Epic theatre presents political drama intended to appeal to reason rather than emotions. It replaced episodic structure in classical theatre and introduced the alienation effect to discourage audience identification with characters. Bertolt Brecht pioneered epic theatre in Germany in the 1920s, seeking a socially and politically relevant theatre that would stimulate thought and action in audiences. Brecht's Man is Man (1926) is considered the first epic theatre play. Epic theatre uses alienation effects, explanatory captions, and narrators to encourage critical analysis of social and political issues rather than emotional catharsis.
Bertolt Brecht was a German playwright and theatre practitioner who created Epic Theatre, which aimed to educate audiences and provoke social and political change through critical thinking. Epic Theatre breaks the fourth wall and uses distancing effects like songs, captions, and episodic formats to remind viewers they are watching a representation, not reality itself, in order to shape attitudes and society. Brecht believed theatre's greatest function was to educate rather than provide escapism.
Bertolt Brecht was a German playwright who developed Epic Theatre, which used techniques like alienation effects to encourage audiences to think critically rather than become absorbed in the story. He wanted audiences to question social issues and power structures, not just passively watch drama. Some techniques included having the house lights on during performances or using placards to provide information rather than fully immersing audiences in realistic characters and plots.
This document discusses key elements of Bertolt Brecht's Epic Theatre style. It compares Brecht's Epic Theatre to Stanislavski's Naturalism, noting Epic Theatre uses narrative, each scene standing alone to turn the spectator into an observer. The key elements of Brechtian theatre identified are breaking the fourth wall, gestus, didacticism, narration and song, acting techniques like multi-roling and alienation effect. The document explores using Brechtian techniques in a modern film example and why his style remains relevant in today's theatre. Learning outcomes include comparing Epic and Naturalism styles, identifying Brechtian elements, and exploring its importance.
' Waiting For Godot- As an Absurd Theatre 'kishan8282
This document is a student paper analyzing Samuel Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot" as an example of absurdist or "Theatre of the Absurd" drama. It defines key features of absurdist plays like meaningless plots, lack of beginning/end, repetitive dialogue. It analyzes how Godot fits these through its plotless story of Vladimir and Estragon waiting endlessly. The paper also discusses the philosophical roots of absurdism in Camus' view of life as meaningless and examines elements like nonsense language, stereotypical characters, and absurd/ambiguous endings found in Godot and characteristic of Theatre of the Absurd.
The Theatre of the Absurd developed in response to the senselessness of World War II and aimed to capture the absurdity of life. It was formed by separate playwrights in different places over time, though the term was coined by Martin Esslin. Absurdist plays by figures like Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, and Arthur Adamov featured bewilderment in an unexplainable universe and questioned human traits through devices that left some details ambiguous. The Theatre of the Absurd influenced modern drama and introduced philosophy to theatre in a basic way.
The document summarizes Samuel Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot" as an absurd theater piece. It discusses key aspects of absurd theater like a lack of plot, meaningless dialogue, and characters without identity. The play features two tramps, Vladimir and Estragon, who engage in pointless conversations while waiting endlessly for someone named Godot who never arrives. The document analyzes how these elements portray the meaninglessness and absurdity of human existence, qualifying "Waiting for Godot" as a seminal work of absurd theater.
The document discusses the plays Top Girls by Caryl Churchill and how it draws influence from Bertolt Brecht's epic theatre techniques. It notes how Churchill and Brecht both use their work to take controversial ideological stances while entertaining audiences. Some of the epic techniques the play uses include verfremdungseffekt, montage, geste, and rejecting cathartic emotional spectatorship in favor of critical reflection. The structure of Top Girls eschews suspenseful plotting in favor of loosely connected episodic scenes that build a feminist critique of traditional patriarchal dramatic forms and values.
This document provides an overview of Greek tragedy and the play Medea. It discusses key features of Greek theaters including the orchestra, skene, and theatron spaces. It outlines conventions like the use of masks and all-male casts. The document also summarizes information about famous playwrights like Euripides and Aeschylus and the origins of annual theatrical competitions held in Athens to honor Dionysus. It concludes with details about specific elements that make Medea, written by Euripides, a unique tragedy, like its use of the mechane device and Medea's deliberate murder of her children.
Bertolt Brecht was a German playwright and theatre practitioner who created Epic Theatre, which aimed to educate audiences and provoke social and political change through critical thinking. Epic Theatre breaks the fourth wall and uses distancing effects like songs, captions, and episodic formats to remind viewers they are watching a representation, not reality itself, in order to shape attitudes and society. Brecht believed theatre's greatest function was to educate rather than provide escapism.
Bertolt Brecht was a German playwright who developed Epic Theatre, which used techniques like alienation effects to encourage audiences to think critically rather than become absorbed in the story. He wanted audiences to question social issues and power structures, not just passively watch drama. Some techniques included having the house lights on during performances or using placards to provide information rather than fully immersing audiences in realistic characters and plots.
This document discusses key elements of Bertolt Brecht's Epic Theatre style. It compares Brecht's Epic Theatre to Stanislavski's Naturalism, noting Epic Theatre uses narrative, each scene standing alone to turn the spectator into an observer. The key elements of Brechtian theatre identified are breaking the fourth wall, gestus, didacticism, narration and song, acting techniques like multi-roling and alienation effect. The document explores using Brechtian techniques in a modern film example and why his style remains relevant in today's theatre. Learning outcomes include comparing Epic and Naturalism styles, identifying Brechtian elements, and exploring its importance.
' Waiting For Godot- As an Absurd Theatre 'kishan8282
This document is a student paper analyzing Samuel Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot" as an example of absurdist or "Theatre of the Absurd" drama. It defines key features of absurdist plays like meaningless plots, lack of beginning/end, repetitive dialogue. It analyzes how Godot fits these through its plotless story of Vladimir and Estragon waiting endlessly. The paper also discusses the philosophical roots of absurdism in Camus' view of life as meaningless and examines elements like nonsense language, stereotypical characters, and absurd/ambiguous endings found in Godot and characteristic of Theatre of the Absurd.
The Theatre of the Absurd developed in response to the senselessness of World War II and aimed to capture the absurdity of life. It was formed by separate playwrights in different places over time, though the term was coined by Martin Esslin. Absurdist plays by figures like Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, and Arthur Adamov featured bewilderment in an unexplainable universe and questioned human traits through devices that left some details ambiguous. The Theatre of the Absurd influenced modern drama and introduced philosophy to theatre in a basic way.
The document summarizes Samuel Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot" as an absurd theater piece. It discusses key aspects of absurd theater like a lack of plot, meaningless dialogue, and characters without identity. The play features two tramps, Vladimir and Estragon, who engage in pointless conversations while waiting endlessly for someone named Godot who never arrives. The document analyzes how these elements portray the meaninglessness and absurdity of human existence, qualifying "Waiting for Godot" as a seminal work of absurd theater.
The document discusses the plays Top Girls by Caryl Churchill and how it draws influence from Bertolt Brecht's epic theatre techniques. It notes how Churchill and Brecht both use their work to take controversial ideological stances while entertaining audiences. Some of the epic techniques the play uses include verfremdungseffekt, montage, geste, and rejecting cathartic emotional spectatorship in favor of critical reflection. The structure of Top Girls eschews suspenseful plotting in favor of loosely connected episodic scenes that build a feminist critique of traditional patriarchal dramatic forms and values.
This document provides an overview of Greek tragedy and the play Medea. It discusses key features of Greek theaters including the orchestra, skene, and theatron spaces. It outlines conventions like the use of masks and all-male casts. The document also summarizes information about famous playwrights like Euripides and Aeschylus and the origins of annual theatrical competitions held in Athens to honor Dionysus. It concludes with details about specific elements that make Medea, written by Euripides, a unique tragedy, like its use of the mechane device and Medea's deliberate murder of her children.
Shen Te as an ‘Alter Ego’ of Shui Ta in Brecht’s The Good Woman of Setzuan: A...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The paper analyses the main character, Shen Te in the play The Good Woman of Setzuan on
dealing various works and businesses in the society. The study investigates the attitudes of men towards others
in different affaires of the society. It also discusses the understatement of being done on Shen Te. The special
emphasis of the paper goes with the performances and excellences of the protagonist performed in the play. The
executed services of Shen Te for the gods are not less valuable than that of other people of the society as Shui
Ta, the alter ego of herself. Her achievement and humankind should be valued like other members of the
society. She should no longer be distressed. Thus, the focal point of the researcher is to examine how the effort
and enthusiasm of an individual can be more valuable for having a smooth community to ensure peaceful lives
in the world.
KEYWORDS: Literary Style, Alter Ego, Complex Identity, Frustration, Social Change, Class Struggle
This document provides a summary and analysis of the play Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett in the context of existentialism. It discusses the characters Vladimir and Estragon who wait endlessly for Godot without any purpose or change in their situation. It analyzes how this demonstrates existentialist themes of humans being free agents who create their own meaning and purpose. The document also discusses other characters like Pozzo and quotes from the play that further illustrate existentialist ideas.
Samuel Beckett was an Irish writer born in 1906 near Dublin. He studied languages at Trinity College Dublin and later taught French and English in Belfast and Paris. He began writing in the late 1920s and is best known for his plays Waiting for Godot and Happy Days, as well as novels like Molloy and Malone Dies. Beckett was a pioneer of absurdist theater and modernist literature, stripping down language and plot to focus on fundamental human experiences like waiting, memory, and death. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1969 and continued writing until his death in 1989, leaving a profound influence on generations of writers, playwrights and artists.
Tragedy comes from Greek drama and refers to works that invoke emotions like sadness and anger in audiences through depictions of human suffering. Tragedies typically involve the downfall of a great person due to some superior force like destiny. According to Aristotle, tragedy is an imitation of action that is serious, complete, and of magnitude, told through embellished language to purge audiences of emotions like pity and fear through catharsis. Key elements of tragedy include the plot, characters, thoughts or ideas, diction or word choice, music, and spectacle or visual elements.
waiting for Godot - As an absurd theaterGopi Pipavat
- Martin Esslin coined the term "Theatre of the Absurd" in his 1962 book to describe plays that defied traditional genres, such as Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot.
- Waiting for Godot premiered in 1953 and became hugely popular despite having no plot, repetitive dialogue and action, and an unexplained ending.
- Characteristics of absurd plays include hopelessness, absurd or unexplained endings, comic scenes, repetition, and elements of existentialism which questions the existence and purpose of man.
The document discusses the Theatre of the Absurd genre coined by Martin Esslin to describe plays conveying anxiety, confusion and hopelessness in reaction to an unpredictable and absurd universe. Key factors influencing this genre were the atrocities of WWII and existentialist questions about the meaning of life. Major playwrights of this genre include Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, Tom Stoppard, Harold Pinter, and Edward Albee, whose plays commonly explore themes of meaningless human actions, communication failure, and feelings of alienation.
The chorus in Greek tragedies served several functions: commenting on and reacting to the plot, establishing ethical frameworks, adding spectacle through song and dance, and pacing the action. In Oedipus Rex specifically, the chorus represents the citizens of Thebes and gradually comes to understand and pity Oedipus's fate over the course of the play through their odes, guiding the audience's emotions and response. They dramatize the unfolding of events and their own enlightenment.
1. The document provides background information on Greek tragedy, including its origins in religious ceremonies and structure, which involved alternating episodes and choral odes.
2. It discusses key playwrights like Aeschylus and Sophocles, noting Sophocles focused on the human world rather than divine themes. His plays featured a protagonist struggling against fate.
3. The document also summarizes the classic Greek myth of Oedipus and his family that Sophocles explored in several of his surviving plays.
The document discusses Harold Pinter's play "The Caretaker" and how it exemplifies the "comedy of menace" genre. It defines comedy of menace as a play that creates a sense of looming threat or danger through humorous situations and dialogue. In The Caretaker, Pinter uses elements like cramped settings, lack of communication between characters, and prolonged silences to cultivate an atmosphere of invisible menace and suspense for the audience. While humorous interactions occur, the audience is left questioning the characters' intentions and waiting for something threatening to possibly happen, though it never does.
The River Floss is used extensively as a symbolic element in George Eliot's novel The Mill on the Floss. The river symbolizes human life, with its ups and downs, as well as the overflow of emotions experienced by characters. It also represents nature's power over human destiny. The flooding of the river that causes Maggie and Tom Tulliver's deaths demonstrates nature's ability to destroy human plans. The river additionally symbolizes possibilities for escape from social conventions, as well as fate or mysterious forces that influence life. Maggie's impulsive nature is reflected in the river's currents, and it is ultimately the flooded river that unites the siblings in their tragic end. The river thus plays a central role in shaping the novel
Aristotle's Poetics (Greek: Περὶ ποιητικῆς, Latin: De Poetica;[1] c. 335 BCE[2]) is the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory and the first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory.[3]
In it, Aristotle offers an account of what he calls "poetry" (a term which in Greek literally means "making" and in this context includes drama—comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play—as well as lyric poetry and epic poetry).
Bertolt Brecht was a German playwright and theatre practitioner active from the 1920s-1950s. Some key points about his life and work include: he was introduced to Marxist ideas in the 1920s which influenced his plays; he fled Nazi Germany in 1933 and spent years in exile, completing many major plays; his plays used techniques like verfremdungseffekt (alienation effect) to distance audiences and encourage critical thinking rather than emotional response; he founded the Berliner Ensemble in 1949 and established epic theatre as the leading form in post-war Europe.
The document discusses recurring themes in W.B. Yeats' works. Time is a major theme, often portrayed negatively as the true enemy that damages beauty and causes regret. Death and the afterlife are also frequent themes, with Yeats questioning what comes after and seeking solace in an eventual reunion or renewal. Nature is portrayed both positively and negatively, sometimes as a source of harmony and sometimes volatility. Yeats uses opposites to emphasize concepts that are at odds, like youth and age, or his idealized past and the modern world.
A POTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN AN AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NOVELFatima Gul
1) A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is a semi-autobiographical novel by James Joyce that follows the development of Stephen Dedalus, a character who shares many biographical details with Joyce.
2) Both Joyce and Stephen came from Dublin Catholic families, attended Jesuit schools as children, and later rejected their religious upbringings to pursue careers as artists.
3) The novel reflects Joyce's own intellectual and spiritual journey from a devout Catholic faith to rejecting religion, drawing from his life experiences like struggling with questions of faith and leaving Ireland to become a writer.
Absurdism is a philosophy that emerged from existentialism in post-World War 2 Europe. It is based on the belief that the universe is irrational and meaningless. Martin Esslin coined the term "Theatre of the Absurd" in 1961 to describe plays that used irrational or confusing elements to express the senselessness of the human condition. Key figures included Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, and Harold Pinter. Absurdist plays often lack rational plot or characters, confuse concepts like time and place, and use repetitive or ambiguous language.
The document discusses the key elements and characteristics of both classical and Shakespearean tragedies. For classical tragedies, it outlines elements such as stories based on well-known myths and legends, a strong religious element focused on fate and divine justice, few actors with speaking roles, and characters of high social status. For Shakespearean tragedies, it summarizes elements like the presence of a tragic hero with a tragic flaw, conflicts between good and evil with goodness ultimately defeated, supernatural elements that advance the plot, and the use of comic relief scenes.
The artist aims to represent reality and universal truths, not just superficial appearances. A serious work of art raises and purifies emotions like pity and fear on moral, psychological and social levels. It tells a complete story with a beginning, middle and end, selecting only those elements that convey universal truths, and uses language appropriately for each part of the narrative.
This document discusses Samuel Beckett and his play Waiting for Godot. It provides background on Beckett, describing him as an Irish writer who took part in the French Resistance during World War 2 and wrote in both English and French. It characterizes Waiting for Godot as an absurdist play, noting that it has a minimal plot, loosely constructed characters, and an ambiguous ending. The document also analyzes how the play uses both tragic and comic elements to portray the absurdity and meaninglessness of human existence.
The document discusses the problem play genre, which emerged in late Victorian England and examines specific social or political issues through debates between characters representing conflicting viewpoints. Problem plays aimed to ignite public debate on contemporary questions through realistic dramatization. Notable examples include Ibsen's A Doll's House on women's roles and Shaw's Mrs. Warren's Profession on attitudes towards prostitution. While initially disparaged, the problem play gained acceptance in the early 20th century for drawing attention to real social problems and mobilizing reform efforts on issues like prison conditions.
Greek theater originated from hymns sung in honor of Dionysus. These evolved into dramatic performances involving costumes, masks and choruses. Tragedies and comedies were performed in outdoor theaters with central performance areas surrounded by tiered seating. Key elements included a chorus, masked actors playing multiple roles, and stories based on mythology. Sophocles was one of ancient Greece's most famous playwrights, known for his tragedies exploring the relationship between humans and the gods like Oedipus and Antigone.
Greek theatre originated from hymns sung in honor of Dionysus. The earliest theatres were simple outdoor spaces where actors and chorus performed plays. Over time, theatres evolved with designated spaces for the orchestra, stage, and audience seating. The ancient Greeks performed tragedies and comedies as part of religious festivals. Tragedies focused on human suffering, while comedies parodied society. Playwrights like Sophocles and Aristophanes helped establish the genres. Greek theatre laid the foundations for modern Western theatre.
Shen Te as an ‘Alter Ego’ of Shui Ta in Brecht’s The Good Woman of Setzuan: A...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The paper analyses the main character, Shen Te in the play The Good Woman of Setzuan on
dealing various works and businesses in the society. The study investigates the attitudes of men towards others
in different affaires of the society. It also discusses the understatement of being done on Shen Te. The special
emphasis of the paper goes with the performances and excellences of the protagonist performed in the play. The
executed services of Shen Te for the gods are not less valuable than that of other people of the society as Shui
Ta, the alter ego of herself. Her achievement and humankind should be valued like other members of the
society. She should no longer be distressed. Thus, the focal point of the researcher is to examine how the effort
and enthusiasm of an individual can be more valuable for having a smooth community to ensure peaceful lives
in the world.
KEYWORDS: Literary Style, Alter Ego, Complex Identity, Frustration, Social Change, Class Struggle
This document provides a summary and analysis of the play Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett in the context of existentialism. It discusses the characters Vladimir and Estragon who wait endlessly for Godot without any purpose or change in their situation. It analyzes how this demonstrates existentialist themes of humans being free agents who create their own meaning and purpose. The document also discusses other characters like Pozzo and quotes from the play that further illustrate existentialist ideas.
Samuel Beckett was an Irish writer born in 1906 near Dublin. He studied languages at Trinity College Dublin and later taught French and English in Belfast and Paris. He began writing in the late 1920s and is best known for his plays Waiting for Godot and Happy Days, as well as novels like Molloy and Malone Dies. Beckett was a pioneer of absurdist theater and modernist literature, stripping down language and plot to focus on fundamental human experiences like waiting, memory, and death. He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1969 and continued writing until his death in 1989, leaving a profound influence on generations of writers, playwrights and artists.
Tragedy comes from Greek drama and refers to works that invoke emotions like sadness and anger in audiences through depictions of human suffering. Tragedies typically involve the downfall of a great person due to some superior force like destiny. According to Aristotle, tragedy is an imitation of action that is serious, complete, and of magnitude, told through embellished language to purge audiences of emotions like pity and fear through catharsis. Key elements of tragedy include the plot, characters, thoughts or ideas, diction or word choice, music, and spectacle or visual elements.
waiting for Godot - As an absurd theaterGopi Pipavat
- Martin Esslin coined the term "Theatre of the Absurd" in his 1962 book to describe plays that defied traditional genres, such as Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot.
- Waiting for Godot premiered in 1953 and became hugely popular despite having no plot, repetitive dialogue and action, and an unexplained ending.
- Characteristics of absurd plays include hopelessness, absurd or unexplained endings, comic scenes, repetition, and elements of existentialism which questions the existence and purpose of man.
The document discusses the Theatre of the Absurd genre coined by Martin Esslin to describe plays conveying anxiety, confusion and hopelessness in reaction to an unpredictable and absurd universe. Key factors influencing this genre were the atrocities of WWII and existentialist questions about the meaning of life. Major playwrights of this genre include Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, Tom Stoppard, Harold Pinter, and Edward Albee, whose plays commonly explore themes of meaningless human actions, communication failure, and feelings of alienation.
The chorus in Greek tragedies served several functions: commenting on and reacting to the plot, establishing ethical frameworks, adding spectacle through song and dance, and pacing the action. In Oedipus Rex specifically, the chorus represents the citizens of Thebes and gradually comes to understand and pity Oedipus's fate over the course of the play through their odes, guiding the audience's emotions and response. They dramatize the unfolding of events and their own enlightenment.
1. The document provides background information on Greek tragedy, including its origins in religious ceremonies and structure, which involved alternating episodes and choral odes.
2. It discusses key playwrights like Aeschylus and Sophocles, noting Sophocles focused on the human world rather than divine themes. His plays featured a protagonist struggling against fate.
3. The document also summarizes the classic Greek myth of Oedipus and his family that Sophocles explored in several of his surviving plays.
The document discusses Harold Pinter's play "The Caretaker" and how it exemplifies the "comedy of menace" genre. It defines comedy of menace as a play that creates a sense of looming threat or danger through humorous situations and dialogue. In The Caretaker, Pinter uses elements like cramped settings, lack of communication between characters, and prolonged silences to cultivate an atmosphere of invisible menace and suspense for the audience. While humorous interactions occur, the audience is left questioning the characters' intentions and waiting for something threatening to possibly happen, though it never does.
The River Floss is used extensively as a symbolic element in George Eliot's novel The Mill on the Floss. The river symbolizes human life, with its ups and downs, as well as the overflow of emotions experienced by characters. It also represents nature's power over human destiny. The flooding of the river that causes Maggie and Tom Tulliver's deaths demonstrates nature's ability to destroy human plans. The river additionally symbolizes possibilities for escape from social conventions, as well as fate or mysterious forces that influence life. Maggie's impulsive nature is reflected in the river's currents, and it is ultimately the flooded river that unites the siblings in their tragic end. The river thus plays a central role in shaping the novel
Aristotle's Poetics (Greek: Περὶ ποιητικῆς, Latin: De Poetica;[1] c. 335 BCE[2]) is the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory and the first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory.[3]
In it, Aristotle offers an account of what he calls "poetry" (a term which in Greek literally means "making" and in this context includes drama—comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play—as well as lyric poetry and epic poetry).
Bertolt Brecht was a German playwright and theatre practitioner active from the 1920s-1950s. Some key points about his life and work include: he was introduced to Marxist ideas in the 1920s which influenced his plays; he fled Nazi Germany in 1933 and spent years in exile, completing many major plays; his plays used techniques like verfremdungseffekt (alienation effect) to distance audiences and encourage critical thinking rather than emotional response; he founded the Berliner Ensemble in 1949 and established epic theatre as the leading form in post-war Europe.
The document discusses recurring themes in W.B. Yeats' works. Time is a major theme, often portrayed negatively as the true enemy that damages beauty and causes regret. Death and the afterlife are also frequent themes, with Yeats questioning what comes after and seeking solace in an eventual reunion or renewal. Nature is portrayed both positively and negatively, sometimes as a source of harmony and sometimes volatility. Yeats uses opposites to emphasize concepts that are at odds, like youth and age, or his idealized past and the modern world.
A POTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A YOUNG MAN AN AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NOVELFatima Gul
1) A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is a semi-autobiographical novel by James Joyce that follows the development of Stephen Dedalus, a character who shares many biographical details with Joyce.
2) Both Joyce and Stephen came from Dublin Catholic families, attended Jesuit schools as children, and later rejected their religious upbringings to pursue careers as artists.
3) The novel reflects Joyce's own intellectual and spiritual journey from a devout Catholic faith to rejecting religion, drawing from his life experiences like struggling with questions of faith and leaving Ireland to become a writer.
Absurdism is a philosophy that emerged from existentialism in post-World War 2 Europe. It is based on the belief that the universe is irrational and meaningless. Martin Esslin coined the term "Theatre of the Absurd" in 1961 to describe plays that used irrational or confusing elements to express the senselessness of the human condition. Key figures included Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, and Harold Pinter. Absurdist plays often lack rational plot or characters, confuse concepts like time and place, and use repetitive or ambiguous language.
The document discusses the key elements and characteristics of both classical and Shakespearean tragedies. For classical tragedies, it outlines elements such as stories based on well-known myths and legends, a strong religious element focused on fate and divine justice, few actors with speaking roles, and characters of high social status. For Shakespearean tragedies, it summarizes elements like the presence of a tragic hero with a tragic flaw, conflicts between good and evil with goodness ultimately defeated, supernatural elements that advance the plot, and the use of comic relief scenes.
The artist aims to represent reality and universal truths, not just superficial appearances. A serious work of art raises and purifies emotions like pity and fear on moral, psychological and social levels. It tells a complete story with a beginning, middle and end, selecting only those elements that convey universal truths, and uses language appropriately for each part of the narrative.
This document discusses Samuel Beckett and his play Waiting for Godot. It provides background on Beckett, describing him as an Irish writer who took part in the French Resistance during World War 2 and wrote in both English and French. It characterizes Waiting for Godot as an absurdist play, noting that it has a minimal plot, loosely constructed characters, and an ambiguous ending. The document also analyzes how the play uses both tragic and comic elements to portray the absurdity and meaninglessness of human existence.
The document discusses the problem play genre, which emerged in late Victorian England and examines specific social or political issues through debates between characters representing conflicting viewpoints. Problem plays aimed to ignite public debate on contemporary questions through realistic dramatization. Notable examples include Ibsen's A Doll's House on women's roles and Shaw's Mrs. Warren's Profession on attitudes towards prostitution. While initially disparaged, the problem play gained acceptance in the early 20th century for drawing attention to real social problems and mobilizing reform efforts on issues like prison conditions.
Greek theater originated from hymns sung in honor of Dionysus. These evolved into dramatic performances involving costumes, masks and choruses. Tragedies and comedies were performed in outdoor theaters with central performance areas surrounded by tiered seating. Key elements included a chorus, masked actors playing multiple roles, and stories based on mythology. Sophocles was one of ancient Greece's most famous playwrights, known for his tragedies exploring the relationship between humans and the gods like Oedipus and Antigone.
Greek theatre originated from hymns sung in honor of Dionysus. The earliest theatres were simple outdoor spaces where actors and chorus performed plays. Over time, theatres evolved with designated spaces for the orchestra, stage, and audience seating. The ancient Greeks performed tragedies and comedies as part of religious festivals. Tragedies focused on human suffering, while comedies parodied society. Playwrights like Sophocles and Aristophanes helped establish the genres. Greek theatre laid the foundations for modern Western theatre.
Analysis of sophocles_oedipus_the_king_asaimaPerveen4
This document provides an analysis of Sophocles' play Oedipus the King based on Aristotle's definition of tragedy in Poetics. It discusses Aristotle's concept of mimesis and how Oedipus the King illustrates the representation of nature through tragic events. The document also examines Aristotle's view that tragedy aims to elicit pity and fear in the audience to achieve catharsis. It analyzes how Oedipus' hamartia and the prophecy that he cannot escape his destiny aligns the play with Aristotle's view of tragedy.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of drama from ancient Greek times to modern eras. It notes that drama likely grew out of ancient rituals and performances. It then outlines key developments in Greek drama including the works of playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. It discusses Aristotle's analysis of tragedy which defined its core elements and structures. Finally, it summarizes how drama changed and experimented with form over time through medieval, Shakespearean, and modern works.
The origins of Greek theater can be traced back to ancient hymns called dithyrambs that were sung in honor of Dionysus. These evolved into choral performances where participants wore costumes and masks. Greek tragedies and comedies were performed in outdoor theaters with a circular orchestra space for dancing and a seating area carved into hillsides. Major playwrights included Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Sophocles' plays like Oedipus and Antigone featured complex characters and themes of human fate and free will.
The origins of Greek theater can be traced back to ancient hymns called dithyrambs that were sung in honor of Dionysus. These evolved into choral performances where participants wore costumes and masks. Greek tragedies and comedies were performed in outdoor theaters with a circular orchestra space for dancing and a seating area carved into hillsides. Major playwrights included Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Sophocles' plays like Oedipus and Antigone explored the relationship between gods and human fate through complex characters and moral dilemmas.
Greek Theatre (Grade 8-Harmony Lesson in ARTS)Alliah36
Greek theater originated from hymns sung in honor of Dionysus. Over time, these hymns evolved into dramatic performances involving costumes, masks, and choruses. Major elements of Greek theater included the orchestra where choruses performed, the theatron where audiences sat, and the skene which served as a backdrop. The earliest plays were performed in the Theater of Dionysus in Athens in the 5th century BC. Tragedies and comedies were the main types of plays, telling stories based on mythology. Tragedies focused on themes like hubris while comedies used satire. Sophocles was one of the most famous Greek tragedians, known for plays like Oedipus and Ant
Huckabee greek tragedy introduction and padletshuckabe
Greek drama originated as part of religious festivals in ancient Greece honoring Dionysus. Tragedies focused on examining the consequences of individual actions, humanity's relationship with the gods, and the role of fate. A tragic hero was a noble protagonist who made an error in judgment, or hamartia, which led to their downfall and death, providing catharsis for audiences. Common playwrights included Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, who presented plays at the Festival of Dionysus that followed certain conventions and the three unities.
Ancient Greek theater originated as a religious festival honoring Dionysus between 550-220 BCE in Athens. Plays were performed outdoors with minimal technology, requiring large masks and exaggerated movements. Tragedies told of a noble character's downfall through a flaw, while comedies mocked society. The structure included a chorus that sang and danced, and up to 3 actors who responded while wearing masks that amplified their voices and conveyed emotion from a distance.
Hum2220 the divine madness dionysus & greek theatreProfWillAdams
Dionysus was the Greek god of wine, fertility, madness and theatre. He was the son of Zeus and Semele. His worship involved ecstatic rituals that could lead to madness. This helped inspire the origins of Greek theatre in religious festivals and competitions held annually in Dionysus' honor. The competitions included tragedies, comedies and dithyrambs. Major Greek playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides wrote plays in these genres that were performed in the festivals and helped develop Greek theatre.
The document provides an overview of Greek drama, discussing the three main types (comedy, tragedy, satyr plays), elements like hubris, fate, irony and catharsis, and the works of major dramatists like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. It also describes Sophocles' Theban plays, including backgrounds on Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone.
The document provides background information on ancient Greek theater. It discusses key elements like the orchestra, skene, masks, costumes and roles of the chorus. It also summarizes some of the main Greek tragedies, including Oedipus Rex by Sophocles which tells the story of Oedipus solving the Sphinx's riddle and ultimately discovering his tragic fate was to kill his father and marry his mother.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of drama across different time periods and cultures. It begins with an explanation of Greek drama and its origins in dithyrambs honoring Dionysus. It then discusses the evolution of Greek tragedy and comedy and their influence on Roman drama. Medieval drama developed out of church liturgy in forms like mystery plays and morality plays. Renaissance drama was influenced by the rediscovery of Greek and Roman classics and varied across countries, with England producing great dramatists like Shakespeare. Realism emerged in 19th century drama alongside melodrama, influencing later playwrights across Europe.
The document discusses the history and development of drama across different cultures and time periods. It begins with an overview of Greek drama and its origins in dithyrambs honoring Dionysus. It then covers the developments of tragedy, comedy, and satire in ancient Greece. Next it discusses the traditions of drama in Rome, the Middle Ages focusing on religious plays, and the Renaissance with a focus on developments in Italy, France, Spain, and England. It concludes with an overview of 18th century sentimental comedy and the rise of realism and melodrama in the 19th century.
The document provides a history of drama from its origins in ancient Greece to modern times. It notes that drama began as part of festivals honoring Dionysus in Greece, with the first genres being tragedy, comedy, and satyr plays performed by famous playwrights like Aeschylus and Aristophanes. Drama developed further in Rome and the Middle Ages before flourishing during the Renaissance with Shakespeare. Modern drama saw experimentation with forms and a shift from realism to symbolism and expressionism in the late 19th/early 20th centuries. Contemporary drama explores language and mirrors social issues.
The theater of ancient Greece flourished between 550-220 BCE in the city-state of Athens. Plays were performed as part of religious festivals honoring Dionysus, with theaters built into hillsides. Tragedies and comedies were most popular, performed by 3 actors and a chorus. Plays examined human condition and fate. Choruses provided commentary through song and dance, wearing masks and costumes. Greek theater traditions like masks and staging influenced modern theater.
Greek drama originated in ancient Greece between the 6th and 5th centuries BC. It grew out of the festivals and rituals honoring Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility. These festivals featured choral songs and dances reenacting Dionysus's death and resurrection. Over time, actors were introduced to play different roles, and the plays became more dramatic and complex. The major playwrights who developed Greek drama were Thespis, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Their tragedies were performed in outdoor theaters for thousands of spectators and followed conventions like the three-actor rule and the use of masks. Common themes included the hubris and downfall of a tragic hero
The document provides background information on ancient Greek theater. It discusses the main parts of a Greek theater including the theatron (seating area), orchestra (performance space), and skene (backstage area). It describes how plays were performed using minimal props and scenery. Key figures in Greek drama are highlighted such as the playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The functions of masks and choruses are also summarized.
Web marketing includes various online marketing techniques like ecommerce websites, affiliate marketing websites, promotional websites, online advertising, and search engine optimization. It uses the internet as a marketing channel to generate sales leads, sell products/services, and support businesses through activities like affiliate marketing. Affiliate marketing works by driving traffic and sales to partner websites through links and ads, with affiliates receiving rewards like commissions based on sales.
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Control involves ensuring operations follow established plans, orders, and principles. It measures past performance to identify mistakes and take corrective actions to prevent future issues. Control is a continuous process performed by all managers that establishes standards, measures actual performance, analyzes deviations, and takes steps to correct them. In summary, control verifies conformity to plans and instructions, identifies weaknesses, and works to remedy issues and prevent their recurrence.
The document provides an introduction to a translation studies project analyzing Ernest Hemingway's novel A Farewell to Arms translated into Urdu as Widaa-e-Jang by Ashfaq Ahmad. It discusses the source text by Hemingway, introduces the translator Ashfaq Ahmad and his translation, presents the hypothesis and reviews relevant translation theories that will be applied in the analysis, including those of Nida and Taber, Jakobson, and Vinay and Darbelnet.
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From the particular to the universal re-reading pessimism in dream on monke...Fatima Gul
This document provides a summary and analysis of Derek Walcott's play Dream on Monkey Mountain. It argues that while the play seems to present a pessimistic view of attempts to reclaim African identity, a closer reading reveals nuance. While mimicry of white colonizers and the African revival both initially appear futile according to the theories of Fanon, Walcott's text can be read more optimistically. Specifically, the initial stages of Makak's reclamation of his African identity seem authentic in addressing his suffering, despite the revival ultimately descending into madness. This suggests the universal and particular should not be viewed as entirely oppositional.
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The document provides an in-depth analysis and summary of Graham Greene's novel "The Tenth Man". It discusses how the novel portrays several themes prominent in post-war societies, including the psychological effects of war, loss of identity, loneliness, and lack of faith. It analyzes Greene's exploration of concepts like time, human nature, deception, and recovery of faith through the main character's journey. Overall, the summary examines how the novel captures the human condition and fragility in the aftermath of war through its characters and exploration of existentialist ideas.
This document provides an overview of theories related to translation studies. It discusses Vinay and Darbelnet's model of direct and oblique translation, Catford's model of translation shifts including level and category shifts, and Roman Jakobson's model of equivalence. The document also outlines the structure of a research project analyzing the translation of Gone With the Wind from English to Urdu using these theoretical frameworks.
Cognitivism is a learning theory that looks beyond observable behaviors to explain learning as a mental process. It views humans as active thinkers who process new information by relating it to their prior knowledge through mental constructs. Constructivism, a cognitive learning theory, holds that learning is an active process where learners construct new knowledge by integrating new information into existing mental frameworks. The cognitive approach sees language acquisition as similar to other types of learning, where knowledge is represented and organized mentally according to cognitive principles. Cognitivism has influenced English for Specific Purposes by focusing on giving learners meaningful activities and reading strategies related to their fields to facilitate comprehension and knowledge construction.
This document provides information about several Caribbean countries and authors from the region:
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- For Cuba, it outlines the indigenous peoples, Spanish colonization, British occupation, independence struggles, and formal independence in 1902.
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Manu Herbstein is a South African author who has lived in Ghana since 1970. His novel Ama, a Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade won the 2002 Commonwealth Writers Prize and tells the story of a woman captured and sold into slavery in Brazil. Zakes Mda is a critically acclaimed post-Apartheid South African author whose works explore the struggle to maintain traditional African values against Western influences. One such work is The Heart of Redness, which depicts a man returning to a rural village after time abroad. Zoë Wicomb's book You Can't Get Lost in Cape Town explores the experience of "Coloured" South Africans under apartheid through the story of a girl sent to integrate a prestigious school in
The document provides an analysis of the translation of Charles Dickens' novel Great Expectations into Urdu. It begins with an introduction on translation studies and theories of translation. The objectives are then stated as tracing the theoretical framework applied in the translation process. Key research questions focus on identifying the theoretical model used and its application/findings. The literature review outlines theories that will be applied, including Nida's theory of equivalence, Vinay and Darbelnet's translation techniques model, and Catford's linguistic shift approach. The analysis section applies these theories to examine examples from both the source and target texts. Elements like gender, aspect, and semantic fields are compared between the English and Urdu texts based on the outlined translation theories.
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Here are some examples of borrowing from the source text to the target text:
1. Baseball, skiff, Gulf stream, sheet, shark Factory, block and tackle, guano
The translator directly borrowed these English words and terms instead of translating them into Urdu.
2. Calque:
No clear examples of calque found.
3. Literal translation:
Many parts of the source text seem to have been translated literally word-for-word into Urdu, such as descriptions of objects and actions. For example:
"It made the boy sad... and he always went down to help him carry either the coiled lines or the gaff and harpoon and the sail that was
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Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
1. Epic theatre presents a form of political drama intended to appeal to reason rather than
the emotions. Epic Theatre replaced the unities within episodic structure; an important feature
was the alienation effect, in which actors and audiences were discouraged from identifying with
the characters or scenes depicted. The name and theory were derived from Aristotle and
pioneered in Germany in the late 1920s by Bertolt Brecht and his associate Erwin Piscator (1893
- 1966).Both were avowed communists who sought an ideal theater with social and political
relevance that would stimulate playgoers into both thought and action; Theatre of
Commitment, Theatre of Social Action, and Theatre of Social Conviction were alternative names
for the genre. Brecht's Man is Man (1926) is usually considered the first Epic Theatre play;
Piscator's offerings included a dramatization of Tolstoy's War and Peace. The tradition was
continued by many of the left-wing playwrights of the 1960s and 1970s.
In classical theatre, there are two types of drama:
Comedy: where the main characters usually “get action”
Tragedy: where violent action leads to misfortune for the main characters
Aristotle has defined Tragedy as:
“Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude: in
a language embellished with each kind of artistic ornaments, the several kinds of being found in
separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; with incidents arousing pity and
fear, wherewith to accomplish catharsis of emotions…”
Brecht also defines the contrast between the traditional, Aristotelian 'dramatic' and his
own 'epic' as corresponding to idealist and materialist philosophical positions:
“The epic drama, with its materialistic standpoint and its lack of interest in any investment
of its spectators' emotions, knows no objective but only a finishing point, and is familiar
with a different kind of chain, whose course need not be a straight one but may quite well
be in curves or even in leaps. [...] Whenever one comes across materialism epic forms arise
in the drama, and most markedly and frequently in comedy, whose 'tone' is always 'lower'
and more materialistic”.
2. It is this materialist perspective on the world, and specifically on the human being, that
renders the epic form particularly appropriate and useful to the dramatist, Brecht argues.
Contemporary science (the term includes what English calls 'human sciences'; especially,
for Brecht, historical materialism) reveals that the human being is determined by and
determining of its circumstances ('social' and 'physical'). The epic form enables the drama
to stage humanity in a way that incorporates this scientific understanding; the dramatist
becomes able to show the human (the level of interpersonal relationships) in interaction
with the larger forces and dynamics at work in society (the supra-personal, historical scale):
“Today, when the human being has come to be seen as 'the sum of all social
circumstances' the epic form is the only one that can embrace those processes which
serve the drama as matter for a comprehensive picture of the world. Similarly man,
flesh and blood man, can only be embraced through those processes by which and in
the course of which he exists”.
The Bacchae is a classical tragedy. It is based on the mythological story of King Pentheus
of Thebes and his mother Agauë, and their punishment by the god Dionysus (who is Pentheus'
cousin) for refusing to worship him. In a play that follows a climatic plot construction, Dionysus
the Protagonist, instigates the unfolding action by simultaneously emulating the play's author,
costume designer, choreographer and artistic director. Helen P. Foley wrote of the links between
the importance of Dionysus as the central character and his effect on the play's structure, she
writes: "the poet uses the ritual crisis to explore simultaneously god, man, society, and his
own tragic art. In this proto drama Dionysus, the god of the theatre, stage-directs the play."
At the start of the play, Dionysus disguises himself as a Lydian bacchant, the Stranger,
and along with his group of maenads, enters Thebes. Pentheus orders soldiers to arrest him,
Dionysus only too willingly allows himself to be taken. In three encounters Dionysus talks, tricks,
and converts Pentheus into becoming a voyeuristic transvestite who goes to watch the Bacchae
rites.
A frenzied Agauë dismembers her own son Pentheus which gave rise to climax and arouse
crisis of feeling in audience. Catharsis/purgation arises at major conflict, when Dionysus the
3. protagonist arrives in Thebes to demonstrate his divinity and punish the family of Cadmus. The
King of Thebes, Pentheus, is a violent opponent of Dionysian worship and rite. Action falls on the
end as Agauë takes her son's head back to Thebes still under the delusion that it is a lion's head.
Cadmus finally makes her see the truth which highlights the feature of reversal/peripeteia of
classical drama.It follows the unity of time, place and action. The place of action is Thebes; since
its action takes place properly according to plot, it has proper beginning, middle and end in a
certain time.
Characters are the most important assets of Classical theatre as they preach the ethics to
audience. Limited number of characters in the drama conveys the message. They make the
audience to identify themselves and rise pity, fear and catharsis of feelings. Characters in The
Bacchae are:
Dionysus, protagonist and central axis of The Bacchae, this god of wine, theater and group
ecstasy appears mostly in disguise as a beautiful, longhaired, wine-flushed Lydian, the Stranger.
His non-human forms and powers are also felt acutely throughout the play and Dionysus the god
is clearly different from Dionysus in disguise, as the Stranger, and yet they are the same. Still,
they exist in their different forms simultaneously, so while the audience and the chorus hear the
divine god give the command for the earthquake, the Stranger is inside the palace torturing
Pentheus. Dionysus is the son of Zeus and the mortal Semele, daughter of Cadmus.
Pentheus is the king of Thebes, son of Agaue, grandson of Cadmus and the first cousin of
Dionysus. Structurally Pentheus is Dionysus's foil, thus he is a preserver of law and order, a
military man, a stern patriarch, and ultimately a doomed mortal. Pentheus is not merely a mirror
or inverted double of Dionysus; he is puritanical and obstinate, but also curious and voyeuristic.
Agaue is mother of Pentheus and daughter of Cadmus. Agaue is already one of the maenads (a
worshipper of Dionysus participating in orgiastic rites, from the Greek mainad to be mad) at the
start of the play. Even though she only enters the play at the very end, her scene is the most
powerful and tragic in the play.
Cadmus, former king of Thebes, father of Agaue and Semele, grandfather of Pentheus and
Dionysus is the only one in his family to declare allegiance to Dionysus.
Servant - He captures the Stranger and brings him to Pentheus in Scene II.
4. First Messenger - One of three anonymous witnesses in the play. The first messenger is a cowherd
who spies on the maenads and comes back to relate the incident to Pentheus.
Second Messenger - The second messenger accompanied Pentheus and Dionysus up the mountain
and witnessed the death of his king. He returns to the palace to relate the event to the chorus.
Chorus - Female bacchants from Lydia, led by Dionysus in his human form as the Stranger.
Tiresias - A famous Theban seer and friend of Cadmus. Tiresias persuades Cadmus to worship
Dionysus.
The characters of this classical drama contains physical or superficial (external) or
psychological and spiritual (internal) qualities. They hold the physical attributes of names,
physical appearance, physical nature, manner of speech and accent, manner of dress, social status,
class, community interests and Internal characteristics like thoughts, feelings and emotions.
The structure of Greek tragedy is characterized by a set of conventions. The tragedy usually
begins with a prologue, in which one or more characters introduce the drama and explain the
background of the ensuing story. The prologue is followed by the parodos (after which the story
unfolds through three or more episodes. The episodes are interspersed by stasima choral interludes
explaining or commenting on the situation developing in the play. The tragedy ends with the
exodus concluding the story. It should be noted however that some plays do not adhere to this
conventional structure.
In the prologue, Dionysus, son of Zeus, addresses the audience, describing to us how
Thebes is his birthplace and is also the ancestral home of his mortal mother, Semele. Parodos or
Ode of Entry is the performance and dancing area for actors and chorus, which was utilized by
Greek theater to inform audiences of what happens "off stage". In The Bacchae, The chorus enters
from both sides of the stage, exalting Dionysus. The ode they chant consists of three segments:
a)(Prelude): a call for holy silence b)(Hymn in four parts): a declaration of the blessed state of a
maenad, a summary of Dionysus's birth, a call to Thebes to worship the Bacchae and a history of
the place of the drum in their cult. c)(Epode or refrain): further description of the ecstasy of the
bacchants.
5. Non- Aristotelian derma, or the „epic form‟ of the drama, is a kind of play whose
dramaturgical structure departs from the features of classical tragedy in favor of the features of
the epic, , as defined in each case by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in his Poetics(c.335
BCE).
The German modernist theatre practitioner Bertolt Brecht coined the term 'non-
Aristotelian drama' to describe the dramaturgical dimensions of his own work, beginning in 1930
with a series of notes and essays entitled "On a Non-Aristotelian drama." Brecht writes, "the
difference between the dramatic and epic forms was attributed to their different methods of
construction." Method of construction here refers to the relation the play establishes between its
parts and its whole:
“The epic writer Döblin provided an excellent criterion when he said that with an epic
work, as opposed to a dramatic, one can as it were take a pair of scissors and cut it into
individual pieces, which remain fully capable of life.”
Brecht thought the "old" forms of European theatre based on Aristotle, which, in the face
of changing contemporary circumstances was inadequate to represent social reality. Therefore he
came up with the concept of “epic theatre”. This direction of theatre was inspired by Brecht‟s
Marxist political beliefs. It was somewhat of a political platform for his ideologies. Epic theatre is
the assimilation of education through entertainment and is the antithesis of Stanislavsky‟s
Realism and also Expressionism. Brecht believed that, unlike epic theatre, Expressionism and
Realism were incapable of exposing human nature and so had no educational value. He
conjectured that his form of theatre was capable of provoking a change in society. Brecht‟s
intention was to encourage the audience to ponder, with critical detachment, the moral dilemmas
presented before them.
The epic theatre of Brecht invites spectators to analyze dominant issues concerning
economic, social, and political matters, additionally guiding them to consider possible alterations.
In his plays, Brecht strives to prohibit the metamorphosis of spectators by creating a gap between
characters and spectators thereby encouraging them to develop critical ideas about society.
Readers therefore should avoid being subjective, and consequently be able to view contemporary
6. issues objectively and critically. In The Life of Galileo, Brecht avails himself historical resources
for resolving a significant modern issue, thereby transforming his play into a historical drama.
According to Brecht, science should reflect social responsibility in order to be in the
disposition of human aims. There are several schemes in The Life of Galileo. In the first scheme,
Brecht believes that any scientific evolution brings about general progress for people-an idea
derived from Galileo. In other schemes such as nuclear power and arms for the massacre of
humanity, Brecht has questioned scientific evolution. In epic theatre there is no proper coherence
in events and no unities.
Catharsis was not the aim of the epic theater and a thoughtful audience was a necessity. Rather
than play for emotional empathy, the epic theater calls the audience to “learned to be astonished at
the circumstances within which (the drama‟s hero) has his being” (Benjamin, 18). According to
Walter Benjamin, the “relaxed interest” of the epic theater‟s audience comes from the lack of
appeal made towards their empathy (Benjamin, 18).
In order to achieve such a dramatization which allowed the spectator to critically engage with the
performance, Brecht used what he referred to as the “alienation effect.” The ultimate goal of this
effect was to eliminate any and all sense of total immersion the traditional theater had previously
given. “The production (takes) the subject-matter and the incidents shown and (puts) them
through a process of alienation: the alienation that is necessary to all understanding. When
something seems „the most obvious thing in the world‟ it means that any attempt to understand
the world has been given up” (Brecht, 71). Epic theater is not the illusion of reality but the re-
representation of events. Probably the most vital aspect of the epic theater is the presence of what
Brecht refers to as the “alienation effect.”
In Brecht‟s plays, the alienation effect was employed stylistically in a number of ways, broadly
through the use of various media which had traditionally lain outside of the realm of the theater.
As customary with many of his plays, each scene of Brecht‟s “Life of Galileo” begins with stage
“inter-titles” (like those commonly used for dialogue in silent cinema). Projected upon a screen on
stage amidst the scenery and action is an explanation of the event(s) to be reenacted. This leads to
the audience‟s immediate disillusionment of their expectation that the actions of the scene will
7. unfold. For Brecht, rather than detract from the story, the jarring and unfamiliar break in the
action on the stage, the incorporation of mechanical techniques in the stage play, allowed for an
incorporation of the narrative element.
Through the actor‟s gesture as well as the character‟s dialogue, a complete character was shown
on the stage who was self motivated while at the same time confined by his or her place in the
social construct of the portrayed society. It creates a multilevel representation of the on-stage
action and makes it accessible to the critical audience.
Brecht has also projected explanatory captions for the readers/audience to drive important
messages. Narrators are important as they fill in the missing action. Narration has been given
before starting any scene that is a major characteristic of an epic drama. In this play the author
relates an account in a way that invites the readers to consider the events involved and then to
make their own evaluation of them. Scene 3 begins with the caption “…Galileo Galilei abolishes
heaven” which instigates the reader to search for the truth. The caption of scene 4 describes the
clash between the ideologies of church and reason, empiricism and science with the significant
brevity. The old says: what I‟ve always done I‟ll always do. The new says: If you‟re useless you
must go.
In order to accomplish this greater understanding, the epic theater employs the use of various
mediums. The audience becomes unfamiliar with the theater, and in turn the play at hand, when
outside media are used within it. This alienation of the theater production and demystification of
the audience enables the epic theater, for Brecht, revolutionize theater.