The document discusses inflammation and healing. It describes the three lines of defense in the body against pathogens: mechanical barriers, inflammation, and specific immune responses. Inflammation is defined as a protective response to infection or injury and involves redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function. The stages of acute inflammation and factors that influence the inflammatory response like chemical mediators are examined. Treatment options for inflammation including medications are also reviewed.
The human body contains approximately 5 liters of blood composed of plasma and cellular elements. Plasma is 55% of blood and contains water, proteins, electrolytes, and other substances. Cellular elements include red blood cells containing hemoglobin, white blood cells for immunity, and platelets for clotting. Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and more throughout the body.
This document discusses the movement of substances between body fluid compartments through capillaries and the forces that influence this movement. Specifically, it notes that substances diffuse between blood plasma and interstitial fluid through capillary walls. Nutrients, electrolytes, hormones, and gases diffuse from plasma into tissues, while metabolic waste diffuses back into plasma. The key forces that influence fluid movement are capillary hydrostatic pressure, interstitial fluid pressure, plasma oncotic pressure, and interstitial fluid oncotic pressure, known together as the Starling forces. Edema can occur when there is raised capillary pressure, reduced oncotic pressure, endothelial damage, or impaired lymphatic drainage.
The parotid gland is the largest major salivary gland. It is located below and in front of the external ear. The parotid gland develops early in the fourth week of prenatal development. It has multiple surfaces and borders that relate to surrounding structures like the mandible, masseter muscle, and facial nerve which branches within the gland. The parotid gland secretes saliva through the parotid duct which travels anteriorly to open in the mouth. It receives nerve supply from both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. Lymph from the gland drains to local and deep cervical lymph nodes.
Information about how cell get injured from different stimuli. Mechanism of cellular injury. Different types of cellular injury. Different examples of cellular injury with images which makes it easy to understand.
The document discusses inflammation and healing. It describes the three lines of defense in the body against pathogens: mechanical barriers, inflammation, and specific immune responses. Inflammation is defined as a protective response to infection or injury and involves redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function. The stages of acute inflammation and factors that influence the inflammatory response like chemical mediators are examined. Treatment options for inflammation including medications are also reviewed.
The human body contains approximately 5 liters of blood composed of plasma and cellular elements. Plasma is 55% of blood and contains water, proteins, electrolytes, and other substances. Cellular elements include red blood cells containing hemoglobin, white blood cells for immunity, and platelets for clotting. Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and more throughout the body.
This document discusses the movement of substances between body fluid compartments through capillaries and the forces that influence this movement. Specifically, it notes that substances diffuse between blood plasma and interstitial fluid through capillary walls. Nutrients, electrolytes, hormones, and gases diffuse from plasma into tissues, while metabolic waste diffuses back into plasma. The key forces that influence fluid movement are capillary hydrostatic pressure, interstitial fluid pressure, plasma oncotic pressure, and interstitial fluid oncotic pressure, known together as the Starling forces. Edema can occur when there is raised capillary pressure, reduced oncotic pressure, endothelial damage, or impaired lymphatic drainage.
The parotid gland is the largest major salivary gland. It is located below and in front of the external ear. The parotid gland develops early in the fourth week of prenatal development. It has multiple surfaces and borders that relate to surrounding structures like the mandible, masseter muscle, and facial nerve which branches within the gland. The parotid gland secretes saliva through the parotid duct which travels anteriorly to open in the mouth. It receives nerve supply from both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. Lymph from the gland drains to local and deep cervical lymph nodes.
Information about how cell get injured from different stimuli. Mechanism of cellular injury. Different types of cellular injury. Different examples of cellular injury with images which makes it easy to understand.
This document discusses body fluids and electrolytes. It begins by stating that total body water makes up 60% of body weight and is divided into intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). ECF can be further divided into plasma and interstitial fluid. The document then discusses the composition of body fluids, measurement techniques, water balance and electrolyte distribution between fluid compartments. It emphasizes the importance of homeostasis and how the kidneys, hormones and hypothalamus help regulate fluid balance and prevent conditions like dehydration or edema.
The document provides an overview of the structure and organization of the vertebrate nervous system. It describes the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain can be divided into the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. The forebrain contains structures like the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and limbic system. The peripheral nervous system includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. Research methods to study the brain include examining brain anatomy, recording brain activity, studying brain damage effects, and stimulating specific brain regions.
The human body is composed primarily of fluids, with water making up about two-thirds of the total body weight. The body's fluids are divided into two main compartments: intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). ICF makes up about 40% of total body water and is contained within cells, while ECF comprises around 20% and includes interstitial fluid, plasma, and transcellular fluids such as cerebrospinal fluid. ECF volume can be measured using substances that remain in the extracellular space, while total body water and plasma volume are determined through the dilution of markers distributed throughout the body's water compartments. Proper fluid balance is essential for acid-base regulation, electrolyte levels
The document discusses the 12 pairs of cranial nerves. It describes the anatomy and functions of each nerve. The cranial nerves emerge from the brain and pass through openings in the skull, carrying sensory information from structures in the head and neck and motor signals to muscles like the extraocular muscles that control eye movement. The document focuses on describing the course and distribution of each cranial nerve pair.
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS connects them to sensory receptors and effector organs. Neurons are the basic functional units and transmit electrical signals through axons and dendrites. Communication occurs at synapses between neurons. The brain is divided into regions that control functions like breathing, movement coordination, homeostasis, and cognition. The brain and spinal cord are protected by meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.
DNA contains genes that code for proteins. Proteins are made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. There are 20 different amino acids. An amino acid chain is called a polypeptide. DNA is found in the nucleus, while proteins are made in the cytoplasm of cells by ribosomes. The process of protein synthesis begins with transcription of DNA into mRNA, which is then translated by ribosomes into a polypeptide chain. There are three main types of RNA involved in protein synthesis: mRNA carries the genetic code to ribosomes, rRNA makes up ribosomes, and tRNA transfers amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.
This document discusses pediatric fluid therapy and body fluid compartments. It begins by describing the different fluid compartments in the body, including total body water, extracellular fluid, and intracellular fluid. It then focuses on neonatal fluid management, noting that extracellular fluid is initially greater than intracellular fluid at birth, and describing appropriate intravenous fluid volumes for neonates. The document also discusses fluid requirements in children, evaluation of intravascular volume, choice of fluid types including crystalloids, colloids, and blood products, and provides guidelines for fluid resuscitation in dehydrated children.
This document summarizes cellular response to injury, acute inflammation, healing and repair, and chronic inflammation. It describes how cells maintain homeostasis and the mechanisms of cell injury. Reversible cell injury involves swelling and fatty change, while irreversible injury leads to necrosis. Acute inflammation occurs rapidly after injury and involves increased blood flow and permeability. Healing processes like soft tissue repair involve inflammation, proliferation, and regeneration phases. Chronic inflammation is prolonged and associated with lymphocytes, macrophages, and tissue damage or repair. It can be caused by persistent infection, toxic exposure, or autoimmunity.
The human body is composed primarily of water (60% of body weight) and proteins (18% of body weight). Water constitutes a higher percentage of body weight in infants (82%) compared to elderly adults (52%). The total body water is divided into intracellular fluid (ICF, 2/3 of total) and extracellular fluid (ECF, 1/3 of total). ECF is further divided into intravascular, interstitial, and transcellular fluids. Osmotic and hydrostatic pressures regulate the exchange of fluids between blood vessels and tissues.
This document discusses chemical bonding and macromolecular structures. It begins by explaining the different types of bonds - ionic bonds formed between metals and non-metals by electron transfer, and covalent bonds formed between non-metals by electron sharing. It describes the properties of ionic and covalent compounds. It then discusses macromolecular structures found in substances like diamond, graphite and metals. It explains metallic bonding and compares the structures and properties of diamond and graphite. In the end, it discusses the different uses of diamond and graphite based on their properties.
This document discusses covalent bonding and molecular compounds. It defines a chemical bond as a force that holds atoms together, and describes covalent bonding as atoms sharing electrons. As two atoms approach each other to form a bond, their potential energy decreases to a minimum at the bond length. Bond length and bond energy vary between different bonded atoms. The octet rule states atoms want 8 electrons in their valence shell. Practice problems classify bonds and identify valence electrons.
Cell injury, adaptation, and death can occur through various stimuli and stresses. Cells may undergo reversible or irreversible changes. Reversible changes include cellular adaptation through hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and metaplasia to stressors. Irreversible changes result in cellular atrophy and eventually cell death through necrosis or apoptosis. The morphology of reversible injury includes cellular swelling, fatty change, and changes to organelles. Necrosis is the degradative process of cell death where cellular contents are digested by enzymes.
This document discusses cranial nerves and their imaging. It begins by recommending MRI as the best imaging modality for cranial neuropathies, except for distal vagal neuropathy which requires CECT of the aortopulmonary window. It describes the normal anatomy and imaging approach for each cranial nerve. Specific MRI sequences like SSFP are useful for visualizing cranial nerves due to their high spatial resolution. Some advantages and disadvantages of SSFP sequences are provided. The document then discusses the normal anatomy and imaging findings for several individual cranial nerves including the olfactory, optic, and oculomotor nerves. It also reviews some common pathologies that can affect these nerves.
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis in three main steps: transcription, translation, and termination. During transcription, RNA polymerase makes an mRNA copy of a DNA sequence. Translation then uses the mRNA to assemble a polypeptide chain via tRNAs and ribosomes. Termination occurs when a stop codon signals the release of the completed protein chain. The central dogma of biology is demonstrated as DNA is transcribed to mRNA which is then translated to protein.
This document discusses various causes of cell injury and death, including oxygen deprivation, physical agents, chemicals, infectious agents, immune reactions, genetic defects, and nutritional imbalances. It describes the morphological changes that occur in reversible cell injury, including swelling and fatty change, as well as irreversible cell injury known as necrosis. Necrosis results in loss of cell integrity and contents. The document outlines different patterns of tissue necrosis, such as coagulative, liquefactive, gangrenous, caseous, and fibrinoid necrosis.
The document discusses body fluids and their composition. It states that the water content in the body is divided into extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF). ECF makes up about 1/3 of total body water and contains ions and nutrients outside cells. ICF makes up about 2/3 of total body water and contains fluid inside cells. It provides examples of how to calculate total body water and compares the electrolyte compositions of ECF and ICF.
The document discusses fluid and electrolyte imbalances in the body. It covers the major fluid compartments, how fluids move between compartments, and the functions of various electrolytes including sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and others. It defines abnormalities such as hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, and their typical causes and treatments.
General pathology lecture 1 introduction & cell injuryHuang Yu-Wen
This document provides an overview of pathology and cell injury. It begins with definitions of pathology and discusses its focus on etiology, pathogenesis, morphology, and manifestations of disease. It then covers cell injury, describing the process from normal cell to reversible and irreversible injury. Specific types of cell injury are outlined like cloudy swelling, fatty change, and hyaline degeneration. The document concludes with examples of intracellular accumulations seen in various disease states.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph nodes connected by lymph vessels that carry lymph fluid throughout the body. It plays an essential role in the immune system by filtering pathogens and other foreign materials. When illness occurs, lymph nodes may swell as the lymphatic system works to produce more white blood cells and filter pathogens from the lymph. Several diseases can affect the lymphatic system, including lymphedema which causes fluid accumulation, lymphomas which are cancers of the lymph system, and infections that cause swelling of lymph nodes. Treatment for lymphatic diseases depends on the specific condition but may include antibiotics, surgery, chemotherapy or other medications.
Blood functions to transport oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones, and more throughout the body. It is composed of plasma and formed elements including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. Erythrocytes carry oxygen to tissues via hemoglobin and have a normal lifespan of 100-120 days before being recycled. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is a common test measuring the rate at which red blood cells sediment in one hour, indicating inflammation.
This document discusses body fluids and electrolytes. It begins by stating that total body water makes up 60% of body weight and is divided into intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). ECF can be further divided into plasma and interstitial fluid. The document then discusses the composition of body fluids, measurement techniques, water balance and electrolyte distribution between fluid compartments. It emphasizes the importance of homeostasis and how the kidneys, hormones and hypothalamus help regulate fluid balance and prevent conditions like dehydration or edema.
The document provides an overview of the structure and organization of the vertebrate nervous system. It describes the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain can be divided into the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. The forebrain contains structures like the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and limbic system. The peripheral nervous system includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. Research methods to study the brain include examining brain anatomy, recording brain activity, studying brain damage effects, and stimulating specific brain regions.
The human body is composed primarily of fluids, with water making up about two-thirds of the total body weight. The body's fluids are divided into two main compartments: intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). ICF makes up about 40% of total body water and is contained within cells, while ECF comprises around 20% and includes interstitial fluid, plasma, and transcellular fluids such as cerebrospinal fluid. ECF volume can be measured using substances that remain in the extracellular space, while total body water and plasma volume are determined through the dilution of markers distributed throughout the body's water compartments. Proper fluid balance is essential for acid-base regulation, electrolyte levels
The document discusses the 12 pairs of cranial nerves. It describes the anatomy and functions of each nerve. The cranial nerves emerge from the brain and pass through openings in the skull, carrying sensory information from structures in the head and neck and motor signals to muscles like the extraocular muscles that control eye movement. The document focuses on describing the course and distribution of each cranial nerve pair.
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS connects them to sensory receptors and effector organs. Neurons are the basic functional units and transmit electrical signals through axons and dendrites. Communication occurs at synapses between neurons. The brain is divided into regions that control functions like breathing, movement coordination, homeostasis, and cognition. The brain and spinal cord are protected by meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.
DNA contains genes that code for proteins. Proteins are made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. There are 20 different amino acids. An amino acid chain is called a polypeptide. DNA is found in the nucleus, while proteins are made in the cytoplasm of cells by ribosomes. The process of protein synthesis begins with transcription of DNA into mRNA, which is then translated by ribosomes into a polypeptide chain. There are three main types of RNA involved in protein synthesis: mRNA carries the genetic code to ribosomes, rRNA makes up ribosomes, and tRNA transfers amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.
This document discusses pediatric fluid therapy and body fluid compartments. It begins by describing the different fluid compartments in the body, including total body water, extracellular fluid, and intracellular fluid. It then focuses on neonatal fluid management, noting that extracellular fluid is initially greater than intracellular fluid at birth, and describing appropriate intravenous fluid volumes for neonates. The document also discusses fluid requirements in children, evaluation of intravascular volume, choice of fluid types including crystalloids, colloids, and blood products, and provides guidelines for fluid resuscitation in dehydrated children.
This document summarizes cellular response to injury, acute inflammation, healing and repair, and chronic inflammation. It describes how cells maintain homeostasis and the mechanisms of cell injury. Reversible cell injury involves swelling and fatty change, while irreversible injury leads to necrosis. Acute inflammation occurs rapidly after injury and involves increased blood flow and permeability. Healing processes like soft tissue repair involve inflammation, proliferation, and regeneration phases. Chronic inflammation is prolonged and associated with lymphocytes, macrophages, and tissue damage or repair. It can be caused by persistent infection, toxic exposure, or autoimmunity.
The human body is composed primarily of water (60% of body weight) and proteins (18% of body weight). Water constitutes a higher percentage of body weight in infants (82%) compared to elderly adults (52%). The total body water is divided into intracellular fluid (ICF, 2/3 of total) and extracellular fluid (ECF, 1/3 of total). ECF is further divided into intravascular, interstitial, and transcellular fluids. Osmotic and hydrostatic pressures regulate the exchange of fluids between blood vessels and tissues.
This document discusses chemical bonding and macromolecular structures. It begins by explaining the different types of bonds - ionic bonds formed between metals and non-metals by electron transfer, and covalent bonds formed between non-metals by electron sharing. It describes the properties of ionic and covalent compounds. It then discusses macromolecular structures found in substances like diamond, graphite and metals. It explains metallic bonding and compares the structures and properties of diamond and graphite. In the end, it discusses the different uses of diamond and graphite based on their properties.
This document discusses covalent bonding and molecular compounds. It defines a chemical bond as a force that holds atoms together, and describes covalent bonding as atoms sharing electrons. As two atoms approach each other to form a bond, their potential energy decreases to a minimum at the bond length. Bond length and bond energy vary between different bonded atoms. The octet rule states atoms want 8 electrons in their valence shell. Practice problems classify bonds and identify valence electrons.
Cell injury, adaptation, and death can occur through various stimuli and stresses. Cells may undergo reversible or irreversible changes. Reversible changes include cellular adaptation through hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and metaplasia to stressors. Irreversible changes result in cellular atrophy and eventually cell death through necrosis or apoptosis. The morphology of reversible injury includes cellular swelling, fatty change, and changes to organelles. Necrosis is the degradative process of cell death where cellular contents are digested by enzymes.
This document discusses cranial nerves and their imaging. It begins by recommending MRI as the best imaging modality for cranial neuropathies, except for distal vagal neuropathy which requires CECT of the aortopulmonary window. It describes the normal anatomy and imaging approach for each cranial nerve. Specific MRI sequences like SSFP are useful for visualizing cranial nerves due to their high spatial resolution. Some advantages and disadvantages of SSFP sequences are provided. The document then discusses the normal anatomy and imaging findings for several individual cranial nerves including the olfactory, optic, and oculomotor nerves. It also reviews some common pathologies that can affect these nerves.
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis in three main steps: transcription, translation, and termination. During transcription, RNA polymerase makes an mRNA copy of a DNA sequence. Translation then uses the mRNA to assemble a polypeptide chain via tRNAs and ribosomes. Termination occurs when a stop codon signals the release of the completed protein chain. The central dogma of biology is demonstrated as DNA is transcribed to mRNA which is then translated to protein.
This document discusses various causes of cell injury and death, including oxygen deprivation, physical agents, chemicals, infectious agents, immune reactions, genetic defects, and nutritional imbalances. It describes the morphological changes that occur in reversible cell injury, including swelling and fatty change, as well as irreversible cell injury known as necrosis. Necrosis results in loss of cell integrity and contents. The document outlines different patterns of tissue necrosis, such as coagulative, liquefactive, gangrenous, caseous, and fibrinoid necrosis.
The document discusses body fluids and their composition. It states that the water content in the body is divided into extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF). ECF makes up about 1/3 of total body water and contains ions and nutrients outside cells. ICF makes up about 2/3 of total body water and contains fluid inside cells. It provides examples of how to calculate total body water and compares the electrolyte compositions of ECF and ICF.
The document discusses fluid and electrolyte imbalances in the body. It covers the major fluid compartments, how fluids move between compartments, and the functions of various electrolytes including sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and others. It defines abnormalities such as hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia, and their typical causes and treatments.
General pathology lecture 1 introduction & cell injuryHuang Yu-Wen
This document provides an overview of pathology and cell injury. It begins with definitions of pathology and discusses its focus on etiology, pathogenesis, morphology, and manifestations of disease. It then covers cell injury, describing the process from normal cell to reversible and irreversible injury. Specific types of cell injury are outlined like cloudy swelling, fatty change, and hyaline degeneration. The document concludes with examples of intracellular accumulations seen in various disease states.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph nodes connected by lymph vessels that carry lymph fluid throughout the body. It plays an essential role in the immune system by filtering pathogens and other foreign materials. When illness occurs, lymph nodes may swell as the lymphatic system works to produce more white blood cells and filter pathogens from the lymph. Several diseases can affect the lymphatic system, including lymphedema which causes fluid accumulation, lymphomas which are cancers of the lymph system, and infections that cause swelling of lymph nodes. Treatment for lymphatic diseases depends on the specific condition but may include antibiotics, surgery, chemotherapy or other medications.
Blood functions to transport oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones, and more throughout the body. It is composed of plasma and formed elements including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. Erythrocytes carry oxygen to tissues via hemoglobin and have a normal lifespan of 100-120 days before being recycled. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is a common test measuring the rate at which red blood cells sediment in one hour, indicating inflammation.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the nervous system in three main divisions:
1) The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of the nerve network outside the CNS.
2) Neuroglia are supportive cells in the nervous system that form myelin sheaths and blood-brain barriers. The most numerous neuroglial cell is the astrocyte.
3) Neurons handle communication in the nervous system and are classified as sensory, motor, or interneurons. Impulse conduction in neurons involves changes in membrane potential and the firing of action potentials.
This document provides information on the nervous system and common neurological diseases and disorders. It begins with an overview of the key structures of the nervous system, including neurons, dendrites, axons, and myelin sheath. It then describes the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system. Several common neurological conditions are then discussed in more detail, including stroke, transient ischemic attack, encephalitis, meningitis, brain abscess, poliomyelitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, dementia, Huntington's disease, cerebral concussion/contusion, and spinal cord injury. For each condition, the
The document provides an overview of the digestive system and common digestive disorders. It describes the anatomy and functions of the digestive tract organs, the processes of digestion and absorption, and neural and hormonal controls. Common manifestations of digestive disorders discussed include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, blood in stool, gas, and constipation. Dehydration and electrolyte imbalances are noted as potential complications.
The document discusses endocrine system disorders and diabetes mellitus. It covers the location and functions of endocrine glands, classification of hormones, control of the endocrine system through feedback loops, sources and effects of major hormones, and disorders that can result from excess or deficits of hormones. Specific attention is given to diabetes mellitus, including the different types, manifestations, diagnostic tests, treatment principles, and acute and chronic complications if blood glucose levels are not well-controlled.
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of the eye and visual system. It describes the main parts of the eye including the cornea, iris, lens, retina, and optic nerve. It explains how light enters the eye and is focused on the retina to initiate visual signals through the optic nerve. The document also discusses common eye disorders like myopia, hyperopia, glaucoma, and conjunctivitis as well as infections, injuries, and defects that can affect vision.
This document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its main components and functions. It describes the central nervous system including the brain and spinal cord, as well as the peripheral nervous system. It then discusses the various parts of the brain in detail, including protective structures like the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. It also outlines the cranial nerves, spinal cord, spinal nerves, reflexes, and basic neuron structure and function.
The document discusses the respiratory system, including its purpose of transporting oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. It describes the anatomy of the upper and lower respiratory tract. Key points include that the upper tract has resident flora while the lower tract is sterile. It also discusses ventilation, gas exchange, control of breathing, diagnostic tests for respiratory disorders, and general manifestations of respiratory disease such as coughing, sputum, and breathing patterns.
This document provides an overview of blood and circulatory system disorders. It begins with a review of the circulatory system and its components. It then discusses blood vessels including arteries, veins, and capillaries. Next, it covers the components and functions of blood, including plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The document proceeds to describe various blood disorders such as anemias, hemolytic anemia, sickle cell anemia, and aplastic anemia. It provides details on diagnostic tests and blood therapies for treating various blood-related conditions.
The document is a chapter from a medical terminology textbook about male reproductive medicine. It includes learning objectives about the male genitourinary system, as well as sections on anatomy and physiology, spermatogenesis, sexual maturity, and ejaculation. Figures and diagrams are provided to illustrate the structures of the male reproductive system.
The document discusses urology and the urinary system. It covers the anatomy and physiology of the urinary system, including the structures of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It describes the process of urine production in the nephrons of the kidneys and the transportation of urine through the urinary system to be excreted from the body. It also lists learning objectives about the urinary system, diseases, diagnostic tests, and medical terminology.
This document provides an overview of chapter 10 from the third edition of the textbook Medical Language by Susan M. Turley. The chapter covers neurology and includes learning objectives, multimedia resources, and detailed descriptions of the anatomy and physiology of the central nervous system including the brain, cerebrum, lobes, ventricles, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord.
The document discusses the muscular system and orthopedics. It covers the anatomy and physiology of muscles, including the three types of muscles (skeletal, cardiac, smooth), origins and insertions, and related structures like tendons. It describes the specialty of orthopedics and different types of muscle movement like flexion, extension, abduction, and rotation. It includes diagrams of muscle anatomy and movements. It also provides learning objectives and multimedia resources for further study.
This document provides an overview of the musculoskeletal system, including bones, muscles, joints, and common disorders. It begins by describing bone tissue and classifying bone shapes. It then discusses skeletal muscle structure and function. Various joint types and structures are outlined. Common musculoskeletal disorders like fractures, dislocations, muscle tears, and bone diseases such as osteoporosis are then summarized. Diagnostic tests and treatment approaches for musculoskeletal conditions are also briefly reviewed.
The document discusses various skin disorders and lesions. It begins by reviewing the normal anatomy and layers of the skin, including the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. It then describes common inflammatory disorders like contact dermatitis, urticaria, atopic dermatitis, and psoriasis. The document also covers various skin infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and other microbes like impetigo, cellulitis, herpes simplex, and leprosy. Diagnostic tests and general treatment measures for skin conditions are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of the chapter on dermatology from the third edition of the textbook Medical Language. It begins with learning objectives for the chapter, which cover topics like the anatomy of the integumentary system, allergic reactions, common dermatological diseases and procedures, and medical terminology related to the skin. The bulk of the document then describes in detail the anatomy and physiology of the integumentary system, including the layers of the skin, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands, and nails. It also discusses the process of allergic reactions and lists some general dermatological diseases. Diagrams and links to multimedia are provided throughout for additional reference.
This document discusses neoplasms and cancer. It begins by defining key terms like differentiation, mitosis, mutation, and apoptosis. It then describes the characteristics of benign and malignant tumors, noting that malignant tumors lack control of cell growth and can spread to other sites. The document outlines various diagnostic tests for cancer and explains how cancer spreads through invasion and metastasis. It discusses factors that can increase cancer risk and lists some treatment options like surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
The document summarizes key aspects of the immune system. It describes the components of the immune system including lymphoid structures, immune cells, and tissues responsible for immune cell development. It also discusses the nonspecific and specific immune responses, antibodies, immunity types, hypersensitivity reactions, and immunodeficiencies.
This document summarizes key concepts about ratios, proportions, and percents from Chapter 3 of a textbook on math and dosage calculations for healthcare professionals. It defines important terms like ratio, proportion, and percent. It provides rules and examples for converting between ratios, proportions, percents, fractions and decimals. It also explains how to use proportions to solve for unknown quantities, including setting up equations and checking solutions. The overall purpose is to explain essential skills for understanding relationships between quantities and solving dosage calculation problems.
This document describes the cardiovascular system and its anatomy. It discusses the structures of the heart including the chambers, valves, layers and muscles. It describes the major blood vessels including arteries, capillaries and veins. It explains the dual circulation of blood through the systemic and pulmonary circuits. Learning objectives cover identifying cardiovascular structures, describing diseases and procedures, and building medical terminology related to cardiology.
This document provides an overview of pharmacology and common medical therapies. It defines pharmacology and describes how drugs can be used to treat diseases, relieve symptoms, and replace deficient hormones or enzymes. Various drug administration routes, mechanisms of action, and factors influencing drug effects are examined. Common medical therapies including physiotherapy, occupational therapy, nutrition, and complementary/alternative approaches like herbalism and aromatherapy are also summarized.
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph (the fluid within the vessels), lymphatic tissue, and lymphatic organs. T
The vessels of the lymphatic system cover the body in much the same way as blood vessels. Unlike blood vessels, lymphatic vessels carry fluid in one direction only: away from the tissues.
The tissues and organs of the lymphatic system—the lymph nodes, thymus, tonsils, spleen, and red bone marrow—produce immune cells.
Maintenance of fluid balance
Fluid continually seeps out of capillaries into surrounding tissues; capillaries reabsorb about 85% of the fluid, leaving about 15% behind. Over the course of a day, the remaining fluid would total as much as 4 liters—enough to cause massive swelling and even death. One of the roles of the lymphatic system is to absorb this fluid and return it to the bloodstream.
Absorption of fats
Specialized lymphatic vessels in the small intestines absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins.
Immunity
Lymph nodes and other lymphatic organs filter lymph (the fluid inside the lymphatic vessels) to remove microorganisms and foreign particles.
Lymphatic vessels have thin walls and valves to prevent backflow.
Lymphatic vessel walls are formed by a thin layer of epithelial cells. Unlike the cells in veins (which are tightly joined), the cells that form lymphatic vessel walls overlap loosely, allowing gaps to exist between the cells. Fluid enters lymphatic vessels between the overlapping epithelial cells.
Valves prevent backflow, ensuring that lymph moves steadily away from the tissues and toward the heart.
Protein filaments anchor the capillaries to surrounding cells, which prevent the vessel from collapsing.
Lymphatic vessels originate in tissue spaces as microscopic, blind-ended sacs within a bed of blood capillaries.
Tissue fluid (the fluid left behind after capillary exchange) flows into the vessels through gaps between the cells. Bacteria, lymphocytes, and other cells flow in with the fluid.
The vessels converge to form larger and larger vessels. Periodically, the vessels empty into lymph nodes, where immune cells phagocytize bacteria.
The vessels continue to merge, eventually forming still larger lymphatic trunks, which drain major regions of the body. The lymphatic trunks converge to form two collecting ducts (one near the right subclavian vein and one near the left subclavian). Lymph joins the bloodstream when the collecting ducts merge into the subclavian veins.
Fluid moves passively, aided primarily by rhythmic contractions of the lymphatic vessels. Flow is aided further by contraction of skeletal muscles; also, respiration causes pressure changes that help propel lymph from the abdominal to the thoracic cavity.
The lymphatic system has two collecting ducts: the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
The right lymphatic duct drains lymph for the upper right quadrant of the body into the right subclavian vein.
The thoracic duct (which originates at a dilated portion of a lymphatic vessel in the abdomen called the cisterna chyli) drains lymph from the rest of the body into the left subclavian vein.
Red bone marrow and the thymus are primary lymphatic organs; they provide a location for B and T lymphocytes to mature.
Lymph nodes, tonsils, and spleen are secondary lymphatic organs; they contain lymphocytes that have matured in red bone marrow or the thymus.
Patches of specialized tissue containing lymphocytes exist throughout the body; also, passages that open to the outside of the body (such as the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts) contain a scattering of lymphocytes in their mucosa linings.
Lymphatic tissue exists in masses called lymphatic nodules; such as Peyer’s patches, which are lymphatic nodules in the small intestines.
The thymus is located in the mediastinum. It is quite large in children but begins to shrink at age 14. By adulthood, it is a fraction of its former size.
The thymus is divided into lobules that extend inward from a fibrous outer capsule. Each lobule consists of a dense outer cortex and a less dense medulla filled with T lymphocytes.
Immature T lymphocytes travel from red bone marrow to the outer cortex of the thymus. Inside the thymus, the cells are protected from antigens in the blood, giving them a chance to divide and mature.
The developing T lymphocytes migrate toward the inner medulla. As they do, they encounter other lymphoid cells (such as macrophages and dendritic cells). This process “trains” the new lymphocytes to distinguish between the cells of its host body and foreign cells.
Once the training is complete, the lymphocytes are released into the bloodstream.
The body contains hundreds of lymph nodes. Shaped like a bean, some nodes are tiny: only 1/25” (1 mm) long; others are more than an inch (25 mm).
Lymph passes through multiple lymph nodes; flow slows to a trickle as the lymph node removes pathogens and other foreign material. Lymph nodes also serve as sites for final maturation of some types of lymphocytes and monocytes.
A fibrous capsule encloses each lymph node.
Connective tissue called trabeculae extend into the node, dividing it into compartments; these compartments, called cortical nodules, are filled with lymphocytes.
A less dense area at the center of the compartments (germinal centers) form and release lymphocytes when an infection is present.
Sinuses lined with macrophages capable of phagocytosis separate the compartments. Lymph slowly flows through these sinuses in the process of being filtered.
Several afferent lymphatic vessels channel fluid into a node.
After slowly filtering through the node, lymph leaves through a single efferent lymphatic vessel.
Tonsils are masses of lymphoid tissue.
They form a circle at the back of the throat where they guard against pathogens entering the body through the nose or throat.
There are three sets of tonsils:
A single pharyngeal tonsil (also called adenoids) sits on the wall of the pharynx, just behind the nasal cavity.
A pair of palatine tonsils lies in the posterior of the oral cavity.
Numerous lingual tonsils are concentrated in patches on each side of the base of the tongue.
Palatine tonsils are the largest; they are the most prone to becoming infected.
The spleen (which is about the size of a fist) is the body’s largest lymphatic organ.
Just like lymph nodes, the spleen is surrounded by a fibrous capsule; inward extensions of the capsule divide the spleen into compartments.
The spleen contains two types of tissue: red pulp and white pulp.
White pulp contains compact masses of lymphocytes; it surrounds the arteries leading into each compartment.
Red pulp consists of a network of erythrocyte-filled sinuses supported by a framework of reticular fibers and phagocytic cells. Blood collects in the venous sinuses after passing through the reticular fibers; it then returns to the heart through the veins.
Immunity: Lymphocytes and macrophages in the white pulp screen passing blood for foreign antigens; also, phagocytic cells in the sinuses ingest and destroy microorganisms.
Destruction of old red blood cells (RBCs): Macrophages in the sinuses remove and digest worn-out RBCs and imperfect platelets. The macrophages also recycle hemoglobin from destroyed RBCs, returning the iron and globin to the bone marrow and liver for later use.
Blood storage: The spleen stores 20% to 30% of the body’s platelets.
Hematopoiesis: The spleen produces RBCs in the fetus.
First line of defense: The skin and mucous membranes keep most pathogens at bay. The skin has an acid mantle that inhibits bacterial growth. Mucus, tears, and saliva contain lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys bacteria.
Second line of defense: If a pathogen penetrates the first line of defense, the body launches nonspecific immunity (also called innate immunity because the mechanisms are present from birth). This involves mechanisms aimed at a wide variety of threats, such as the production of phagocytic white blood cells and triggering inflammation and fever.
Third line of defense: Called specific immunity, this occurs when the body retains a memory of a pathogen after defeating it. If exposed to the same pathogen again, the body can recognize it and target a response at this one specific invader.
All of these mechanisms are a part of nonspecific immunity.
They are aimed at a broad range of attackers.
Phagocytes are cells whose sole job is to ingest and destroy microorganisms and other small particles.
When a phagocyte encounters a microorganism, it sends out membrane projections called pseudopods (or “false feet”).
The pseudopods envelop the organism, forming a complete sac called a phagosome.
The phagosome travels to the interior of the cell and fuses with a lysosome, which contains digestive enzymes.
The digestive enzymes from the lysosome destroy the microorganism.
The phagocyte expels the waste products.
The most important phagocytes are neutrophils and macrophages. Neutrophils roam the body; most macrophages remain fixed within strategic areas.
Neutrophils are summoned to an infection by a chemical released from inflamed cells (chemotaxis).
The neutrophils anchor themselves to the inside of the blood capillary.
They then dissolve a portion of the basement membrane, which allows them to squeeze out of the vessel (a process called diapedesis) and enter the inflamed tissue.
Macrophages congregate in areas where microbial invasion is likely to occur: the alveolus of the lungs, the liver, nerve tissue, bone, and the spleen.
When a virus infects a cell, the cell produces interferon, which it releases to nearby cells.
The interferon binds to surface receptors on neighboring cells. This triggers the production of enzymes within the cells that would prevent the virus from replicating if it managed to invade.
More than 20 different proteins (called complement) circulate in the bloodstream in an inactive form. A bacteria, or antibodies against the bacteria, activate the complement. A complement reaction continues as a cascade of chemical reactions, with one complement protein activating the next.
The final five proteins (called the membrane attack complex) embed themselves into the bacterium’s plasma membrane in ringlike circles, punching a hole in the bacterium. Fluid and sodium (Na+) rush into the bacterium through the openings, and the bacterium swells and bursts.
Complement also coats pathogens, making them attractive to phagocytes, and stimulate inflammation (which summons neutrophils through chemotaxis).
Natural killer (NK) cells recognize and destroy any foreign cells, including cancer cells, virus-infected cells, bacteria—as well as the cells of transplanted organs and tissues.
NK cells use several methods to destroy the cells. Most of them involve the secretion of chemicals that causes the cell to die and break apart (lysis).
Injured cells secrete chemicals such as histamine that dilate blood vessels in the area. Blood rushes in, bringing leukocytes.
The same chemicals trigger vasodilation and cause cells in the capillary wall to separate. Fluid, leukocytes, plasma proteins, antibodies, clotting factors, and complement leak out. Fibrinogen forms a sticky clot to keep the infection from spreading.
Neutrophils (which have been drawn to the area by chemotaxis) phagocytize pathogens. They also secrete chemicals (cytokines) to summon other neutrophils and macrophages. Macrophages destroy bacteria and clean up the area by engulfing damaged cells and dead neutrophils.
Fever is beneficial: It promotes the activity of interferon and inhibits the reproduction of bacteria and viruses.
The sequence of events in a fever is as follows:
As neutrophils and macrophages phagocytize bacteria, they secrete a substance called a pyrogen.
The pyrogen stimulates the anterior hypothalamus to secrete PGE.
PGE resets the body’s set point for temperature. (For example, it may raise it from a normal of 98.6° F [37°C] to 102° F [39°C].)
When the set point rises, the body needs to generate heat; it does this through shivering and constricting blood vessels in the skin. The result is chills and cold, clammy skin.
The temperature rises until it reaches its new set point; it stays there as long as the pathogen is present.
When the pathogen is no longer a threat, the phagocytes stop producing the pyrogen and the body’s set point for temperature returns to normal. When this happens, the body needs to lose the excess heat, which it does through sweating and dilating the blood vessels in the skin. The result is that the skin is warm and flushed.
Specific immunity is directed against a specific pathogen.
It uses two mechanisms: cellular immunity and humoral immunity.
Cellular (cell-mediated) immunity aims to destroy foreign cells or host cells that have become infected with a pathogen.
Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity focuses on pathogens outside the host cells; it sends out antibodies to “mark” a pathogen for later destruction.
Both system use lymphocytes and antibodies.
Lymphocytes fall into one of three classes: natural killer cells, T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes.
T lymphocytes (or T cells) develop from stem cells in red bone marrow.
Before T cells fully mature, they leave the bone marrow and travel to the thymus gland, where they remain until fully functional.
Once T cells are immunocompetent—that is, capable of recognizing antigens—they leave the thymus and migrate to lymphatic organs and tissues throughout the body.
B lymphocytes (or B cells) also begin life as stem cells in red bone marrow. Unlike T cells, B cells remain in bone marrow until they are fully mature.
Once mature, B cells leave the bone marrow for lymphatic organs and tissues.
Antibodies [also known as immunoglobulins (Ig)] are gamma-globulin proteins formed by B cells; they’re found in plasma and body secretions.
Antibodies consist of chains of protein joined in a way that resembles a capital letter “Y” or “T.”
The end of each arm of the Y is uniquely shaped, allowing each antibody to combine with a specific antigen.
An antigen is any molecule that triggers an immune response. Any foreign substance is said to be antigenic.
Active immunity is permanent (or at least long lasting).
Passive immunity lasts only a few months because the body doesn’t develop a memory for the pathogen.
Natural active immunity occurs when the body produces antibodies or T cells after being exposed to a particular antigen. For example, if you become ill with the measles, your body will produce antibodies to this particular virus, making you immune to infection in the future.
Artificial active immunity results when the body makes T cells and antibodies against a disease as a result of a vaccination (such as for tetanus or influenza). By injecting a vaccine containing dead or weakened (attenuated) pathogens, the recipient’s body produces an immune response without actually developing the illness.
Natural passive immunity results when a fetus acquires antibodies from the mother through the placenta, or when a baby acquires them through breast-feeding.
Artificial passive immunity involves obtaining serum from a person or animal that has produced antibodies against a certain pathogen and then injecting it into someone else. This is typically used in emergencies for treatment of rabies and botulism.
Cytotoxic T cells carry out the attack; also called killer T cells but are not to be confused with natural killer cells.
Helper T cells play a supportive role.
Memory T cells remember the pathogen in case of future infection.
The immune process begins when a phagocyte (such as a macrophage, reticular cell, or B cell) ingests an antigen.
The phagocyte, called an antigen-presenting cell (APC), displays fragments of the antigen on its surface—a process called antigen presentation; this alerts the immune system to the presence of a foreign antigen. When a T cell spots the foreign antigen, it binds to it.
This activates (or sensitizes) the T cell; the T cell divides repeatedly to form clones—identical T cells already sensitized to the antigen. Some of these T cells become effector cells (such as cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells), which will carry out the attack, whereas others become memory T cells.
The cytotoxic T cell binds to the surface of the antigen and delivers a toxic dose of chemicals that will kill it.
Helper T cells support the attack by secreting the chemical interleukins, which attracts neutrophils, natural killer cells, and macrophages. It also stimulates the production of T and B cells.
Humoral immunity does not destroy the antigen directly; instead, it uses antibodies to mark it for later destruction.
The surface of a B cell contains thousands of receptors for a specific antigen. When the antigen specific to that receptor comes along, it binds to the B cell.
The B cell engulfs the antigen and displays some of the antigen’s fragments on its surface. A helper T cell binds to the presented antigen and secretes interleukins, which activates the B cell.
The B cell begins to rapidly reproduce, creating a clone, or family, of identical B cells programmed against the same antigen.
Some of the cloned B cells become effector B cells or memory B cells; most become plasma cells.
The plasma cells secrete large numbers of antibodies. Antibodies stop the antigens through a number of different means, including:
Binding to the antigen’s attachment points, preventing it from attaching to a human cell
Triggering agglutination (as in the antigen–antibody reaction), which contains the antigen and makes it easier for phagocytes to do their work
Promoting the binding of complement proteins to the invading cell, thus setting off the complement cascade, which ends with the destruction of the invading microorganism
When someone with a genetic predisposition to an allergy (such as ragweed) is first exposed to the allergen, the body produces large amounts of the antibody IgE specific to ragweed. These antibodies bind to mast cells. Although this response doesn’t produce an allergic reaction, the person is now sensitized to ragweed.
When the person encounters ragweed at a later date, the allergen binds to the antibodies already in the body. If the allergen links two or more antibodies, the mast cells release histamine and other inflammatory chemicals. Histamine causes inflammatory responses that produce the symptoms of an allergy, such as runny nose, watery eyes, congestion, and hives.
A severe, immediate allergic reaction that affects the whole body is anaphylaxis.
Anaphylactic shock occurs when symptoms worsen to the point of circulatory shock; sudden death can occur.