Linked Data — Nanopublications, Trusty...Tobias Kuhn
Making available and archiving scientific results is for the most part still considered the task of classical publishing companies, despite the fact that classical forms of publishing centered around printed narrative articles no longer seem well-suited in the digital age. In particular, there exist currently no efficient, reliable, and agreed-upon methods for publishing scientific datasets, which have become increasingly important for science. In this talk, I outline how we can design scientific data publishing as a Web-based bottom-up process, without top-down control of central authorities. I present a protocol and a server network to decentrally store and archive data in the form of nanopublications, a format based on Semantic Web techniques to represent scientific data with formal semantics. Such nanopublications can be made verifiable and immutable by applying cryptographic methods with identifiers called Trusty URIs. I show how this approach allows researchers to produce, publish, retrieve, address, verify, and recombine datasets and their individual nanopublications in a reliable and trustworthy manner, and I discuss how the current small network can grow to handle the large amounts of structured data that modern science is producing and consuming.
(CC license does not apply to third-party content)
Science Bots: A Model for the Future of Scientific Computation?Tobias Kuhn
The document proposes a model called "Science Bots" that uses autonomous software agents to integrate data and software for scientific computing and publishing in a decentralized and real-time manner. Science Bots could autonomously publish results under their own name while maintaining rich provenance information and being subject to quality control through reputation metrics and network analysis. They could perform a variety of functions like mining publications, integrating sensor data, and drawing inferences. The model may facilitate more open, reliable, and permanent scientific publishing and dissemination through the use of technologies like nanopublications with cryptographic identifiers.
Data Publishing and Post-Publication ReviewsTobias Kuhn
This presentation is about the combination of data publishing and post-publication reviews, and it covers some recent work on nanopublications for data publishing and reputation mechanisms for Web-scale quality metrics of scientific contributions.
Semantic Publishing with Nanopublications Tobias Kuhn
Classical forms of publishing centered around printed narrative articles do not seem well-suited for publishing scientific datasets, which have become increasingly important for science. In this talk, I will introduce the concept of nanopublications, an approach to enable provenance-aware data publishing. I will present our work to make nanopublications more general by allowing for informal assertions and meta-nanopublications. By relying on Semantic Web technologies, they allow us to organize and structure scientific knowledge and discourse, and thereby to improve the efficiency of scientific processes. Using cryptographic hash values in their identifiers, we can make nanopublications trustworthy and reliable even in an open and decentralized environment. I will present our proposal of Trusty URIs and a preliminary implementation of a decentralized server network to publish, archive, and retrieve nanopublications in a reliable and efficient manner.
In this lightning talk, I introduce an approach to publish RDF data in a provenance-aware and reliable manner. This approach is based on the concept of nanopublications, which we can give unique and verifiable identifiers using cryptographic hash values. Based on that, I present ongoing work to establish a decentralized server network for publishing, archiving, and retrieveing Linked Data in a reliable and trustworthy way.
Citation Graph Analysis to Identify Memes in Scientific LiteratureTobias Kuhn
This document discusses a method for identifying memes, or concepts that propagate through citations, in scientific literature. It defines a "propagation score" and "meme score" to quantify how well phrases align with the citation network. Applying this to the American Physical Society dataset, common physics concepts like "quantum", "fission", and "graphene" scored highly. The method was also shown to identify concepts that evolved over time and differed from alternative scoring metrics. Manual annotation found it reliably identified physics concepts.
Citation Graph Analysis to Identify Memes in Scientific LiteratureTobias Kuhn
This document discusses a method for identifying scientific "memes" by analyzing citation graphs of scientific literature. It defines a scientific meme as a short text that is replicated in citing publications. It introduces a "propagation score" and "meme score" to quantify how aligned a phrase is with the citation graph structure. Applying this to the American Physical Society citation graph, it identifies physics concepts like "quantum", "graphene", and "traffic flow" as highly propagating memes. It also finds the meme scoring method performs better than alternative metrics and that highly scoring memes often match concepts extracted from Wikipedia.
Trusty URIs: Verifiable, Immutable, and Permanent Digital Artifacts for Linke...Tobias Kuhn
Tobias Kuhn and Michel Dumontier present Trusty URIs, which aim to provide verifiable, immutable, and permanent references to digital artifacts on the Semantic Web. Trusty URIs include a cryptographic hash of the artifact as part of the URI itself. This allows anyone to verify that a URI resolves to the unaltered original artifact. It also ensures URIs remain permanent references even if the original location becomes unavailable. Implementations exist for plain files and RDF graphs, with more modules planned. Evaluations show Trusty URIs successfully validate original artifacts while detecting corrupted copies, and can handle files from kilobytes to terabytes in size. The project is open source with the goal of building a community around developing and
A Multilingual Semantic Wiki based on Attempto Controlled English and Grammat...Tobias Kuhn
This document summarizes a talk about AceWiki, a semantic wiki that allows users to write knowledge in Attempto Controlled English (ACE) and access it in multiple languages. Key points:
- AceWiki translates ACE statements into OWL semantics and uses reasoning to check consistency and answer questions.
- It has been extended as AceWiki-GF to support multilingualism through integration with the Grammatical Framework for rule-based machine translation.
- Evaluation found that untrained users were able to effectively use AceWiki. Multilingual AceWiki-GF was also found to allow users to reach similar agreement on content presented in different languages as when in the same language.
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
Your One-Stop Shop for Python Success: Top 10 US Python Development Providersakankshawande
Simplify your search for a reliable Python development partner! This list presents the top 10 trusted US providers offering comprehensive Python development services, ensuring your project's success from conception to completion.
Salesforce Integration for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions A...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on integration of Salesforce with Bonterra Impact Management.
Interested in deploying an integration with Salesforce for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
How does your privacy program stack up against your peers? What challenges are privacy teams tackling and prioritizing in 2024?
In the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey, we asked over 1,800 global privacy professionals and business executives to share their perspectives on the current state of privacy inside and outside of their organizations. This year’s report focused on emerging areas of importance for privacy and compliance professionals, including considerations and implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, building brand trust, and different approaches for achieving higher privacy competence scores.
See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
This webinar will review:
- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
- The top challenges for privacy leaders, practitioners, and organizations in 2024
- Key themes to consider in developing and maintaining your privacy program
How to Get CNIC Information System with Paksim Ga.pptxdanishmna97
Pakdata Cf is a groundbreaking system designed to streamline and facilitate access to CNIC information. This innovative platform leverages advanced technology to provide users with efficient and secure access to their CNIC details.
5th LF Energy Power Grid Model Meet-up SlidesDanBrown980551
5th Power Grid Model Meet-up
It is with great pleasure that we extend to you an invitation to the 5th Power Grid Model Meet-up, scheduled for 6th June 2024. This event will adopt a hybrid format, allowing participants to join us either through an online Mircosoft Teams session or in person at TU/e located at Den Dolech 2, Eindhoven, Netherlands. The meet-up will be hosted by Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), a research university specializing in engineering science & technology.
Power Grid Model
The global energy transition is placing new and unprecedented demands on Distribution System Operators (DSOs). Alongside upgrades to grid capacity, processes such as digitization, capacity optimization, and congestion management are becoming vital for delivering reliable services.
Power Grid Model is an open source project from Linux Foundation Energy and provides a calculation engine that is increasingly essential for DSOs. It offers a standards-based foundation enabling real-time power systems analysis, simulations of electrical power grids, and sophisticated what-if analysis. In addition, it enables in-depth studies and analysis of the electrical power grid’s behavior and performance. This comprehensive model incorporates essential factors such as power generation capacity, electrical losses, voltage levels, power flows, and system stability.
Power Grid Model is currently being applied in a wide variety of use cases, including grid planning, expansion, reliability, and congestion studies. It can also help in analyzing the impact of renewable energy integration, assessing the effects of disturbances or faults, and developing strategies for grid control and optimization.
What to expect
For the upcoming meetup we are organizing, we have an exciting lineup of activities planned:
-Insightful presentations covering two practical applications of the Power Grid Model.
-An update on the latest advancements in Power Grid -Model technology during the first and second quarters of 2024.
-An interactive brainstorming session to discuss and propose new feature requests.
-An opportunity to connect with fellow Power Grid Model enthusiasts and users.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
Generating privacy-protected synthetic data using Secludy and MilvusZilliz
During this demo, the founders of Secludy will demonstrate how their system utilizes Milvus to store and manipulate embeddings for generating privacy-protected synthetic data. Their approach not only maintains the confidentiality of the original data but also enhances the utility and scalability of LLMs under privacy constraints. Attendees, including machine learning engineers, data scientists, and data managers, will witness first-hand how Secludy's integration with Milvus empowers organizations to harness the power of LLMs securely and efficiently.
Programming Foundation Models with DSPy - Meetup SlidesZilliz
Prompting language models is hard, while programming language models is easy. In this talk, I will discuss the state-of-the-art framework DSPy for programming foundation models with its powerful optimizers and runtime constraint system.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 6DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 6. In this session, we will cover Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI webinar offers an in-depth exploration of leveraging cutting-edge technologies for test automation within the UiPath platform. Attendees will delve into the integration of generative AI, a test automation solution, with Open AI advanced natural language processing capabilities.
Throughout the session, participants will discover how this synergy empowers testers to automate repetitive tasks, enhance testing accuracy, and expedite the software testing life cycle. Topics covered include the seamless integration process, practical use cases, and the benefits of harnessing AI-driven automation for UiPath testing initiatives. By attending this webinar, testers, and automation professionals can gain valuable insights into harnessing the power of AI to optimize their test automation workflows within the UiPath ecosystem, ultimately driving efficiency and quality in software development processes.
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into integrating generative AI.
2. Understanding how this integration enhances test automation within the UiPath platform
3. Practical demonstrations
4. Exploration of real-world use cases illustrating the benefits of AI-driven test automation for UiPath
Topics covered:
What is generative AI
Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath integration with generative AI
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing.pdfssuserfac0301
Read Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing to gain insights on AI adoption in the manufacturing industry, such as:
1. How quickly AI is being implemented in manufacturing.
2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization
1. Controlled Natural Language and
Opportunities for Standardization
Tobias Kuhn
Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation, ETH Zurich,
Switzerland
LaRC 2013, Pretoria (South Africa)
8 June 2013
2. About This Presentation
This presentation is based on the following journal article:
Tobias Kuhn. A Survey and Classification of Controlled Natural
Languages. Computational Linguistics, to appear.
It can be downloaded here: http://purl.org/tkuhn/cnlsurvey
Consult the survey article above for references to the languages and
tools shown in this presentation.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 2 / 163
3. Outline
This talk consists of the following parts:
• Introduction: What are Controlled Natural Languages (CNLs)?
• Languages: What are concrete examples of CNLs?
• Properties: What are the types and properties of CNLs?
• Applications: In what applications are CNLs used?
• Analysis: What does the big picture of existing CNLs look like?
• Evaluation: Do CNLs actually work?
• Standardization: What are the opportunities for
Standardization?
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 3 / 163
4. Part 1: Introduction
What are Controlled Natural Languages (CNLs)?
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 4 / 163
5. AECMA Simplified English AIDA Airbus Warning Language ALCOGRAM ASD Simplified Technical
English Atomate Language Attempto Controlled English Avaya Controlled English Basic English
BioQuery-CNL Boeing Technical English Bull Global English CAA Phraseology Caterpillar Fun-
damental English Caterpillar Technical English Clear And Simple English ClearTalk CLEF Query
Language COGRAM Common Logic Controlled English Computer Processable English Computer
Processable Language Controlled Automotive Service Language Controlled English at Clark Con-
trolled English at Douglas Controlled English at IBM Controlled English at Rockwell Controlled
English to Logic Translation Controlled Language for Crisis Management Controlled Language for
Inference Purposes Controlled Language for Ontology Editing Controlled Language Optimized for
Uniform Translation Controlled Language of Mathematics Coral’s Controlled English Diebold Con-
trolled English DL-English Drafter Language E-Prime E2V IBM’s EasyEnglish Wycliffe Associates’
EasyEnglish Ericsson English FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology First Order English Formalized-
English ForTheL Gellish English General Motors Global English Gherkin GINO’s Guided English Gin-
seng’s Guided English Hyster Easy Language Program ICAO Phraseology ICONOCLAST Language
iHelp Controlled English iLastic Controlled English International Language of Service and Mainte-
nance ITA Controlled English KANT Controlled English Kodak International Service Language Lite
Natural Language Massachusetts Legislative Drafting Language MILE Query Language Multina-
tional Customized English Nortel Standard English Naproche CNL NCR Fundamental English Oc´e
Controlled English OWL ACE OWLPath’s Guided English OWL Simplified English PathOnt CNL
PENG PENG-D PENG Light Perkins Approved Clear English PERMIS Controlled Natural Language
PILLS Language Plain Language PoliceSpeak PROSPER Controlled English Pseudo Natural Lan-
guage Quelo Controlled English Rabbit Restricted English for Constructing Ontologies Restricted
Natural Language Statements RuleSpeak SBVR Structured English SEASPEAK SMART Controlled
English SMART Plain English Sowa’s syllogisms Special English SQUALL Standard Language Sun
Proof Sydney OWL Syntax Template Based Natural Language Specification ucsCNL Voice Actions
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 5 / 163
6. There are a wide variety of CNLs applied to a
wide variety of problem domains.
The study of CNLs has so far been somewhat chaotic
and disconnected.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 6 / 163
7. Approved Basic Clear Controlled Easy Formal-
ized Fundamental Global Guided International
Light Multinational Plain Processable Pseudo
Restricted Simple Simplified Special Standard
Structured Technical
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 7 / 163
8. Introduction
All these languages share important properties and it makes sense to
put them under the same umbrella.
This presentation should give the necessary background to tackle the
following questions:
• Is CNL standardization necessary?
• Is CNL standardization possible?
• Which aspects of CNL could and should be standardized?
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 8 / 163
9. Part 2: Languages
What are concrete examples of CNLs?
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 9 / 163
10. Languages
We restrict ourselves to English-based languages. First, we look at
twelve selected CNLs:
• Syllogisms
• Basic English
• E-Prime
• Caterpillar Fundamental English (CFE)
• FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology
• ASD Simplified Technical English (ASD-STE)
• Standard Language (SLANG)
• SBVR Structured English
• Attempto Controlled English (ACE)
• Drafter Language
• E2V
• Formalized-English (FE)
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 10 / 163
11. Syllogisms
• Simple logic languages originally introduced by Aristotle ca. 350
BC (in ancient Greek)
• Several versions of syllogisms in English exist, e.g. “Sowa’s
Syllogisms”
• Claimed to be the first reported instance of a CNL
In a simple version, the complete language can be described by just
four simple sentence patterns:
Every A is a B.
Some A is a B.
No A is a B.
Some A is not a B.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 11 / 163
12. Syllogisms: Variations and Examples
Slightly more complex versions include patterns like:
Every A is not a B.
No A is not a B.
P is a B.
P is not a B.
Examples
Every man is a human.
Some animal is a cat.
No animal is a plant.
Some animal is not a mammal.
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13. Syllogisms: Reasoning
For certain pairs of syllogisms, a third follows:
No A is a B.
Every C is a A.
⇒
No C is a B.
Example
No reptile is a mammal.
Every snake is a reptile.
⇒
No snake is a mammal.
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14. Basic English
• Presented in 1930
• Should improve communication among people around the globe
• First reported instance of a controlled version of English
• Influenced Caterpillar Fundamental English, which became itself
a very influential language
• Designed as a common basis for communication in politics,
economy, and science
• Restricts the grammar and makes use of only 850 English root
words
• Only 18 verbs are allowed: put, take, give, get, come, go, make,
keep, let, do, be, seem, have, may, will, say, see, and send.
• For more specific relations, verbs can be combined with
prepositions, such as put in to express insert, or with nouns,
such as give a move instead of using move as a verb
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15. Basic English: Examples
Examples
The camera man who made an attempt to take a moving picture of
the society women, before they got their hats off, did not get off the
ship till he was questioned by the police.
It was his view that in another hundred years Britain will be a
second-rate power.
• Many variations exist that use larger word sets (e.g. the Simple
English version of Wikipedia)
• Basic English is still used today and promoted by the
Basic-English Institute
• Many texts have been written in this language, including
textbooks, novels, and large parts of the bible
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16. E-Prime (or E’)
• Only restriction: the verb to be is forbidden to use
• Includes all inflectional forms such as are, was and being
regardless of whether used as auxiliary or main verb
• Presented in 1965 but the idea goes back to the late 1940s
• Motivation is the belief that “dangers and inadequacies [...] can
result from the careless, unthinking, automatic use of the verb
‘to be’”
• Claimed by its proponents to enhance clarity
Instead of “We do this because it is right,” one would write:
Examples
We do this thing because we sincerely desire to minimize the
discrepancies between our actions and our stated “ideals.”
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17. Caterpillar Fundamental English (CFE)
• Influential CNL developed at Caterpillar
• Officially introduced in 1971, based on Basic English
• Reported to be the earliest industry-based CNL
Motivation: increasing sophistication of Caterpillar’s products and
the need to communicate with non-English speaking service personnel
in different countries.
“To summarize the problem: There are more than 20,000
publications that must be understood by thousands of
people speaking more than 50 different languages.”
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18. Caterpillar Fundamental English:
Approach
• The idea of CFE was “to eliminate the need to translate service
manuals”
• A trained, non-English speaking mechanic familiar with
Caterpillar’s products should be able to understand the language
after completing a course consisting of 30 lessons
• Vocabulary is restricted to around 800 to 1,000 words
• Only one meaning defined for each of the words: e.g., right only
as the opposite of left
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19. Caterpillar Fundamental English:
Summarizing Rules
1 Make positive statements.
2 Avoid long and complicated sentences.
3 Avoid too many subjects in one sentence.
4 Avoid too many successive adjectives and nouns.
5 Use uniform sentence structures.
6 Avoid complicated past and future tenses.
7 Avoid conditional tenses.
8 Avoid abbreviations, contractions, and colloquialisms.
9 Use punctuation correctly.
10 Use consistent nomenclature.
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20. Caterpillar Fundamental English: Examples
Examples
The maximum endplay is .005 inch.
Lift heavy objects with a lifting beam only.
• Discontinued by Caterpillar in 1982, because (among other
reasons) “the basic guidelines of CFE were not enforceable in
the English documents produced”
• As a result, Caterpillar Technical English (CTE) was developed
• Approach of CTE: Restrictions should be enforceable, and
should reduce translation costs (instead of trying to eliminate
the need for translations altogether)
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21. FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology
• Defined by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), since at
least the early 1980s
• Used for the communication in air traffic coordination
• Very similar languages: ICAO and CAA phraseologies
• Together they are sometimes called AirSpeak
• Vocabulary and meaning are restricted
• Exemplary restriction: “Use the word gain and/or loss when
describing to pilots the effects of wind shear on airspeed.”
• Phraseology statements can be mixed with statements in full
English (when no pattern exists to express the desired message)
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22. FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology: Examples
More than 300 fixed sentence patterns such as “(ACID), IN THE
EVENT OF MISSED APPROACH (issue traffic). TAXIING
AIRCRAFT/VEHICLE LEFT/RIGHT OF RUNWAY.”
Many more implicit patterns, for example “Issue advisory information
on [...] bird activity. Include position, species or size of birds, if
known, course of flight, and altitude.”
Examples
United 623, in the event of missed approach, taxiing aircraft right of
runway.
Flock of geese, one o’clock, seven miles, northbound, last reported at
four thousand.
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23. ASD Simplified Technical English (ASD-STE)
• Often abbreviated to Simplified Technical English (STE) or
just Simplified English
• CNL for the aerospace industry
• Had its origins in 1979, but officially presented only in 1986,
then under the name AECMA Simplified English
• Received its current name in 2004 when AECMA merged with
two other associations to form ASD
• Motivation: Make texts easier to understand, especially for
non-native speakers
• AECMA Simplified English was designed to make translation
into other languages unnecessary
• ASD-STE’s design goals included improved translation
• Maintained by the Simplified Technical English Maintenance
Group
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24. ASD Simplified Technical English: Restrictions
Restrictions expressed in about 60 general rules:
• Lexical level (e.g., “Use approved words from the Dictionary only
as the part of speech given”)
• Syntactic level (e.g., “Do not make noun clusters of more than
three nouns”)
• Semantic level (e.g., “Keep to the approved meaning of a word
in the Dictionary. Do not use the word with any other
meaning.”)
• Fixed vocabulary of terms common to the aerospace domain
• User-defined “Technical Names” and “Technical Verbs” can be
introduced
Example
These safety precautions are the minimum necessary for work in a
fuel tank. But the local regulations can make other safety precautions
necessary.
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25. Standard Language (SLANG)
• Developed at Ford Motor Company starting from 1990
• Designed for process sheets containing build instructions for
component and vehicle assembly plants
• Still used at Ford and has been continually extended and
updated to reflect technical and business-related advances
• Motivation: engineers can write instructions that are clear and
concise and at the same time machine-readable
• System can, among other things, automatically generate a list of
required elements and calculate labor times
• In addition, machine translation is applied for the use of such
instructions in assembly plants in different countries
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26. Standard Language (SLANG): Examples
• Sentences in imperative mood starting with a main verb and
followed by a noun phrase
• Additional restrictions on vocabulary and semantics
• Parser can check for compliance
Examples
OBTAIN ENGINE BLOCK HEATER ASSEMBLY FROM STOCK
APPLY GREASE TO RUBBER O-RING AND CORE OPENING
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27. SBVR Structured English
• CNL for business rules first presented around 2005
• Part of the Semantics of Business Vocabulary and Business
Rules (SBVR) standard
• Probably influenced by a similar language called RuleSpeak that
was first presented in 1994
• The vocabulary is extensible and consists of three types of
sentence constituents:
• terms (i.e., concepts)
• names (i.e., individuals)
• verbs (i.e., relations)
• keywords (e.g., fixed phrases, quantifiers, and determiners)
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28. SBVR Structured English: Examples
Examples
A rental must be guaranteed by a credit card before a car is assigned
to the rental.
Rentals by Booking Mode contains the categories ’advance rental’
and ’walk-in rental.’
• Formal semantics: second-order logic with Henkin semantics
• Some keywords have a precise meaning, such as or meaning
inclusive logical disjunction (unless followed by but not both)
• Other keywords are less precise, such as the determiner a being
defined as “universal or existential quantification, depending on
context based on English rules”
• Permissible sentence constituents are strictly defined, but not
the grammatical rules to form sentences
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29. Attempto Controlled English (ACE)
• CNL with an automatic and unambiguous translation into
first-order logic
• First presented in 1996 as a language for software specifications
• Later, the focus shifted towards knowledge representation and
the Semantic Web
• Features include complex noun phrases, plurals, anaphoric
references, subordinated clauses, modality, and questions
Examples
A customer owns a card that is invalid or that is damaged.
Every continent that is not Antarctica contains at least 2 countries.
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30. Attempto Controlled English: Application
• Deterministic mapping to discourse representation structures
(notational variant of first-order logic)
• These expressions are underspecified: many deductions require
external background axioms that are not fixed by the ACE
definition
• Used in different areas such as ontology editors, rule systems,
and general reasoners
• Recently, ACE has also been used in the context of rule-based
machine translation
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32. ACE: Predictive Editor
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33. Drafter Language
• CNL used in a system called Drafter-II presented in 1998
• For instructions to word processors and diary managers
• Conceptual authoring approach:
• Users cannot directly edit the CNL text
• They can only trigger modification actions
• Starting from a small stub sentence
• Incomplete statements are gradually completed by the user
Examples
Schedule this event by applying this method.
Schedule the appointment by applying this method.
• Internally maps to Prolog expressions, which are automatically
executed
• Possible structural ambiguity can be resolved based on the given
sequence of modification actions
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34. E2V
• CNL introduced in 2001
• Corresponds to the language E3 studied in later work
• The ultimate goal is “to provide useable tools for natural
language system specification”
• Deterministic mapping to 2-variable fragment of first-order logic
• Decidable and computation is NEXPTIME complete
• Defined by 15 simple grammar rules (plus nine predefined lexical
rules)
• Separate, user-defined lexicon contains the content words such
as artist and admires
Examples
Some artist does not despise every beekeeper.
Every artist who employs a carpenter despises every beekeeper who
admires him.
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35. Formalized-English (FE)
• CNL for knowledge representation introduced in 2002
• Focusing on expressiveness
• Based on Conceptual Graphs and the Knowledge Interchange
Format (KIF)
• Covers a wide range of features: general universal quantification,
negation, contexts (statements about statements), lambda
abstractions, possibility, collections, intervals, higher-order
statements (reducible to first-order logic), and more
• Quite unnatural for complex statements
Examples
At least 93% of [bird with chrc a good health] can be agent of a
flight.
If ‘a binaryRelationType *rt has for chrc the transitivity’ then ‘if ‘ˆx
has for *rt ˆy that has for *rt ˆz’ then ‘ˆx has for *rt ˆz’ ’.
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36. Part 3: Properties
What are the types and properties of CNLs?
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37. Properties
To get a more principled view on CNLs and their properties, we will
now look at:
• Definitions of the term CNL
• Related terms
• Properties of CNL environments
• Inherent language properties
• CNL implementation
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38. Existing Definitions
A controlled language (CL) is a restricted version of a
natural language which has been engineered to meet a
special purpose, most often that of writing technical
documentation for non-native speakers of the document
language. A typical CL uses a well-defined subset of a
language’s grammar and lexicon, but adds the terminology
needed in a technical domain.
Controlled natural language is a subset of natural language
that can be accurately and efficiently processed by a
computer, but is expressive enough to allow natural usage
by non-specialists.
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39. Our Definition: Short
A controlled natural language is a constructed language that is
based on a certain natural language, being more restrictive
concerning lexicon, syntax, and/or semantics while preserving most of
its natural properties.
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40. Our Definition: Long
A language is called a controlled natural language if and only if it
has all of the following four properties:
1 It is based on exactly one natural language (its “base language”).
2 The most important difference between it and its base language
(but not necessarily the only one) is that it is more restrictive
concerning lexicon, syntax, and/or semantics.
3 It preserves most of the natural properties of its base language,
so that speakers of the base language can intuitively and
correctly understand texts in the controlled natural language, at
least to a substantial degree.
4 It is a constructed language, which means that it is explicitly
and consciously defined, and is not the product of an implicit
and natural process (even though it is based on a natural
language that is the product of an implicit and natural process).
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41. Related Terms
There are a number of terms related to CNL, and these are easy to
confuse:
• Sublanguages
• Fragments of language
• Style guides
• Phraseologies
• Controlled Vocabularies
• Constructed Languages
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42. Sublanguages
Sublanguages are languages that naturally arise when “a community
of speakers (i.e. ‘experts’) shares some specialized knowledge about a
restricted semantic domain [and] the experts communicate about the
restricted domain in a recurrent situation, or set of highly similar
situations.”
• Like CNLs, a sublanguage is based on exactly one natural
language and is more restricted
• Crucial difference: sublanguages emerge naturally; CNLs are
explicitly and consciously defined
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43. Fragments of Language
Fragments of language is a term denoting “a collection of sentences
forming a naturally delineated subset of [a natural] language.”
• Closely related to CNL: difference is mainly methodological
• Fragments of language are identified rather than defined
• Kept in the context of the full natural language and related
fragments
• Purpose is rather to theoretically study them than to directly use
them to solve a particular problem
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44. Style Guides
Style guides are documents containing instructions on how to write
in a certain natural language.
• Some style guides such as “How to write clearly” by the
European Commission provide “hints, not rules”
• Such languages do not describe a new language, but only give
advice on how to use the given natural language
• Others such as the Plain Language guidelines are stricter and do
describe a language not identical to the respective full language
• Such languages should be considered CNL if they did not emerge
naturally
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45. Phraseologies
Phraseology is a term that denotes a “set of expressions used by a
particular person or group.”
• Simpler grammatical structure than in full natural language
• Not a selection of sentences but a selection of phrases
• Can be natural or constructed
• Constructed phraseologies are usually considered CNLs
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46. Controlled Vocabularies
Controlled vocabularies are standardized collections of names and
expressions, including “lists of controlled terms, synonym rings,
taxonomies, and thesauri.”
• Mostly cover a specific, narrow domain
• In contrast to CNL, they do not deal with grammatical issues
(i.e., how to combine the terms to write complete sentences)
• Many CNL approaches, especially domain-specific ones, include
controlled vocabularies
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47. Constructed Languages
or Artificial Languages
or Planned Languages
Constructed languages are languages that did not emerge naturally
but have been explicitly and consciously defined.
The term includes (but is not limited to) languages such as:
• Esperanto
• Programming languages
• CNLs
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48. Properties of CNLs
CNLs have a variety of different properties:
• Some are inherent language properties
• Others are properties of the environment in which the language
is used
Let’s see...
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49. Property: Problem Domain
CNLs can be subdivided according to the problem they are supposed
to solve:
• To improve communication among humans, especially speakers
with different native languages (letter code c)
• To improve manual, computer-aided, semi-automatic, or
automatic translation (t)
• To provide a natural and intuitive representation for formal
notations (f); this includes approaches for automatic execution
of texts
Type c is the oldest, type t emerged later, and type f is the most
recent of the three.
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50. Property: Problem Domain —
Alternative Classifications
Alternative binary classifications dominate the existing literature:
• “Human-oriented” (∼ c) vs. “computer-oriented” (∼ t and f)
languages
• “Naturalistic” (∼ c and t) vs. “formalistic” (∼ f) languages
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51. More Properties
CNLs can be intended to be written (w) and/or spoken (s).
CNLs can be targeted towards a specific and narrow domain (d).
CNLs can originate from an academic (a), industrial (i), and/or
governmental (g) environment.
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52. Properties: Overview
Code Property
c The goal is comprehensibility
t The goal is translation
f The goal is formal representation
w The language is intended to be written
s The language is intended to be spoken
d The language is designed for a specific narrow domain
a The language originated from academia
i The language originated from industry
g The language originated from a government
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53. Inherent Language Properties?
These properties do not seem to be inherent language properties:
• Languages that originated in academia can later be used in
industry or a government, and vice versa
• The lexicon can later be declared open or closed
• Written languages can be read aloud
• Spoken languages can be written down
The properties collected so far seem to describe language
environments rather than the languages themselves.
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54. Inherent Language Properties
There are, of course, inherent language properties. They can be
subsumed by the following four dimensions:
• Precision: Is there vagueness, ambiguity, context sensitivity, or
room for interpretation?
• Expressiveness: What is the range of statements that can be
expressed?
• Naturalness: How much does it resemble natural language?
• Simplicity/Complexity: How difficult is it to fully define the
language or to implement it in a computer program?
These inherent language properties are, however, difficult to quantify.
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55. Languages for Comparison
To get an understanding of the nature of CNLs, it is helpful to look
at some languages for comparison:
• English (or any other natural language)
• Propositional logic
• Manchester OWL Syntax
• First-order logic
• COBOL
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56. Language for Comparison:
Propositional Logic
Propositional logic is a very basic logic language.
Example
A ∧ ¬B → C
Meaning of this example: “If A and not B then C.”
A, B, and C could stand for “it is Sunday,” “it is raining,” and “the
park is crowded.”
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57. Language for Comparison:
Manchester OWL Syntax
The Manchester OWL Syntax is a user-friendly syntax for the
ontology language OWL.
Example
Pizza and not (hasTopping some FishTopping) and not
(hasTopping some MeatTopping)
Instead of logical symbols, natural words such as not and some are
used.
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58. Inherent Language Properties:
Classification Scheme for CNLs
Conceptually, CNLs are somewhere in the gray area between natural
languages on the one end and formal languages on the other.
Natural versus formal languages:
• Natural languages such as English are very expressive, but
complex and imprecise
• Formal languages such as propositional logic are very simple and
precise, but at the same time unnatural and inexpressive
• CNLs must be somewhere in the middle ...
... but where exactly?
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59. PENS Classification Scheme
Four PENS dimensions:
• Precision: from very imprecise (e.g., English) to maximally
precise (e.g., propositional logic)
• Expressiveness: from very inexpressive (e.g., propositional logic)
to maximally expressive (e.g. English)
• Naturalness: from very unnatural (e.g., propositional logic) to
fully natural (e.g., English)
• Simplicity: from extremely complex (e.g., English) to very
simple (e.g., propositional logic)
PENS defines five consecutive non-overlapping classes in each
dimension: P1 – P5, E1 – E5, N1 – N5, S1 – S5
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60. Precision
The precision dimension captures the degree to which the meaning of
a text can be directly retrieved from its textual form, that is, the
sequence of language symbols.
• Imprecise languages (P1)
• Less imprecise languages (P2)
• Reliably interpretable languages (P3)
• Deterministically interpretable languages (P4)
• Languages with fixed semantics (P5)
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61. Imprecise languages (P1
)
Examples:
• All natural languages
• E-Prime
Criteria:
• Virtually every sentence of these languages is vague to a certain
degree
• Without taking context into account, most sentences of a
certain complexity are ambiguous
• The automatic interpretation of such languages is “AI-complete”
• Require a human reader to check syntax and meaning of
statements
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62. Less imprecise languages (P2
)
Examples:
• Basic English
• Caterpillar Fundamental English / ASD-STE
• FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology
Criteria:
• Less ambiguity and vagueness than in natural languages
• Interpretation depends much less on context
• Restrict the use and/or the meaning of a wide range of the
ambiguous, vague, or context-dependent constructs
• Restrictions are not sufficient to make automatic interpretation
reliable
• No formal (i.e., mathematically precise) underpinning
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63. Reliably interpretable languages (P3
)
Examples:
• Standard Language
• SBVR Structured English
Criteria:
• Heavily restricted syntax (not necessarily formally defined)
• Reliable automatic interpretation
• Logical underpinning or formal conceptual scheme to represent
semantics
• No fully formalized mapping of sentences to their semantic
representations
• External background knowledge, heuristics, or user feedback are
required
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64. Deterministically interpretable languages (P4
)
Examples:
• Attempto Controlled English
• Drafter Language
Criteria:
• Fully formal on the syntactic level (can be defined by a formal
grammar)
• Parse deterministically to a formal logic representation (or a
small closed set of all possible representations)
• Representations may be underspecified: they may require certain
parameters, background axioms, external resources, or heuristics
to enable sensible deductions
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65. Languages with fixed semantics (P5
)
Examples:
• Syllogisms
• E2V
• Formalized-English
• Manchester OWL Syntax
• Propositional logic
Criteria:
• Fully formal and fully specified on syntactic and semantic levels
• Each text has exactly one meaning, which can be automatically
derived
• The circumstances in which inferences hold or do not hold are
fully defined
• No heuristics or external resources are necessary
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66. Expressiveness
The dimension of expressiveness describes the range of propositions
that a certain language is able to express.
A language X is more expressive than a language Y if language X can
describe everything that language Y can, but not vice versa.
• Inexpressive languages (E1)
• Languages with low expressiveness (E2)
• Languages with medium expressiveness (E3)
• Languages with high expressiveness (E4)
• Languages with maximal expressiveness (E5)
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67. Inexpressive languages (E1
)
Examples:
• FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology
• Standard Language
• Drafter Language
• Syllogisms
• Propositional logic
Criteria:
• No universal quantification, or
• No relations of arity greater than 1 (e.g., binary relations)
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68. Languages with low expressiveness (E2
)
Examples:
• E2V
• Manchester OWL Syntax
Criteria:
• Universal quantification over individuals (possibly limited)
• Relations of arity greater than 1 (e.g., binary relations)
• Are not E3-languages
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69. Languages with medium expressiveness (E3
)
Examples:
• Attempto Controlled English
Criteria:
• General rule structures: if–then statements with multiple
universal quantification that can target all argument positions of
relations
• Negation (strong negation or negation as failure)
• Have all features of E2
• Are not E4-languages
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70. Languages with high expressiveness (E4
)
Examples:
• SBVR Structured English
• Formalized English
Criteria:
• General second-order universal quantification over concepts and
relations
• Have all features of E3
• Are not E5-languages
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71. Languages with maximal expressiveness (E5
)
Examples:
• Basic English
• E-Prime
• Caterpillar Fundamental English / ASD-STE
• All natural languages
Criteria:
• Can express anything that can be communicated between two
human beings
• Cover any statement in any type of logic
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 71 / 163
72. Naturalness
The dimension of naturalness describes how close the language is to
a natural language in terms of readability and understandability to
speakers of the given natural language.
• Unnatural languages (N1)
• Languages with dominant unnatural elements (N2)
• Languages with dominant natural elements (N3)
• Languages with natural sentences (N4)
• Languages with natural texts (N5)
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 72 / 163
73. Unnatural languages (N1
)
Examples:
• Propositional logic
Criteria:
• Languages that do not look natural
• Heavy use of symbol characters, brackets, or unnatural keywords
• Use of natural words or phrases as names for certain entities
might be possible, but is neither required nor further defined
These are not CNLs according to our definition.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 73 / 163
74. Languages with dominant unnatural elements
(N2
)
Examples:
• Manchester OWL Syntax
Criteria:
• Natural language words or phrases are an integral part
• Dominated by unnatural elements or unnatural statement
structure
• Natural elements do not connect in a natural way to each other
• Untrained readers fail to intuitively understand the statements
These are not CNLs according to our definition.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 74 / 163
75. Languages with dominant natural elements (N3
)
Examples:
• FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology
• Formalized-English
Criteria:
• Natural elements are dominant over unnatural ones
• General structure corresponds to natural language grammar
• Sentences cannot be considered valid natural sentences
• Untrained readers do not recognize the statements as
well-formed sentences of their language, but are nevertheless
able to intuitively understand them to a substantial degree
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 75 / 163
76. Languages with natural sentences (N4
)
Examples:
• Syllogisms
• Standard Language
• SBVR Structured English
• Attempto Controlled English
• Drafter Language
• E2V
Criteria:
• Valid natural sentences
• If natural flow is maintained, minor deviations are permitted,
including text color, indentation, hyphenation, and capitalization
• Untrained readers recognize the statements as sentences of their
language and are able to correctly understand their essence
• Single sentences have a natural flow, but not complete texts
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 76 / 163
77. Languages with natural texts (N5
)
Examples:
• Basic English
• E-Prime
• Caterpillar Fundamental English / ASD-STE
• All natural languages
Criteria:
• Complete texts and documents can be written in a natural style
and with a natural text flow
• For spoken languages, complete dialogs can be produced with a
natural flow and a natural combination of speech acts
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 77 / 163
78. Simplicity
The fourth dimension is a measure of the simplicity or complexity of
an exact and comprehensive language description covering syntax and
semantics (without presupposing intuitive knowledge about any
natural language), if such a complete description is possible at all.
Indicator for simplicity: the number of pages needed to the describe
the language in an exact and comprehensive way.
• Very complex languages (S1)
• Languages without exhaustive descriptions (S2)
• Languages with lengthy descriptions (S3)
• Languages with short descriptions (S4)
• Languages with very short descriptions (S5)
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 78 / 163
79. Very complex languages (S1
)
Examples:
• Basic English
• E-Prime
• Caterpillar Fundamental English / ASD-STE
• All natural languages
Criteria:
• Have the complexity of natural languages
• Cannot be described in an exact and comprehensive manner
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 79 / 163
80. Languages without exhaustive descriptions (S2
)
Examples:
• FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology
• Standard Language
• SBVR Structured English
Criteria:
• Considerably simpler than natural languages
• A significant part of the complex structures are eliminated or
heavily restricted
• Too complex to be described in an exact and comprehensive
manner
• Usually described by restrictions on a given natural language
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 80 / 163
81. Languages with lengthy descriptions (S3
)
Examples:
• Attempto Controlled English
• Drafter Language
• Formalized-English
Criteria:
• Can be defined in an exact and comprehensive manner
• Requires more than ten pages
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 81 / 163
82. Languages with short descriptions (S4
)
Examples:
• E2V
• Manchester OWL Syntax
Criteria:
• Exact and comprehensive description requires more than one
page but not more than ten pages
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 82 / 163
83. Languages with very short descriptions (S5
)
Examples:
• Syllogisms
• Propositional logic
Criteria:
• Can be described in an exact and comprehensive manner on a
single page
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 83 / 163
84. CNL Implementations
CNL parsers/checkers can be implemented in a number of
programming languages or frameworks:
• Unification grammars in Prolog: very powerful and general
• Parser generator languages (yacc, GNU Bison, etc.): optimized
for programming languages
• Grammatical Framework (GF): optimized for natural languages
and translation
• Codeco: optimized for CNLs with predictive editors and
non-local dependencies like anaphoric references
• Other general-purpose programming languages (Java, Python,
etc.)
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 84 / 163
85. Part 4: Applications
In what applications are CNLs used?
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 85 / 163
86. Application Areas
• Semantic Web
• Technical Documentation
• General-Purpose Knowledge Representation
• Personal Rules and Scripts
• Emergency Instructions
• Query Interfaces
• International Communication
• Mathematical Texts
• Software Specifications
• Legislation/Government Documents
• Policies / Business Rules
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 86 / 163
87. Application Area:
Semantic Web
Languages:
• Ginseng’s Guided English
• AIDA
• ClearTalk
• Controlled Language for Ontology Editing (CLOnE)
• Rabbit
• OWL ACE
• OWL Simplified English
• and several others
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 87 / 163
88. Ginseng’s Guided English
P5
E1
N4
S3
— f w a
• Query language to access OWL ontologies
• Vocabulary is loaded from the respective ontologies
• 120 static grammar rules plus additional dynamic rules generated
from the ontologies
• Predictive editing approach
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 88 / 163
89. Ginseng’s Guided English: Screenshot
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 89 / 163
90. AIDA
P2
E5
N4
S1
— f w a
• For informal and underspecified representations of scientific
assertions in “nanopublications”
• Single English sentences as a scaffold for organizing scientific
discoveries and discourse
• Atomic, Independent, Declarative, and Absolute
ns1:mosquito
Malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes.
ns2:malaria
ns3:transmission
Example
The degree of hepatic reticuloendothelial function impairment does not
differ between cirrhotic patients with and without previous history of SBP.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 90 / 163
91. ClearTalk
P3
E3
N3
S3
— f w a
• Documents can be “almost automatically” translated into a
formal logic notation and into other natural languages
• It “offers a flexible degree of formality” that lets an author
choose to “leave or remove ambiguity”
• Syntactic restrictions, e.g. basic sentences have the general form
subject predicate complement modifier-phrases
• Semantic restrictions, e.g. the determiner a at subject position
represents universal quantification
Examples
Any adverb that modifies a verb must be adjacent to (that verb or
another adverb).
Mary hopes that [- Bill loves her -].
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 91 / 163
92. Controlled Language for Ontology Editing
(CLOnE)
P5
E2
N4
S4
— f w a
• Front-end language for OWL, covering only a small subset
• Defined by ten basic sentence patterns
• Adds procedural semantics on top of OWL for introducing and
removing entities and axioms
Examples
Persons are authors of documents.
Carl Pollard and Ivan Sag are the authors of ’Head-Driven Phrase
Structure Grammar’.
Forget everything.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 92 / 163
93. Rabbit
P5
E2
N4
S4
— f w g
• Controlled natural language for OWL
• Developed and used by Ordnance Survey, Great Britain’s
national mapping agency
• Designed for a specific scenario for the communication between
domain experts and ontology engineers to create ontologies
• Three types of statements: declarations, axioms, and import
statements
Examples
Sheep is a concept, plural Sheep.
Every River flows into exactly one of River, Lake or Sea.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 93 / 163
94. OWL ACE
P5
E2
N4
S3
— f w a
• A subset of ACE that maps to OWL
• Available in the ACE View plugin for Prot´eg´e
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 94 / 163
95. OWL Simplified English
P5
E2
N4
S4
— f w a
• No real lexicon, neither built-in nor user-defined
• Only a very small number of predefined function words
• Users have to list the verbs they intend to use
• Other word categories are inferred based on syntactic clues such
as capitalization and adjacent words
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 95 / 163
96. Application Area:
Technical Documentation
Languages:
• Caterpillar Fundamental English
• ASD Simplified Technical English
• Standard Language
• Avaya Controlled English
• Caterpillar Technical English
• KANT Controlled English
• NCR Fundamental English
• and many more
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 96 / 163
97. Avaya Controlled English
P2
E5
N5
S1
— c t w d i
• Language for technical publications in the telecommunication
and computing industry
• Reduce translation costs and make texts easier to understand
• Lexical restrictions, e.g., “Do not use abort”
• Syntactic restrictions, e.g. “Use active voice”
• Semantic restrictions, e.g. “Use may only to grant permission”
• Stylistic restrictions, e.g. “Put command names in bold
monospaced type”
• Open list of about 250 words defines preferred terminology
Examples
This procedure describes how to connect a dual ACD link to the
server.
If the primary server fails, you can use the secondary server.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 97 / 163
98. Caterpillar Technical English
P2
E5
N5
S1
— c t w d i
• Second CNL developed at Caterpillar, starting in 1991
• Should improve consistency and reduce ambiguity of technical
documentation
• Should improve translation quality and reduce translation costs
with the help of machine translation
• Language checker with interactive disambiguation
• About 70,000 terms with a “narrow semantic scope”
• Syntactic restrictions, e.g. concerning the use of conjunctions,
pronouns, and subordinate clauses
Example
This category indicates that an alternator is malfunctioning. If the
indicator comes on, drive the machine to a convenient stopping place.
Investigate the cause and determine the solution.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 98 / 163
99. KANT Controlled English (KCE)
P2
E5
N5
S1
— t w a
• CNL for machine translation
• Lexicon, grammar, and semantics are restricted
Example
Secure the gear with twelve rivets.
• Ambiguity can be resolved by augmenting the sentence with
SGML tags:
Example with SGML tags
Secure the gear with <attach head=‘secure’ modi=‘with’> twelve
rivets.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 99 / 163
100. NCR Fundamental English
P2
E5
N5
S1
— c w d i
• Language for technical manuals of the NCR company
• Should make manuals “easier to read and use by NCR employees
and customers around the world”
• Nomenclature: open set of names of products, tools, routines,
modes, conditions, etc.
• Glossary: open set of words for technical concepts, e.g. audit trail
• Vocabulary: fixed set of 1,350 words (verbs, nouns, adverbs,
adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, articles, and conjunctions)
plus 650 abbreviations
Examples
While repairing the unit, the field engineer also performs normal
maintenance if it is needed.
No maintenance can be performed until the maintenance lock has
been activated.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 100 / 163
101. Application Area:
General-Purpose Knowledge Representation
Languages:
• Syllogisms
• Attempto Controlled English
• E2V
• Formalized-English
• Common Logic Controlled English (CLCE)
• Computer Processable Language (CPL)
• Controlled English to Logic Translation (CELT)
• Gellish English
• PENG
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 101 / 163
102. Common Logic Controlled English (CLCE)
P5
E3
N3
S3
— f w a
• CNL with mapping to first-order logic
• Defined by a grammar in Backus-Naur form
• Syntactic restrictions: no plural nouns, only present tense, and
variables instead of pronouns, and more
• Interpretation rules for unambiguous mapping to logic
• Parentheses to determine the structure of deeply nested
sentences
Examples
If some person x is the mother of a person y, then the person y is a
child of the person x.
Declare give as verb (agent gives recipient theme) (agent gives theme
to recipient) (theme is given recipient by agent) (theme is given to
recipient by agent) (recipient is given theme by agent).
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 102 / 163
103. Computer Processable Language (CPL)
P3
E3
N4
S2
— f w i
• Basic CPL sentences: subject + verb + complements + adjuncts
• Further syntax restrictions, e.g. definite references instead of
pronouns
• Seven templates for complex sentences, e.g. “If sentence1 then
typically sentence2”
• Parser translates CPL into a formal logic representation
• Parsing involves external tools and resources (e.g. WordNet)
• Paraphrase for verification or correction by the user
Examples
IF a person is carrying an entity that is inside a room THEN (almost)
always the person is in the room.
AFTER a person closes a barrier, (almost) always the barrier is shut.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 103 / 163
104. Computer Processable Language (CPL):
Screenshot
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 104 / 163
105. Controlled English to Logic Translation (CELT)
P4
E2
N4
S3
— f w i
• CNL inspired by ACE
• Uses existing linguistic and ontological resources: SUMO and
WordNet
• Deterministic syntax structure
• Heuristics for mapping the words to SUMO and WordNet
• Implemented as a unification grammar in Prolog
Examples
Dickens writes Oliver Twist in 1837.
Every boy likes fudge.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 105 / 163
106. Gellish English
P4
E2
N4
S3
— f w a i
• Common data language for industry
• Simple subject–predicate–object structures
• Predefined relations in the form of fixed phrases, e.g. “is a
specialization of” and “is valid in the context of”
• Fixed upper ontology with a large number of predefined concepts
and relation types
• Texts in Gellish can be transformed into a formal tabular
representation
Examples
collection C each of which elements is a specialization of animal
the Eiffel tower has aspect h1
h1 is classified as a height
h1 is qualified as 300 m
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 106 / 163
107. PENG
P5
E3
N4
S3
— f w a
• “Processable English,” inspired by ACE
• Rich but unambiguous language with mapping first-order logic
• Focus on predictive editing
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 107 / 163
108. Application Area:
Personal Rules and Scripts
Languages:
• Drafter Language
• Atomate Language
• Voice Actions
• iLastic Controlled English
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 108 / 163
109. Atomate Language
P4
E2
N4
S3
— f w d a
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 109 / 163
110. Voice Actions
P3
E1
N4
S2
— f s d i
• CNL for spoken action commands for Android phones
• Twelve informally defined command patterns
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 110 / 163
111. iLastic Controlled English
P5
E3
N4
S3
— f w i
• Language for non-developers to write intuitive and natural scripts
• Automatic retrieval, transformation, and combination of data
from the web, databases, files, and other resources
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 111 / 163
113. Controlled Language for Crisis Management
(CLCM)
P2
E5
N5
S1
— c t w d a
• CNL for instructions on how to deal with crisis situations
• About 80 simplification rules on ...
• Text structure, e.g. “Write a title for every specific situation”
• Formatting, e.g. “Separate with a new line each block of
instructions”
• Lexicon, e.g. “Avoid technical terms”
• Syntax, e.g. “Avoid passive voice”
• Semantics, e.g. “Use only literal meaning”
• Pragmatics, e.g. “Remove unimportant information”
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 113 / 163
114. Application Area:
Query Interfaces
Languages:
• Coral’s Controlled English
• Quelo Controlled English
• BioQuery-CNL
• CLEF Query Language
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 114 / 163
115. Coral’s Controlled English
P5
E1
N4
S4
— f w d a
• CNL for formal queries to annotated text corpora
• Influenced by ACE, but simpler and much less expressive
• Query interface for users with no computing background
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 115 / 163
116. Quelo Controlled English
P4
E1
N4
S4
— f w a
• CNL used in a query interface called Quelo
• Conceptual authoring approach: users cannot directly edit the
sentences, but they can trigger modification actions on the
underlying formal representation
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 116 / 163
117. BioQuery-CNL
P5
E2
N4
S4
— f w d a
• CNL for biomedical queries
• Query engine based on answer set programming
• Initially designed as a subset of ACE with some small
modifications handled in a preprocessing step
• Evolved into an independent language with its own parser
Example
What are the genes that are targeted by all the drugs that belong to
the category Hmg-coa reductase?
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 117 / 163
118. CLEF Query Language
P5
E1
N4
S3
— f w d a
• CNL used within a system called CLEF (Clinical E-Science
Framework)
• Should help clinicians, medical researchers, and hospital
administrators to query electronic health records
• Conceptual authoring approach, influenced by Drafter language
• Basic queries are composed of: the set of relevant patients, the
received treatments, and the outcomes
• Complex queries with multiple elements of the same type
• Translated to SQL and given to a database engine
Example
For all patients with cancer of the pancreas, what is the percentage
alive at five years for those who had a course of gemcitabine?
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 118 / 163
119. Application Area:
International Communication
Languages:
• Basic English
• FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology
• Special English
• PoliceSpeak
• SEASPEAK
• EasyEnglish (by Wycliffe Associates)
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 119 / 163
120. Special English
P1
E5
N5
S1
— c w s g
• CNL developed and used by the Voice of America (VOA), the
official external broadcast institution of the US government
• Used since 1959 until today for news on radio, television, and
the web
• Second oldest English-based CNL (after Basic English) and the
only one that has been in use for such a long period by the same
organization
• Vocabulary is restricted to about 1,500 words, which have
changed over time
• Short sentences and should be spoken at a slower speed
• No explicit restrictions on grammar or semantics
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 120 / 163
121. Special English: Word Book
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 121 / 163
122. PoliceSpeak
P2
E1
N3
S2
— c s d g
• CNL to improve police communications of English and French
officers at the Channel Tunnel
• Goal: “make police communications more concise, more
predictable, more stable and less ambiguous”
• Launched in 1988 and the language was ready in 1992
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 122 / 163
123. SEASPEAK
P2
E1
N3
S2
— c s d g
• “International Maritime English”
• For clear communication among ships and harbors
• Development started in 1981
• Similar goal and application area as SEASPEAK and air traffic
control phraseologies
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 123 / 163
124. EasyEnglish (by Wycliffe Associates)
P2
E5
N5
S1
— c t w d
• Not to be confused with IBM’s EasyEnglish!
• CNL for transcribing biblical texts to improve translation for
readers with limited knowledge of English
• Restricted with respect to lexicon, syntax, and semantics
• 1,200 words (level A) and 2,800 words (level B)
• E.g. fair can only mean unbiased; to see cannot be used in the
sense to meet
• Other words need explanations in separate EasyEnglish sentences
• Strict sentence length limit of 20 words
Example
The Highlands of Scotland consist of lakes, mountains and moors.
The moors are flat empty lands where no trees grow. This land is
wonderful and magnificent because it is so empty.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 124 / 163
125. Application Area:
Mathematical Texts
Languages:
• ForTheL
• Naproche CNL
• Controlled Language of Mathematics (CLM)
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 125 / 163
126. ForTheL
P5
E3
N3
S3
— f w d a
• “Formal Theory Language”
• CNL for mathematical texts
• Can be automatically translated into first-order logic
Example
Definition 4. Let A, B be sets.
A is a subset of B (A sub B) IFF all elements of A
belong to B.
Lemma 1. Each set has a subset.
Proof. 0 is a subset of all sets. QED.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 126 / 163
127. Naproche CNL
P5
E3
N3
S3
— f w d a
• Another CNL for mathematical texts with a deterministic
mapping to first-order logic
• Automatic checking for logical correctness
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 127 / 163
128. Application Area:
Software Specifications
Languages:
• Template Based Natural Language Specification (TBNLS)
• Gherkin
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 128 / 163
129. Template Based Natural Language Specification
(TBNLS)
P5
E2
N3
S4
— f w d a i
• CNL for testing control software for passenger vehicles
• Defined by 15 templates
• Mapping to propositional logic with temporal relations
Example
If Button B4 is down P1 occurs, then Lamp L3 is red P2
hold immediately, until 10 seconds T1 elapsed.
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 129 / 163
130. Gherkin
P5
E3
N4
S3
— f w d a
• CNL for writing executable scenarios for software specifications
• Fixed structuring words such as Given, And, and But
• Restrictions on remaining text in ordinary programming
languages using regular expressions (“step definitions”)
• Concrete step definitions are not part of Gherkin, but have to be
implemented for the particular task at hand
• Highly customizable and extensible
Example
Scenario: Unsuccessful registration due to full course
Given I am a student
And a lecture “PA042” with limited capacity of 20 students
But the capacity of this course is full
[...]
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 130 / 163
131. Gherkin: Editor
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 131 / 163
133. Plain Language (or Plain English)
P1
E5
N5
S1
— c w g
• Initiative by the US government and other organizations
• Origins in the 1970s
• Goal: make official documents easier to understand and less
bureaucratic
• Examples of rules:
• “Use pronouns to speak directly to readers”
• “Avoid double negatives and exceptions to exceptions”
• Many of the guideline rules are strict
• With the Plain Writing Act of 2010, US governmental agencies
are obliged to comply with these restrictions
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 133 / 163
134. Massachusetts Legislative Drafting Language
P2
E5
N5
S1
— c w d g
• CNL for legal texts defined by the Massachusetts Senate
• “to promote uniformity in drafting style, and to make the
resulting statutes clear, simple and easy to understand and use”
• Defined by about 100 rules
• Restricted syntax, e.g. “Use the present tense and the indicative
mood”
• Restricted semantics, e.g. “Do not use ‘deem’ for ‘consider’”
• Restricted document structure, e.g. “Use short sections or
subsections”
• Close to 90 words and phrases that must not be used, with
suggested replacements, e.g. hide instead of conceal, and rest
instead of remainder
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 134 / 163
135. Application Area:
Policies / Business Rules
Languages:
• SBVR Structured English
• RuleSpeak
• PERMIS Controlled Natural Language
Tobias Kuhn, ETH Zurich Controlled Natural Language and Opportunities for Standardization 135 / 163
136. RuleSpeak
P3
E4
N4
S2
— c f w i
• CNL for business rules
• Development started in 1985 and was first presented in 1994
• Very similar to SBVR Structured English
• Each rule belongs to one of eleven “functional categories” such
as “computation rule,” “inference rule,” and “process trigger”
• Specific templates for each category, e.g. computation rules
contain the phrase “must be computed as” or “=”
Example
An order may be accepted only if all of the following are true:
- It includes at least one item.
- It indicates the customer who is placing it.
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137. PERMIS Controlled Natural Language
P5
E2
N4
S4
— f w d a
• CNL for access control policies for grid computing environments
• Based on CLOnE with extensions for authorization policies
• Mapping to different formal target notations
• Nine statement patterns
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138. Part 5: Analysis
What does the big picture of existing CNLs look like?
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139. Analysis
We can now analyze the collected data:
• What inherent properties do existing CNLs have?
• In what environments are existing CNLs used?
• What does the timeline of CNL evolution look like?
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140. Naturalness vs. Simplicity
PENS classes of CNLs (blue) in comparison to natural (white) and
formal (black) languages:
Naturalness
1 2 3 4 5
Simplicity
1
2
3
4
5
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141. Precision vs. Naturalness
CNLs (blue), natural (white) and formal (black) languages:
Precision
1 2 3 4 5
Naturalness
1
2
3
4
5
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142. Precision vs. Simplicity
CNLs (blue), natural (white) and formal (black) languages:
Precision
1 2 3 4 5
Simplicity
1
2
3
4
5
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143. Naturalness vs. Simplicity
CNLs (blue), natural (white) and formal (black) languages:
Naturalness
1 2 3 4 5
Simplicity
1
2
3
4
5
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144. Expressiveness vs. Simplicity
CNLs (blue), natural (white) and formal (black) languages:
Expressiveness
1 2 3 4 5
Simplicity
1
2
3
4
5
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145. Expressiveness vs. Naturalness
CNLs (blue), natural (white) and formal (black) languages:
Expressiveness
1 2 3 4 5
Naturalness
1
2
3
4
5
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146. CNL Environment Properties
total combined with property PENS average
property c t f w s d a i g P E N S
c comprehensibility 45 - 17 3 40 6 33 4 33 8 2.0 4.3 4.7 1.2
t translation 22 17 - 1 21 0 17 5 18 0 2.0 4.8 5.0 1.1
f formal representation 54 3 1 - 52 1 19 45 10 2 4.4 2.3 3.8 3.2
w written 93 40 21 52 - 1 46 49 42 5 3.3 3.5 4.3 2.3
s spoken 7 6 0 1 1 - 6 0 1 6 2.0 1.6 3.4 1.9
d domain-specific 53 33 17 19 46 6 - 20 29 6 2.8 3.5 4.4 1.9
a academia 50 4 5 45 49 0 20 - 4 1 4.3 2.5 3.9 3.1
i industry 43 33 18 10 42 1 29 4 - 0 2.3 4.3 4.7 1.4
g government 10 8 0 2 5 6 6 1 0 - 2.4 2.5 3.8 2.0
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147. CNL Timeline
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology
E-PrimeBasic English
Caterpillar Fundamental English (CFE)
ASD Simplified Technical English (ASD-STE)
Standard Language (SLANG)
SBVR Structured English
Drafter Language
Attempto Controlled English (ACE)
E2V
Sowa’s Syllogisms
Formalized-English
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148. Detailed Timeline, Part 1
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
PoliceSpeak
SEASPEAK
ICAO Phraseology
CAA Phraseology
FAA Air Traffic Control Phraseology
Wycliffe Associates’ EasyEnglish
Plain Language
E-Prime
Special EnglishBasic English
Kodak International Service Language (KISL)
Clear And Simple English (CASE)
Caterpillar Fundamental English (CFE)
Caterpillar Technical English (CTE)
Diebold Controlled English (DCE)
Kant Controlled English (KCE)
Controlled English at Clark
Controlled English at Rockwell
Hyster Easy Language Program (HELP)
Bull Global English
Nortel Standard English (NSE)
SMART Plain English
Controlled English at Douglas
SMART Controlled English
ASD Simplified Technical English (ASD-STE)
AECMA Simplified English (AECMA-SE)
Boeing Technical English
International Language of Service and Maintenance (ILSAM)
Controlled English at IBM
IBM’s EasyEnglish
Ericsson English (EE)
Multinational Customized English (MCE)
Perkins Approved Clear English (PACE)
NCR Fundamental English
COGRAM
ALCOGRAM
Controlled Automotive Service Language (CASL)
General Motors Global English
Oc´e Controlled English
Sun Proof
CLOUT
Avaya Controlled English
Controlled Language for Crisis Management (CLCM)
iHelp Controlled English (iCE)
Airbus Warning Language
Standard Language (SLANG)
Massachusetts Legislative Drafting Language
RuleSpeak
SBVR Structured English
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149. Detailed Timeline, Part 2
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
AIDA
Voice Actions
ClearTalk
PROSPER Controlled English
CPL
Common Logic Controlled English (CLCE)
ITA Controlled English
Restricted English for Constructing Ontologies (RECON)
Restricted Natural Language Statement (RNLS)
MILE Query Language
CLEF Query Language
Drafter Language
ICONOCLAST Language
PILLS Language
Quelo Controlled English
Gellish English
Ginseng’s Guided English
GINO’s Guided English
PERMIS CNL
CLOnE
Atomate Language
Attempto Controlled English (ACE)
Coral’s Controlled English
BioQuery-CNL
OWL ACE
Controlled English to Logic Translation (CELT)
PENG-D
PENG
PENG Light
Sydney OWL Syntax (SOS)
Rabbit
PathOnt CNL
E2V
Lite Natural Language
DL-English
SQUALL
OWL Simplified English (OSE)
ucsCNL
Template Based Natural Language Specification (TBNLS)
Computer Processable English (CPE)
Controlled Language for Inference Purposes (CLIP)
Sowa’s Syllogisms
First Order English
Pseudo Natural Language (PNL)
ForTheL
Naproche
Controlled Language of Mathematics (CLM)
iLastic Controlled English
OWLPath’s Guided English
Gherkin
Formalized-English
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150. Part 6: Evaluations
Do CNLs actually work?
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151. Evaluations
Research questions for CNL evaluation:
c Does a CNL make communication among humans more precise
and more effective?
t Does a CNL reduce overall translation costs at a given level of
quality?
f Does a CNL make it easier for people to use and understand
logic formalisms?
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152. Evaluations: Type c
• Two studies on AECMA-SE showed that the use of controlled
English significantly improves text comprehension, with a
particularly large effect for complex texts and non-native
speakers
• CLCM has been found to have a positive effect on reading
comprehension for most groups of readers under certain
circumstances such as stress situations
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153. Evaluations: Type t
• Multinational Customized English (MCE) for
machine-assisted translation leads to a “five-to-one gain in
translation time”
• With Perkins Approved Clear English (PACE), post-editing
of machine-assisted translation is “three or four times faster”
than without
• Adherence to typical CNL rules improves post editing
productivity and machine translation quality
• CLCM texts are easier to translate than uncontrolled ones and
the time needed for post-editing is reduced on average by 20%
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154. Evaluations: Type f
Two types of studies:
• Studies that test the general usability of CNL tools
• Studies that specifically evaluate the comprehensibility of the
actual languages
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155. Type f Evaluations: Usability
• Study has shown that the CLOnE interface is more usable than
a common ontology editor
• Coral’s controlled English has been shown to be easier to use
than a comparable common query interface
• Positive usability results have also been reported for: GINO
(similar to Ginseng), CLEF, CPL, PERMIS, Rabbit, and ACE
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157. Coral Usability Evaluation: Results
64%Coral
33%ANNIS
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Objective Usability (Percentage of Correct Queries)
2.33Coral
1.42ANNIS
0 1 2 3
Subjective Usability (Questionnaire Score)
86Coral
108ANNIS
0 30 60 90 120
Needed Effort (Time in Seconds)
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158. Type f Evaluations: Comprehensibility
• Has been shown for CLEF that common users are able to
correctly interpret given statements
• ACE has been shown to be easier and faster to understand than
a common ontology notation
• Experiments on the Rabbit language gave mixed results
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159. Comprehensibility Evaluation: ACE
OWL (Manchester syntax) ACE
Bob HasType developer Bob is a developer.
developer SubTypeOf professional Every developer is a professional.
developer SubTypeOf owns some cup Every developer owns a cup
Bob HasType owns some (not cup) Bob owns something that is not a cup.
loves SubRelationOf likes If X loves Y then X likes Y.
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161. Part 7: Standardization
What are the opportunities for Standardization?
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162. Standardization: Discussion
Standardization of:
• Particular CNLs
• Properties of CNLs
• CNL classification scheme
• CNL interfaces
• Implementation of CNLs
• Evaluation techniques for CNL
?
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163. Thank you for your Attention!
Questions?
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