This document discusses the measurement of electrical components like resistance, inductance, and capacitance. It begins by outlining different methods for measuring resistances of various ranges, including the ammeter-voltmeter method, Wheatstone bridge, and Kelvin's double bridge. It then covers techniques for measuring inductance and capacitance using bridges like Maxwell's bridge and Schering's bridge. Sources of error in bridge measurements are also reviewed. The document concludes by examining Wagner's earthing device for removing stray capacitances from bridge circuits.
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT & MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [Emmi- (NEE-302) -unit-1]Md Irshad Ahmad
(1) Philosophy of Measurement-Methods of measurement, Measurement system
, Classification of instrument systems, Characteristics of instruments & measurement
systems, Errors in measurement & its analysis, Standards.
(2)Analog Measurement of Electrical Quantities-Electrodynamic, Thermocouple,
Electrostatic & Rectifier type ammeters & voltmeters, Electrodynamic wattmeter, Three
Phase wattmeter, Power in three phase systems, Errors & remedies in wattmeter and energy
meter.
A Schering Bridge is a bridge circuit used for measuring an unknown electrical capacitance and its dissipation factor. The dissipation factor of a capacitor is the the ratio of its resistance to its capacitive reactance. The Schering Bridge is basically a four-arm alternating-current (AC) bridge circuit whose measurement depends on balancing the loads on its arms .
Nuisance tripping of circuit breakers is a common problem in many commercial and industrial installations. This application note explains the need to use true RMS measurement instruments when troubleshooting and analyzing the performance of a power system.
Nuisance tripping of circuit breakers is often caused by the load current being distorted by the presence of harmonic currents drawn by non-linear loads. Harmonic currents distort the current waveform and increase the load current required to deliver energy to the load. Many measurement instruments, even quite modern ones, use an averaging measurement technique that does not measure harmonic currents correctly. The readings may be as much as 40% too low. Circuit breakers and cable sizes may be underrated as a result.
True RMS meters, which take the complete distorted waveform into account, should be used instead.
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT & MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [Emmi- (NEE-302) -unit-1]Md Irshad Ahmad
(1) Philosophy of Measurement-Methods of measurement, Measurement system
, Classification of instrument systems, Characteristics of instruments & measurement
systems, Errors in measurement & its analysis, Standards.
(2)Analog Measurement of Electrical Quantities-Electrodynamic, Thermocouple,
Electrostatic & Rectifier type ammeters & voltmeters, Electrodynamic wattmeter, Three
Phase wattmeter, Power in three phase systems, Errors & remedies in wattmeter and energy
meter.
A Schering Bridge is a bridge circuit used for measuring an unknown electrical capacitance and its dissipation factor. The dissipation factor of a capacitor is the the ratio of its resistance to its capacitive reactance. The Schering Bridge is basically a four-arm alternating-current (AC) bridge circuit whose measurement depends on balancing the loads on its arms .
Nuisance tripping of circuit breakers is a common problem in many commercial and industrial installations. This application note explains the need to use true RMS measurement instruments when troubleshooting and analyzing the performance of a power system.
Nuisance tripping of circuit breakers is often caused by the load current being distorted by the presence of harmonic currents drawn by non-linear loads. Harmonic currents distort the current waveform and increase the load current required to deliver energy to the load. Many measurement instruments, even quite modern ones, use an averaging measurement technique that does not measure harmonic currents correctly. The readings may be as much as 40% too low. Circuit breakers and cable sizes may be underrated as a result.
True RMS meters, which take the complete distorted waveform into account, should be used instead.
Resistance,bundled conductor,skin effect,proximity effect
Proximity effect depends on:
Frequency of the current
Conductor size
Permeability of material
The complete list of thyristor family members include diac (bidirectional diode thyristor), triac (bidirectional triode thyristor), SCR (silicon controlled rectifier), Shockley diode, SCS (silicon controlled switch), SBS (silicon bilateral switch), SUS (silicon unilateral switch) also known as complementary SCR or CSCR, LASCR (light activated SCR), LAS (light activated switch) and LASCS (light activated SCS).
Alternating current (AC), is an electric current in which the flow of electric charge periodically reverses direction, whereas in direct current (DC, also dc), the flow of electric charge is only in one direction.
A complete description of including circuit diagram, gain equation, features of Instrumentational amplifier , its working principle, applications, practical circuits, Proteus simulation and conclusion.
Uet, Peshawar Pakistan
Batch-06
Resistance,bundled conductor,skin effect,proximity effect
Proximity effect depends on:
Frequency of the current
Conductor size
Permeability of material
The complete list of thyristor family members include diac (bidirectional diode thyristor), triac (bidirectional triode thyristor), SCR (silicon controlled rectifier), Shockley diode, SCS (silicon controlled switch), SBS (silicon bilateral switch), SUS (silicon unilateral switch) also known as complementary SCR or CSCR, LASCR (light activated SCR), LAS (light activated switch) and LASCS (light activated SCS).
Alternating current (AC), is an electric current in which the flow of electric charge periodically reverses direction, whereas in direct current (DC, also dc), the flow of electric charge is only in one direction.
A complete description of including circuit diagram, gain equation, features of Instrumentational amplifier , its working principle, applications, practical circuits, Proteus simulation and conclusion.
Uet, Peshawar Pakistan
Batch-06
The presentation describes resistance measurement through Voltmeter & Ammeter methods, DC bridges; Wheatstone bridge and Kelvin double bridge for low resistance.
A Kelvin bridge, also called a Kelvin double bridge and in some countries a Thomson bridge, is a measuring instrument used to measure unknown electrical resistors below 1 ohm. It is specifically designed to measure resistors that are constructed as four terminal resistors.
Parasitic consideration for differential capacitive sensorjournalBEEI
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Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
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Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
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Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
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NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
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Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
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Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
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condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
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of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
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and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
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1. Electrical and Electronic Measurement
Measurement of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance
Parveen Malik
Assistant Professor
School of Electronics Engineering
KIIT University
parveen.malikfet@kiit.ac.in
February 6, 2019
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 1 / 48
2. Outline
1 Measurement of Resistance
Range of Resistances
Classification of Methods - Low, Medium and High
Medium Resistance measurement
Ammeter & Voltmeter Method
Substitution Method
Wheatstone Bridge
Low Resistance measurement
Kelvin’s double bridge
High Resistance Measurement
Mega-ohm Bridge
Megaohmmeter - Megger
2 A.C. Bridges
Measurement of Inductance
Measurement of Capacitance
3 Errors in Bridge Measurement
4 Wagner’s earthing device
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 2 / 48
4. Range of Resistances1
Low Resistances - Order of 1 Ω or under
Copper , Gold, silver and aluminium.
Resistance series field winding generator, resistance of armature
winding, Earth winding Resistance
Medium Resistances - 1 Ω to 100, 000 Ω
Resistance of field winding of D.C. shunt generator, Resistance of long
transmission line
High Resistances - 100, 000 Ω to upwards
Resistance of cable insulation, resistance of insulator disk of
transmission line
1
This classification is not rigid
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 4 / 48
6. Resistance Measurement
Low, Medium and High Resistances
Low resistance
1 Ammeter and Voltmeter Method
2 Kelvin Double Bridge
3 Potentiometer Method
4 Ducter
Medium resistance
1 Ammeter and Voltmeter Method
2 Substitution Method
3 Wheatstone Bridge
4 Ohmmeter method
High resistance
1 Megaohm Bridge
2 Meggar
3 Loss of Charge Method
4 Deflection Method
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 6 / 48
8. R Measurement (M) - Ammeter & Voltmeter Method
(a)
(b)
Low Resistance values
Fig.(a) - Accurate and most
suitable when R ≪ RV
Rm = R
1+ R
RV
High Resistance values
Fig(b) - Accurate and most
suitable when R ≫ RA
Rm = R 1 + RA
R
Application
Suitable for laboratory
purpose.
Cons
Rough Method
Accuracy depends upon the
accuracy of voltmeter and
ammeter.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 8 / 48
10. R Measurement (Medium) - Substitution Method
Substitution Method
Pros
More accurate than
ammeter voltmeter.
Cons
Accuracy depends upon
constancy of the battery
emf.
sensitivity of instrument.
accuracy of standard
resistance.
Applications
Used in High frequency a.c.
measurements.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 10 / 48
12. Resistance Measurement - Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone Bridge
Balanced Condition
P
Q = R
S
Pros
Highly Reliable & easy to
use
Highly Accurate as reading
is independent of
characteristics of Null
indicating instrument.
Cons
Insufficient sensitivity of null
detector.
Changes in resistance due to
heating effect.
Thermal emf
Error due to resistance of
leads and contacts.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 12 / 48
14. Resistance Measurement
Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge
Sensitivity is used for
Selecting a galvanometer with which unbalance may be observed.
Determining the minimum unbalance with a given galvanometer
Determining the deflection to be expected for a given unbalance.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 14 / 48
16. Kelvin’s bridge
Problems in Measurement of Mow Resistances
When resistance under
measurement is comparable to
connecting leads resistance.
At Point m,
R =
P(S + r)
Q
At Point n,
R =
PS
Q
− r
At Point d,
R =
PS
Q
P
Q
=
r1
r2
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 16 / 48
18. Kelvin’s double bridge
Balance Equation (2nd ratio arm)
R =
PS
Q
+
qr
p + q + r
P
Q
−
p
q
Accuracies
1000 µΩ to 1 µΩ - 0.05%
100 µΩ to 1000 µΩ - 0.2% to 0.05%
10 µΩ to 100 µΩ - 0.5% to 0.2%
Cons
Accuracy is constrained by
thermoelectric emf.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 18 / 48
21. High Resistance Measurement - Wheatstone Bridge
Resistance in the range -
MΩ
Let us Consider RBG =
RBG = RAB = 100MΩ, the
equivalent resistance
becomes 200/3 = 66.67Ω.
Therefore, Output error is
33.33% ( RAB = 100MΩ)
We need to modify
Wheatstone bridge in order
to get exact RAB value
which is 100MΩ
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 21 / 48
22. Megaohm Bridge
Modification to Wheatstone Bridge
Connect b to G point.
When bridge is balanced,the potential difference across RBG is zero
and there is not current flowing through it. We can ignore this branch.
Now RAG comes in parallel to P. Thus, balance equation becomes
(RAG | | P) · S = R · Q and R = (RAG | | P)·S
Q
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 22 / 48
24. Megaohmmeter - Megger2
2
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements- David A. Bell, P 182, Sec
7-7 Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 24 / 48
25. Megaohmmeter - Megger3
Controlling Force
τC ∝ FC ∝ I1 ∝
V
R1
Deflecting Force
τd ∝ Fd ∝ I2 ∝
V
Rx + R2
Case 1 - When Rx is open , no current
will flow through the current coil
(Deflecting Coil) and only current that
would flow is through the controlling coil
which brings the pointer to infinity scale.
Case 2 - When Rx is closed, no current
will flow through the voltage Coil (
control coil), only current that would
flow is through the current coil (
Deflecting Coil) which brings the pointer
to 0 scale.
Case 3 - When Rx is put, current start
flowing through the both coils. The
pointer stops when both controlling and
deflecting forces are equal. At this point,
Rx = R1 − R2
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 25 / 48
32. Maxwell Inductance - Capacitance Bridge
Balance Equation
L1 = R2R3C4, R1 =
R2R3
R4
Pros
1 Balance equation independent
of frequency.
2 Scale of resistance can be
calibrate to read inductance
directly.
3 Scale of R4 can be calibrate to
read Q value directly.
Cons
1 Variable Capacitor is very
expensive.
2 Limited to measurement of low
Q coils (1 < Q < 10).
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 32 / 48
34. Hay’s Bridge
Balance Equation
L1 = C4R2R3
1+ω2C2
4 R2
4
R1 =
ω2R2R3R4C2
4
1+ω2C2
4 R2
4
Pros
1 Suitable for High Q coils.
2 Q = 1
ωC4R4
expression is simple
and require low value of R4 and
C4.
Cons
Hays bridge is not suitable for
measurement of quality factor
(Q > 10).
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 34 / 48
36. Anderson Bridge
Balance Equation
R1 = R2R3
R4
− r1
L1 = C R3
R4
[r(R4 + R2) + R2R4]
Pros
1 Fixed capacitor is used
2 Accurate determination of
inductance (millimetre range).
3 Accurate result for
determination of capacitance
in terms of inductance.
4 Easy to balance (convergence
point of view -low Q values)
Cons
1 Complicated in terms of the
number of components,
balance equation used.
2 The bridge cannot be easily
shielded.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 36 / 48
38. Owen’s Bridge
Balance Equation
L1 = C4R2R3, R1 = C4
R3
C2
Q = ωC2R2
Pros
1 Balance equation independent
of frequency.
2 Balance equation independent if
R2 and C2 are made variable.
Cons
1 Variable Capacitor is very
expensive.
2 C2 tends to be high while
measuring high Q coils.
Applications
Used in measurement of wide range
of inductances, incremental
inductance and permeability with a
slight modification.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 38 / 48
41. Schering’s Bridge
Balance Equation
R1 = R3C4
C2
, C1 = R4C2
R3
D = ωR4C4
Pros
1 Balance eq. is independent of
frequency.
Cons
Calibration for dissipation holds only
for one particular frequency.
Applications
Widely used for capacitance, relative
permittivity and D factor
measurement.
It is used for measuring the
insulating properties of electrical
cables and equipment’s.
It can measure small capacitors at
low voltages precisely
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 41 / 48
43. Wein’s Bridge
Frequency Range- 100 Hz
to 100 kHz
Accuracy- 0.1 % to 0.5 %
Balance Equation
R4
R3
= R2
R1
+ C1
C2
f = 1
2π
√
R1R2C1C2
Pros
Can be calibrated by a single control if
R1 = R2 and C1 = C2.
Cons
Difficult to balance if input is not
sinusoidal and contain harmonics.
Applications
Measuring the frequency in audio
range.
Audio and HF oscillators as the
frequency determining device.
Harmonic distortion analyser, as a
notch filter.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 43 / 48
44. Causes of Error in Bridge Measurement
Errors in Bridge Measurement
Stray Conduction effects due to imperfect insulation.
Mutual-Inductance effects, due to magnetic coupling between various
components of the bridge.
Stray-capacitance effects, due to electrostatic fields between
conductor at different potentials.
’Residual’ in components e.g. the existence of small amount of series
inductance or shunt capacitance in nominally non-reactive resistors.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 44 / 48
46. Wagner’s earthing device
To remove earth capacitance from bridge network.
Cab,Cbc,Ccd and Cad - Stray Capacitances
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 46 / 48
47. Wagner’s earthing device
Some of disadvantages of
Wagner Earthing devices can be
overcome by using double ratio
A.C. bridge (additional
inductively coupled arms).
First adjust the bridge to get
minimum detection current
by connecting detector at d
point.
Connect the detector at
ground potential and Start
balancing by adjusting Z5 or
Z6. Bring Vb to ground
position (0 V).
Then connect the arms at d
point again and start
balancing to bring detector
at zero current. Repeat the
process again.
Parveen Malik () E and EM February 6, 2019 47 / 48