2. Introduction to chromatography
History
Russian botanist Tswett M. (1872–1919)
◦ Used a column packed with a stationary phase of
calcium carbonate to separate colored pigments
from plant extracts.
◦ The sample was placed at the top of the column
and carried through the stationary phase using a
mobile phase of petroleum ether.
Chroma-color, graphy-writing
3. Cont…
Chromatography
◦ Process by which complex mixtures can be resolved and separated
Mixture could be organic or inorganic .
The name (from the Latin khromatos) implies color
◦ No direct connection except that the first compound separated by this process
were pigments.
◦ Is a separation process that is achieved by distributing the components of a
mixture between two phases, a stationary phase and a mobile phase
◦ Those components held preferentially in the stationary phase are retained
longer in the system than those that are distributed selectively in the mobile
phase.
◦ As a consequence, solutes are eluted from the system in the order of their
increasing distribution coefficients with respect to the stationary phase
4. Essential features of chromatographic separation
Mixtures to be separated is introduced in to,Two phases
Where each phase competes with each others
Aiming at containing different components (analytes)
◦ As a result
Each components will be distributed in the two competitive phase.
According to certain distribution coefficients.
These coefficients depends on physical properties of a molecules such as,
Solubility
Adsorption
Volatility
Molecular size and I
onic charge in ionizable molecule.
5. Cont…
Existence of two substance with exactly similar properties is
highly improbable
◦ Different substance will exhibit different properties.
◦ Such different causes chromatographic separation.
Mobile phase
◦ is a moving phase that continuously flows through the
stationary phase and carries the analyte.
Stationary phase
◦ The fixed or non-moving phase, immobile phase.
6. Cont…
Separates components in mixture:
Based on
Polarity
boiling point
ionic group on ionizable molecule
size
There are different types of chromatography
Based on the nature of stationary and mobile phase but more
particularly the nature of stationary phase
7. Partition Chromatography
Liquid SP and Liquid/gas MP
Molecules will partition into the
stationary phase based upon
affinity/polrity for stationary phase &
eventually partition into mobile phase
again
Thin layer of the liquid SP is coated
onto inside of GC column or on small
particles on LC column
8. Adsorption Chromatography
Solid SP and
Liquid/gas MP
Very similar to partition
chromatography
Adsorption just on
surface, partition into thin
layer
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9. Ion Exchange Chromatography
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A solid polymeric stationary
phase containing replaceable ions
Ionic liquid mobile phase
Separation of either cations or
anions
Separation based on relative
strength of ionic bond
Solute ions of the opposite charge in
the mobile liquid phase are attached
to the resin by electrostatic force.
Anion exchange has cations ((e.g., –
N(CH3)3+ on surface
Cation exchange has anions (eg.
SO3-) on the surface
10. Molecular Exclusion Chromatography
An inert gel which
acts as a molecular
sieve and a liquid
mobile phase is used.
Separation based on
size
Small molecules get
trapped in pores & take
longer to get out
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11. Affinity Chromatography
Very selective
Specific binding site is
used to concentrate
analyte on column
Used a lot in biological
applications
Eg. Antibody SP might
be used to separate
protein mix.
11
12. Chromatographic techniques
Planar Cr.
SP-plane support
◦ Paper chromatography
Liquid SP-soaked in cellulose
paper
◦ Thin layer chromatography (TLC)
adsorbent (Al2O3 or SiO2,
usually) coating a sheet of
plastic or glass
Separated cpds-appear as
spot
12
Column chromatography
SP-in column
◦ Gas chromatography(GC)
◦ High performance liquid Cr.
(HPLC)
Separated cpds-appear as a
peak
13. Cont…
CC, TLC, & HPLC,
◦ May be of partition, adsorption, ion exchange, exclusive or affinity
Paper chromatography
◦ Is primarily a partition process
GC may be
◦ A partition process an in GLC
◦ An adsorption process as in GSC
The term liquid chromatography
Some times used to denote techniques in which the mobile phase is a
liquid,
PC, CC, TLC, HPLC.
14. Application of chromatography
It has wide application
◦ Evaluation of drugs and pharmaceutical products
◦ Drug extraction, isolation and purification
◦ Identification of active principal in plant research
Application can be classified in three groups
◦ Preparative application
◦ Qualitative application
◦ Quantitative application
Qualitative application
The presence or absence of certain constituents
◦ Techniques of choice are,
HPLC
GC
TLC
15. Cont…
Gives valuable information about complexity.
◦ Number of spots in PC and TLC
◦ Number of peaks in GC and HPLC
Used to check purity and identity
Used to establish finger print for,
Extracts, tincture, volatile oil or pharmaceutical preparation.
So the purity and identity of a sample can be judged.
Quantitative application
◦ Quantitative chromatography determines,
Percentage of any components in a sample
◦ Either using
Absolute amount
Relative to another components
All chromatographic techniques can applied.
16. Theoretical Concepts
In a typical chromatographic system
◦ Different compounds move through the system
With different rates of movements
In the form of band or zones
Different rates of movements (differential migration) takes
into consideration.
◦ The equilibrium distributions of a compounds between
Stationary phase and
Mobile phase
The speed with which each compounds move through a system
◦ Determines by the number of molecules of that compound in mobile
phase at any instant .
Sample molecules in the stationary phase do not move through the system.
17. Cont…
There fore, compound that spends most of their time in the
stationary phase
Move through the system rather slowly
Compound whose molecules are found in the mobile phase
most of the time
Move through the system more rapidly.
Molecules of solvent or mobile phase move through the system
At faster possible rate
Except in gel chromatography
Partition chromatography
Some times called liquid to liquid chromatography (LLC)
18. Cont…
Sample solution is introduced into two phase
Namely liquid-liquid system
One of the phase kept as a stationary phase
On a suitable support
Filter paper, cellulose powder etc
Have the ability to absorb and fix the stationary phase
The other moves past through the stationary liquid and support
material.
The two phases should be immiscible
Adsorption chromatography
Some times liquid-solid chromatography (LSC)
Stationary phase is solid
Such as alumina or silica gel
19. Cont…
The mobile phase is liquid
Separation occurs when components get,
Adsorbed on the solid phase with different strength
In theory, adsorption chromatography,
More complex than partition chromatography
20. Thin layer Chromatography (TLC)
The term “thin-layer chromatography”, introduced by N.A
Izamailov and M.S Shraiber in 1938,
means a chromatographic separation process in which the
stationary phase consists of a thin layer applied to a solid
substrate or “support”.
In TLC, the sample solution is applied as a spot or band on
the origin of the layer spread on a support (plate).
After evaporation of the sample solvent, the plate is placed
in a sealed chamber containing a solvent chosen as a
mobile phase.
21. Cont…
Development occurs as the mobile phase moves through the
layer, and the components of the sample move at different rates to
create the separation.
Environmental, pharmaceutical, biomedical and food samples are
among the sample types commonly analyzed by TLC
22. Cont…
.
Advantages of TLC include
Rapid analysis time because many samples can be analyzed
simultaneously,
Low solvent usage,
A high degree of accuracy and precision for instrumental TLC, and
Sensitivity in the nanogram or pictogram range.
Coupling of TLC with other analytical methods such as high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), mass
spectrometry (MS), and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry
(FTIR) provides enhanced opportunities for sample analysis.
23. Cont…
Data Analysis
The position of a substance zone (spot) in a thin-layer chromatogram can be
described with the aid of the retardation factor Rf. This is defined as the quotient
obtained by dividing the distance between the substance zone and the starting
line by the distance between the solvent front and the starting line
24. Cont…
This value is calculated as follows:
The Rf value is characteristic for the compound under those particular
chromatographic conditions. The response of a compound to a particular detection
reagent (e.g. spray) is also characteristic of the substance.
Figure : (a) A TLC plate before elution (spot 1 contains one application, spot 2, two
applications and spot 3,three applications); (b) Running a TLC chromatogram; (c) Example
after elution.
82
.
0
8
.
6
6
.
5
)
(
b
a
pink
Rf
41
.
0
8
.
6
8
.
2
)
(
a
c
blue
Rf
25. Cont…
Application of TLC analysis
Application of TLC include analysis of the following types: starting raw
,material (plant extracts ,extracts of animal origin, fermentation mixtures);
intermediates( crude products, reaction mixtures, mother liquors, and
secondary products);
Pharmaceutical raw material ( identification, purity testing , assay,
separation of closely related compounds, stability testing); formulated
products ( identification, purity testing, assay, separation of closely related
compounds, stability testing under storage and stress, content uniformity
test, dissolution test); and
Analysis of drugs and their metabolites in biological media such as urine,
plasma, or gastric fluid(pharmacological , toxicological, pharmacokinetic,
metabolic, bioequivalence, forensic and compliance and pharmacodynamic
studies).
26. Qualitative Analysis
TLC is often used by BP monographs as part of a number of identity tests
performed on pure drug substances.
Table 1 lists a few compounds which have their identity checked by TLC and
a variety of location reagents and mobile phases to illustrate the fact that
there is much less uniformity about TLC methodology than there is in the
case of HPLC and GLC methodology.
27. Stationary phase Mobile phase Visualizatio
n reagents
Comments
Framycein sulphate
Methyl prednisolone
Aprotinin
Levamisole
Pentagastrin
Silica gel +
carbomer binder
Silica gel GF254
Silica gel
Silica gel with
fluorescent
indicator
Silica gel G
10%w/v
KH2PO4
Ether/toluene
/butanol-1-ol
saturated with
water
(85:10:50
Acetate buffer
Toluene/aceto
ne/13.5M
ammonia
(60:40:1)
Analyte is
examined by
TLC in three
different
mobile phases
Naphthalen
ediol /
H2SO4
UV light
254nm then
ethanolic
sulfuric acid
(20%),+
heat to
1200C
Ninhydrin
spray
UV light
254 nm
4-
dimethylam
ino-
benzaldhyd
e in
methanol/H
Cl
Rf and color of the
sample are
compared with a
pure standard. The
resolution of the
analyte from
streptomycin is
checked
Rf and color of the
sample are
compared with a
pure standard. Also
Rf of an oxidation
product is used as
an additional check
Rf and color of the
spot obtained is
matched to that of a
standard
Rf and the size of the
spot obtained is
matched to that of a
standard
The Rf of the analyte
in three different
mobile phases is
determined and the
color of its spot is
matched to that of
the standard