A micro-review of the Baeyer-Villiger oxidation with recent (2012/2013) references from the literature; last updated on March 1 2013.
The Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation is a popular tool for the synthesis of esters and lactones.
See an animation at: http://www.harinchem.com/named_organic_reactions.html.
Please send feedback or questions through: http://www.harinchem.com/contactpage.aspx
123.713A/B. Description of the Jacobsen synthesis of muconin. This is an example of total synthesis, retrosynthesis and asymmetric synthesis and shows the kind of information required in the assigment for this course.
A micro-review of the Baeyer-Villiger oxidation with recent (2012/2013) references from the literature; last updated on March 1 2013.
The Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation is a popular tool for the synthesis of esters and lactones.
See an animation at: http://www.harinchem.com/named_organic_reactions.html.
Please send feedback or questions through: http://www.harinchem.com/contactpage.aspx
123.713A/B. Description of the Jacobsen synthesis of muconin. This is an example of total synthesis, retrosynthesis and asymmetric synthesis and shows the kind of information required in the assigment for this course.
Benzene has 6π electrons delocalized in 6p orbitals that overlap above and below the plane of the ring. Because benzene’s six pie electrons satisfy Huckel’s rule, benzene is especially stable. Reaction that keep the aromatic ring intact are therefore favoured
B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
More problems covering asymmetric synthesis. This time with examples of substrate control, chiral reagents, and chiral catalysis. Also another example of a synthesis.
Pinacol pinacolone rearrangement involves conversion of 1,2 - diols to carbonyl compounds in presence of acid catalyst with change in carbon skeleton. It is an example of whitmore shift.
An organic species which has a carbon atom bearing only six electrons in its outermost shell and has a positive charge is called carbocation.
The positively charged carbon of carbocation is sp2 hybridized.
The unhybridized p-orbital remains vacant.
They are highly reactive and act as reaction intermediate.
They are also called carbonium ion.
Benzene has 6π electrons delocalized in 6p orbitals that overlap above and below the plane of the ring. Because benzene’s six pie electrons satisfy Huckel’s rule, benzene is especially stable. Reaction that keep the aromatic ring intact are therefore favoured
B.Pharm I Year II Sem. SN1 and SN2 reactions, kinetics, order of reactivity of alkyl halides, stereochemistry and rearrangement of carbocations.
SN1 versus SN2 reactions, Factors affecting SN1 and SN2 reactions.
Structure and uses of ethylchloride, Chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, tetrachloromethane and iodoform.
Alcohols, Qualitative tests for Alcohol, Structure and uses of Ethyl alcohol, chlorobutanol, Cetosterylalcohol, Benzyl alcohol, Glycerol, Propylene glycol
More problems covering asymmetric synthesis. This time with examples of substrate control, chiral reagents, and chiral catalysis. Also another example of a synthesis.
Pinacol pinacolone rearrangement involves conversion of 1,2 - diols to carbonyl compounds in presence of acid catalyst with change in carbon skeleton. It is an example of whitmore shift.
An organic species which has a carbon atom bearing only six electrons in its outermost shell and has a positive charge is called carbocation.
The positively charged carbon of carbocation is sp2 hybridized.
The unhybridized p-orbital remains vacant.
They are highly reactive and act as reaction intermediate.
They are also called carbonium ion.
HSSC Second year Chemistry course slides for Federal Board Pakistan, lectures by Dr. Raja Hashim Ali (also available on Youtube as a series of video lectures).
HSSC Second year Chemistry course slides for Federal Board Pakistan, lectures by Dr. Raja Hashim Ali (also available on Youtube as a series of video lectures).
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLCfCZszhGHBcrQyVSvShXy0VVs1H6hDe9
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
1. Chapter 17:Chapter 17:
Aldehydes and KetonesAldehydes and Ketones
R H
O
Functional Group: CarbonylFunctional Group: Carbonyl
Aldehyde: RCHO,Aldehyde: RCHO,
Ketone: RCOR’,Ketone: RCOR’, R R'
O
2. Some 300 million sperm are released
by the male during ejaculation, while
the female usually produces one large
egg at a time. Only one sperm cell can
fertilize the egg. How does it find it?
Magnification: ~2,500
Sperm are selected for fertilization
by their ability to “smell” a nearby
egg. The 11-carbon aldehyde
bourgeonal, above, activates this
ability, whereas the straight-chain
11-carbon aldehyde, undecanal, shuts
it down.
A little aldehyde at a crucialA little aldehyde at a crucial
moment.......moment.......
O
H
3. NomenclatureNomenclature
The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones hasThe carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones has
prioritypriority over all other polar or functional groupsover all other polar or functional groups
used so far, namelyused so far, namely
RX, ROH, , ,RX, ROH, , , (But not COOH)(But not COOH)
>>In addition:In addition:
4. Systematic NamingSystematic Naming
(IUPAC)(IUPAC)
AldehydesAldehydes
AlkanAlkanee AlkanAlkanalal. Longest chain starts. Longest chain starts
at carbonyl carbon, which is C1.at carbonyl carbon, which is C1.
ExamplesExamples::
FormFormaldehydealdehyde AcetAcetaldehydealdehyde
IUPAC-accepted common namesIUPAC-accepted common names
5. Cyclic aldehydes have the endingCyclic aldehydes have the ending
-carbaldehyde-carbaldehyde after cycloalkane name.after cycloalkane name.
The carbon attached to -CHO is C1.The carbon attached to -CHO is C1.
Examples:Examples:
TheThe unit as a substituent is calledunit as a substituent is called
formylformyl..
Cis-2-Cis-2-mercaptomercaptocyclo-cyclo-
hexanehexanecarbaldehydecarbaldehyde
CHO
1
2
3
4
SH
6. KetonesKetones
AlkAlkaneane AlkanAlkanone.one. Longest chainLongest chain
incorporates carbonyl carbon and isincorporates carbonyl carbon and is
numbered from terminus close to C=O.numbered from terminus close to C=O.
Cyclic ketones areCyclic ketones are cycloalkanones;cycloalkanones; CC=O=O
isis C1C1..
Examples:Examples:
CisCis-2-ethenyl-3--2-ethenyl-3-
methylcyclohexanonemethylcyclohexanone
(if racemic) or 2(if racemic) or 2SS,3,3S-.S-.
2-Pentanone
O
H
H
7. An aldehyde containing a ketoneAn aldehyde containing a ketone
C=O is called anC=O is called an oxooxoalkanal.alkanal.
Example:Example:
Substituent name:Substituent name: alkanoylalkanoyl
O
R
O
CH3
acetylacetyl, but, but propanoylpropanoyl
(IUPAC accepted common name)(IUPAC accepted common name)
O
CH3CH2
8. O
O
HO
Complex Aldehydes andComplex Aldehydes and
KetonesKetones
4-Acetylbenzenecarboxylic acid4-Acetylbenzenecarboxylic acid
Br
O
H
O
TransTrans-4-bromo-2-oxo-3-butenal-4-bromo-2-oxo-3-butenal
9. StructureStructure
OrbitalsOrbitals
The carbonyl group contains aThe carbonyl group contains a shortshort,, strongstrong, and very, and very polarpolar bond.bond.
ResonanceResonance
PolarizationPolarization
Molecular structureMolecular structure
EPMEPM
175 kcal mol-1
10. Polarization affects the physicalPolarization affects the physical
constants of aldehydes and ketonesconstants of aldehydes and ketones
-- Boiling points relatively high-- Boiling points relatively high
-- Smaller members (acetaldehyde,-- Smaller members (acetaldehyde,
acetone) are completely miscible withacetone) are completely miscible with
waterwater
11. 11
H NMR: Carbonyl group isH NMR: Carbonyl group is
deshieldingdeshielding
UniquelyUniquely deshieldeddeshielded
by polarization andby polarization and
double bond effectdouble bond effect
J ~ 2Hz
15. UVUV
TheThe ππππ* and n* and nππ**
transitions in acetonetransitions in acetone
λλmaxmax (n(nππ*)*) = 275-295 nm= 275-295 nm
Lone electronLone electron
pairspairs
:: ::
16. SynthesisSynthesis
(A review of Chapter 8)(A review of Chapter 8)
1.1. OxidationOxidation of Alcoholsof Alcohols
PrimaryPrimary aldehydesaldehydes
SecondarySecondary ketonesketones
UseUse chromium(VI)chromium(VI) reagentsreagents
Selective: Will not oxidize alkene or alkyneSelective: Will not oxidize alkene or alkyne
units. Especially mild is PCC:units. Especially mild is PCC:
PyridinePyridinePyridinium chlorochromate :Pyridinium chlorochromate : “PCC”“PCC”
NNHH
++
NN
CrOCrO33ClCl
--
18. 2.2. AllylicAllylic Oxidation:Oxidation: MnOMnO22
Selective: Will not attack ordinary alcoholsSelective: Will not attack ordinary alcohols
Allylic H is reactiveAllylic H is reactive
19. 3.3. OzonolysisOzonolysis ofof alkenes:alkenes:
OO33, then reducing agent, then reducing agent
Oxidative cleavage of carbon-carbon doubleOxidative cleavage of carbon-carbon double
bondsbonds
20. 4.4. HydrationHydration of alkynesof alkynes
Hydration of the carbon–carbon triple bond yieldsHydration of the carbon–carbon triple bond yields
enols that tautomerize to carbonyl compoundsenols that tautomerize to carbonyl compounds
MarkovnikovMarkovnikov: Use Hg: Use Hg2+2+
, H, H22O, HO, H++
::
Anti-MarkovnikovAnti-Markovnikov: Use hydroboration-oxidation: Use hydroboration-oxidation
23. Nucleophilic additions to carbonyls toNucleophilic additions to carbonyls to
give alcoholsgive alcohols
Addition reactions occur withAddition reactions occur with milder nucleophilesmilder nucleophiles, such, such
as water, alcohols, amines, etc. To speed them up,as water, alcohols, amines, etc. To speed them up, acid oracid or
base catalysisbase catalysis is required.is required.
28. 2. Addition of2. Addition of AlcoholsAlcohols
(Not hemiketal:(Not hemiketal:
IUPAC)IUPAC)
Same as water, initially, to formSame as water, initially, to form hemiacetalshemiacetals
K
K
K varies from
< 1 to > 1, as
with water.
Depends on R.
H+
or HO-
H+
or HO-
29. IntramolecularIntramolecular variantvariant (important for(important for
sugars, Chapter 24):sugars, Chapter 24): Best for 5- andBest for 5- and
6-membered rings.6-membered rings.
Favored by entropyFavored by entropy relativerelative
to intermolecular addition;to intermolecular addition;
ΔΔGG ° =° = ΔΔHH ° - T° - TΔΔSS °°
ΔΔSS ° is° is less negativeless negative forfor
intramolecular reaction.intramolecular reaction.
K >1!
30. We can drive the hemiacetal stepWe can drive the hemiacetal step furtherfurther withwith
more alcohol and withmore alcohol and with HH++
catalysis:catalysis: AcetalsAcetals
Acetals are stable to:Acetals are stable to:
BaseBase
Oxidizing agentsOxidizing agents
Nucleophiles (Grignards,Nucleophiles (Grignards,
alkyllithiums, hydrides)alkyllithiums, hydrides)
Acetals areAcetals are NOTNOT
stable to:stable to:
AcidAcid
(A geminal diether)(A geminal diether)
K >1!
(isolated)
32. Cyclic Acetals:Cyclic Acetals: Protecting GroupsProtecting Groups
o
o
CHCH33OHOH
IntramolecularIntramolecular variantvariant (important for(important for
sugars, Chapter 24).sugars, Chapter 24). Best for 5- and 6-memberedBest for 5- and 6-membered
rings.rings.
HO
O
H
H+
, H2O
Hydrolysis = Deprotection
34. This is also a method toThis is also a method to protect diols:protect diols:
O
Br
OH
OH
+
H+
Br
O
O
Mg
BrMg
O
O
O
H+
OH
OH
HO
35. Thioacetals: Stable to acid!Thioacetals: Stable to acid!
Application ofApplication of
thioacetals:thioacetals:
DesulfurizationDesulfurization
Deprotection:Deprotection:
Thioacetalization uses Lewis acid catalysis, e.g., ZnClThioacetalization uses Lewis acid catalysis, e.g., ZnCl22. Again, cyclic. Again, cyclic
version particularly favorable.version particularly favorable.
More applications: Chapter 23.More applications: Chapter 23.
36. 3.3. Amine AdditionsAmine Additions
Example:Example:
Ammonia and primary aminesAmmonia and primary amines
add to the carbonyl functionadd to the carbonyl function
and then dehydrate: Aand then dehydrate: A
““condensationcondensation” reaction.” reaction.
38. IntramolecularIntramolecular reaction:reaction: Best for 5-Best for 5-
and 6-membered rings.and 6-membered rings.
O
NH2 NCat.Cat. HH++
Teaser: AnTeaser: An 11
H NMRH NMR
spectrum of an iminespectrum of an imine
(downfield region)(downfield region)
39. Special IminesSpecial Imines
+ H+ H22N-OHN-OH
(as H(as H33NN++
-OH Cl-OH Cl--
))
AnAn oximeoxime
++
SemicarbazideSemicarbazide SemicarbazoneSemicarbazone
R R'
O
R R'
N
OH
-H-H22OO
R R'
O
N
H
NH2
O
H2N
R R'
N
H
N
O
NH2
-H-H22OO
R R'
O
++ -H-H22OO
HydrazoneHydrazone
HydroxylamineHydroxylamine
40. Reaction of the carbonyl function withReaction of the carbonyl function with
secondary aminessecondary amines gives hemiaminals ingives hemiaminals in
which normal condensation is notwhich normal condensation is not
possible: No H left on N. Therefore,possible: No H left on N. Therefore,
water loss occurs to the “carbon side”water loss occurs to the “carbon side”
to form anto form an enamineenamine..
EnamineEnamine FormationFormation
42. Wolff-Kishner ReductionWolff-Kishner Reduction
An Application ofAn Application of HydrazonesHydrazones
Synthesis of a HydrazoneSynthesis of a Hydrazone
Wolff-Kishner ReductionWolff-Kishner Reduction
44. Use in alkylbenzene synthesis:Use in alkylbenzene synthesis:
Br
Br
Br
Br
The Wolff-Kishner reduction is an alternative toThe Wolff-Kishner reduction is an alternative to
the Clemmensen (rough, conc. acid) and thioacetal
desulfurization methods (incompatible with cat. H2-
sensitive groups) of deoxygenating aldehydes and
ketones.
45. 4. Addition of4. Addition of Non-Non-
organometallicorganometallic CarbonCarbon
NucleophilesNucleophiles
a. Cyanide makesa. Cyanide makes cyanohydrinscyanohydrins
To make HCN,
but keep pH
slightly basic
MechanismMechanism
NaNaOHOH
Usefulness: A C-C bond formation and -CN is a versatile functional groupUsefulness: A C-C bond formation and -CN is a versatile functional group
46. b. Theb. The Wittig ReactionWittig Reaction
Phosphonium salt synthesisPhosphonium salt synthesis
Georg Wittig
(1897–1987)
NP 1979
Discovered during an investigation of SDiscovered during an investigation of SNN22
reactions of phosphines with haloalkanes.reactions of phosphines with haloalkanes.
The charge on PThe charge on P
acidifies the adjacentacidifies the adjacent
C-H: DeprotonationC-H: Deprotonation
gives a so-calledgives a so-called ylideylide
47. Other (weaker) bases OK, such as CHOther (weaker) bases OK, such as CH33OO--
, CH, CH33OH, generate the ylide inOH, generate the ylide in
equilibrium concentrations sufficient for the next step: Attack onequilibrium concentrations sufficient for the next step: Attack on
carbonyl carbon and formation of alkenes.carbonyl carbon and formation of alkenes.
NucleophilicNucleophilic Valence shell expandedValence shell expanded
WittigWittig
48. Driving force: Very strong bondDriving force: Very strong bond
CompareCompare::
49. CHCH22=P(C=P(C66HH55))33
Can be made cis or trans selective.Can be made cis or trans selective.
Steroid modificationSteroid modification
O
CH2
H
H
H
O
O
H
H
H
Resonance-stabilized, trans-selective
50. 5. Addition of Hydroxy Groups5. Addition of Hydroxy Groups
Revisited:Revisited: Baeyer-VilligerBaeyer-Villiger
OxidationOxidation
Oxidation of ketones by peroxycarboxylicOxidation of ketones by peroxycarboxylic
acids givesacids gives esters:esters:
Mechanism:Mechanism:
Adolf vonAdolf von
BaeyerBaeyer
(1835-1917)(1835-1917)
NP 1905.NP 1905.
Victor VilligerVictor Villiger
LipshutzLipshutzCarusoCaruso
51. Familiar? Recall: Chapter 9-3Familiar? Recall: Chapter 9-3
And Chapter 12-8And Chapter 12-8
The transition state of the Baeyer-The transition state of the Baeyer-
Villiger oxidation involves migration ofVilliger oxidation involves migration of
R’R’ through a push-pull electronic relay:through a push-pull electronic relay:
Reassessing the role of progesterone in fertilization—compartmentalized calcium signalling in human spermatozoa?
Claire V. Harper1,2 and Stephen J. Publicover1,3 1 School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK 2 Present address: School of Biological Sciences, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
3 Corresponding author. E-mail: [email_address]
Abstract Top Abstract Sperm responses to oocyte... Effect of progesterone on... Response of human spermatozoa... Generation of [Ca2+]i... Role of progesterone-induced... Compartmentalized [Ca2+]I... References Progesterone is present at micromolar concentrations in the vicinity of the oocyte. Human spermatozoa generate a biphasic rise in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) and undergo the acrosome reaction upon progesterone stimulation, suggesting that the hormone acts as a secondary inducer or ‘primer’ of the acrosome reaction in association with the zona pellucida. However, the sensitivity of human spermatozoa to progesterone is such that many cells may undergo the acrosome reaction prematurely, compromising their ability to fertilize. We have shown that exposing human spermatozoa to a progesterone gradient, simulating the stimulus encountered as sperm approach the oocyte, results in a novel response. A slow rise in [Ca2+]i occurs, upon which, in many cells, [Ca2+]i oscillations are superimposed. Cells showing this pattern of response do not undergo the acrosome reaction, but instead show an alternating pattern of flagellar activity associated with peaks and troughs of [Ca2+]i. A Ca2+ store in the rear of the sperm head apparently generates this complex signal, functioning as an ‘[Ca2+]i oscillator’. We propose that: (i) the acrosome reaction and flagellar beat are regulated by separate Ca2+ stores; (ii) these stores are mobilized through different mechanisms by different agonists; and (iii) progesterone in vivo acts as a switch for the oscillator which regulates the flagellar beat mode.
Key words: calcium/motility/oscillation/progesterone/sperm
Sperm responses to oocyte-derived factors Top Abstract Sperm responses to oocyte... Effect of progesterone on... Response of human spermatozoa... Generation of [Ca2+]i... Role of progesterone-induced... Compartmentalized [Ca2+]I... References After deposition in the female tract, a mammalian sperm must swim to the oocyte, requiring both motility through a viscous environment and (probably) chemotactic control of that motility. On reaching the oocyte–cumulus complex, the cell has to penetrate the layers of cumulus and zona pellucida, a process dependent upon both the acrosome reaction (AR) and regulation of motility. The sperm must, therefore, detect and respond appropriately both ‘remotely’ (to factors derived from the oocyte) and also to stimuli presented upon direct contact with the egg. These stimuli must elicit intracellular signals that achieve complex regulation of the flagellum (both beat mode and directional) and appropriately timed activation of the AR. Sperm responses to factors derived from the egg and its vestments are primarily mediated through [Ca2+]i, which is known to control flagellar activity both during regulation of flagellar beat mode (Ho et al., 2002; Harper et al., 2004 ) and during chemotactic responses (Spehr et al., 2003 , 2004 ). Ca2+ is also pivotal to induction of the AR (Publicover and Barratt, 1999).
At least two components of the egg vestments, zona pellucida and progesterone (secreted at high concentrations by the cumulus cells), activate Ca2+ signalling in mammalian spermatozoa (Florman et al., 1989 ; Blackmore et al., 1990) . The induction of the AR by solubilized zona pellucida has been studied in detail in the mouse model and involves activation of a T-type voltage-operated calcium chanel (VOCC) followed by store mobilization and prolonged (probably) capacitative Ca2+ influx (Florman et al., 1992; Evans and Florman, 2002 ). In contrast, the significance of progesterone is much less clear. The responsiveness of human spermatozoa to progesterone correlates with the fertilization rate at IVF (Krausz et al., 1996 ; Forti et al., 1999 ; Giojalas et al., 2004 ), and removal of cumulus cells from oocytes significantly reduces the success rate of IVF in most mammals (Tanghe et al., 2002 ; van Soom et al., 2002). However, the most commonly observed effect of progesterone-induced Ca2+ influx, stimulation of the AR, is arguably not an adaptive response. Human spermatozoa respond with elevation of [Ca2+]i and the AR to doses well below the 1–10 µmol/l that is believed to occur adjacent to the oocyte (Osman et al., 1989 ; Baldi et al., 1991 ; Harper et al., 2003) . The AR should therefore occur in many cells before they enter the cumulus, potentially compromising their ability subsequently to penetrate the zona.
Identification of a Testicular Odorant Receptor Mediating Human Sperm Chemotaxis
Marc Spehr,1 Günter Gisselmann,1 Alexandra Poplawski,1 Jeffrey A. Riffell,2 Christian H. Wetzel,1 Richard K. Zimmer,23 Hanns Hatt1*
Although it has been known for some time that olfactory receptors (ORs) reside in spermatozoa, the function of these ORs is unknown. Here, we identified, cloned, and functionally expressed a previously undescribed human testicular OR, hOR17-4. With the use of ratiofluorometric imaging, Ca2+ signals were induced by a small subset of applied chemical stimuli, establishing the molecular receptive fields for the recombinantly expressed receptor in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells and the native receptor in human spermatozoa. Bourgeonal was a powerful agonist for both recombinant and native receptor types, as well as a strong chemoattractant in subsequent behavioral bioassays. In contrast, undecanal was a potent OR antagonist to bourgeonal and related compounds. Taken together, these results indicate that hOR17-4 functions in human sperm chemotaxis and may be a critical component of the fertilization process.