This document discusses various methods of input/output organization in computer systems. It covers asynchronous and programmed input/output, interrupts and direct memory access for efficient data transfer, as well as serial communication standards like RS-232 and USB. Specific topics include asynchronous and synchronous serial communication, programmed I/O using new CPU instructions, interrupt processing with vectored and prioritized interrupts, and the use of DMA controllers and I/O processors to offload I/O processing from the CPU.
This document discusses the organization of computer systems including the CPU, memory, I/O, and buses. It describes the fetch-decode-execute instruction cycle and different memory types like RAM, ROM, and PROM. It also discusses I/O organization methods like isolated and memory-mapped I/O. Finally, it provides details on the design of a relatively simple computer and an 8085-based computer as examples.
The CPU and its working how it works and how to controlMominaSaad
This document discusses the organization of computer systems. It covers the basic components of a computer system including the CPU, memory subsystem, and I/O subsystem. It describes how these components communicate via buses and how instructions are fetched and executed in a CPU. It also discusses different types of memory chips, memory organization, I/O interfaces, and provides examples of simple computer systems based on a relatively simple CPU and an 8085-based computer.
The document discusses register transfer languages (RTL) which are used to specify the operations and timing of digital circuits. It covers micro-operations which define data transfers, RTL which specifies when micro-operations occur, and how RTL specifications can be realized through hardware implementation or simulated using VHDL. Examples are provided of RTL specifications for simple counters and controllers to illustrate these concepts.
The document discusses memory organization and describes hierarchical memory systems, cache memory, virtual memory, and the Pentium/Windows memory system. It covers topics like cache types (associative, direct mapped, set-associative), cache performance metrics, virtual memory concepts like pages, frames and address translation, and the specific memory architecture of Pentium processors and Windows.
This document discusses instruction set architectures and provides examples of simple and more complex ISAs. It covers the relationships between programming languages, assembly languages, and machine languages. Key components of ISAs like instruction types, data types, addressing modes, and instruction formats are defined. Examples of a simple hypothetical ISA and the 8085 ISA are given to illustrate these concepts.
This document discusses instruction set architectures and provides examples of simple and more complex ISAs. It covers the relationships between programming languages, assembly languages, and machine languages. Key components of ISAs like instruction types, data types, addressing modes, and instruction formats are defined. Examples of a simple hypothetical ISA and the 8085 ISA are given to illustrate these concepts.
The document describes upgrades made to a pipe laying barge's drive system controls to improve performance and reliability. A Eurotherm Link system was chosen and implemented using fiber optic networking. The upgrades improved the operating speed from 30 fpm to 100 fpm. The system integrated multiple drive components including tensioners and a reel to lay pipe at world record speeds of over 101 fpm, completing the job ahead of schedule despite delays.
This document discusses the organization of computer systems including the CPU, memory, I/O, and buses. It describes the fetch-decode-execute instruction cycle and different memory types like RAM, ROM, and PROM. It also discusses I/O organization methods like isolated and memory-mapped I/O. Finally, it provides details on the design of a relatively simple computer and an 8085-based computer as examples.
The CPU and its working how it works and how to controlMominaSaad
This document discusses the organization of computer systems. It covers the basic components of a computer system including the CPU, memory subsystem, and I/O subsystem. It describes how these components communicate via buses and how instructions are fetched and executed in a CPU. It also discusses different types of memory chips, memory organization, I/O interfaces, and provides examples of simple computer systems based on a relatively simple CPU and an 8085-based computer.
The document discusses register transfer languages (RTL) which are used to specify the operations and timing of digital circuits. It covers micro-operations which define data transfers, RTL which specifies when micro-operations occur, and how RTL specifications can be realized through hardware implementation or simulated using VHDL. Examples are provided of RTL specifications for simple counters and controllers to illustrate these concepts.
The document discusses memory organization and describes hierarchical memory systems, cache memory, virtual memory, and the Pentium/Windows memory system. It covers topics like cache types (associative, direct mapped, set-associative), cache performance metrics, virtual memory concepts like pages, frames and address translation, and the specific memory architecture of Pentium processors and Windows.
This document discusses instruction set architectures and provides examples of simple and more complex ISAs. It covers the relationships between programming languages, assembly languages, and machine languages. Key components of ISAs like instruction types, data types, addressing modes, and instruction formats are defined. Examples of a simple hypothetical ISA and the 8085 ISA are given to illustrate these concepts.
This document discusses instruction set architectures and provides examples of simple and more complex ISAs. It covers the relationships between programming languages, assembly languages, and machine languages. Key components of ISAs like instruction types, data types, addressing modes, and instruction formats are defined. Examples of a simple hypothetical ISA and the 8085 ISA are given to illustrate these concepts.
The document describes upgrades made to a pipe laying barge's drive system controls to improve performance and reliability. A Eurotherm Link system was chosen and implemented using fiber optic networking. The upgrades improved the operating speed from 30 fpm to 100 fpm. The system integrated multiple drive components including tensioners and a reel to lay pipe at world record speeds of over 101 fpm, completing the job ahead of schedule despite delays.
This document discusses schema refinement through normalization. Schema refinement aims to eliminate data redundancy and anomalies like insertion, update, and deletion anomalies. It introduces normalization as a technique to decompose tables and refine the schema. Redundancy can lead to problems like redundant storage, update anomalies if one copy of data is changed without updating others, and insertion and deletion anomalies where adding or removing data could impact unrelated information. The document uses an example of a student details table to illustrate these problems and how decomposition can address redundancy.
joins in dbms its describes about how joins are important and necessity in d...AshokRachapalli1
Joins in DBMS allow combining data from multiple tables. Inner joins return rows where the join condition is satisfied, while outer joins also return rows with no matches and fill unmatched columns with NULL. Natural joins automatically join on common columns with matching names and domains, while theta joins use any comparison operator in the join condition. Equi joins specifically use equality comparisons.
Database languages are used to define, manipulate, and control access to data in a database management system. There are four main types of database languages: Data Definition Language (DDL) defines the database structure; Data Manipulation Language (DML) reads, inserts, updates, and deletes data; Data Control Language (DCL) controls user access privileges; and Transaction Control Language (TCL) manages transactions and rolling back or committing changes to the database.
The document discusses different levels of computer memory and cache memory. It describes four levels of memory:
1) Register - Stores data accepted by the CPU.
2) Cache memory - Faster memory that temporarily stores frequently accessed data from main memory.
3) Main memory - The memory the computer currently works on but data is lost when powered off.
4) Secondary memory - External memory that stores data permanently but is slower than main memory.
It then discusses cache memory in more detail, describing it as very high-speed memory that stores copies of frequently used data from main memory to reduce average access time. It explains the concepts of cache hits, misses, and hit ratio. Finally, it
The document discusses different types of addressing modes used in computer instructions, including implied, immediate, direct, indirect, register direct, register indirect, relative, indexed, base register, auto-increment, and auto-decrement addressing modes. It provides examples and explanations of each addressing mode type.
The document discusses input/output (I/O) organization in a computer system. It describes I/O interfaces that allow communication between internal storage and external devices. Data transfer can occur via programmed I/O, interrupt-initiated I/O, or direct memory access (DMA). DMA allows direct transfer between I/O devices and memory without CPU involvement by using a DMA controller. An I/O processor (IOP) is also described, which is a dedicated processor that handles I/O operations and transfers data between devices and memory.
Virtual memory allows programs to access memory addresses that do not physically exist, expanding the available address space. It works by dividing memory into pages that are stored on disk until needed, then copied into RAM. When a program accesses a non-present page, a page fault occurs and the operating system handles copying the correct page into memory transparently to the program. This allows more programs to run than would otherwise fit in physical memory.
This document discusses techniques for reducing cache misses and improving memory performance. It introduces the concepts of compulsory, capacity and conflict misses. Methods covered for reducing misses include increasing block size, associativity, using victim caches, pseudo-associativity, hardware/software prefetching, and compiler optimizations like merging arrays, loop interchange, fusion and blocking. Both hardware and software prefetching are described as well as the tradeoffs between binding and non-binding prefetching.
Disk-based storage uses a memory hierarchy to balance performance and cost. Large, slower disks are used for persistent storage due to their low cost per byte, while smaller, faster memory like DRAM is used for temporary storage. A disk contains platters that spin, allowing read/write heads to access sectors organized into tracks on the platters. Disk access time is dominated by seek time to position the heads and rotational latency waiting for the desired sector to spin under the head. Disks present a logical block interface to the operating system, while sectors are mapped to physical locations on disk surfaces.
Digital systems perform elementary operations called micro operations on information stored in registers. There are two main types: arithmetic micro operations that change information, such as addition, subtraction, and shift operations; and logic micro operations that perform binary operations on bit strings, like AND, OR, and XOR. Common components that perform these micro operations include binary adders, adder-subtractors, incrementers, and the Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit.
The document discusses computer instruction formats and addressing modes. It provides details on:
- Instruction codes contain operation codes and addresses to specify operations and memory/register locations.
- There are two addressing modes - direct addressing uses the operand's address while indirect uses a pointer.
- A basic instruction format has 12 bits for the address, 1 bit for the mode, and 3 bits for the operation code.
- An instruction cycle has four phases - fetch, decode, read effective address, and execute the instruction.
There are two main types of computer network architectures: peer-to-peer and client/server. Peer-to-peer networks connect computers of equal status without a central server, making them useful for small networks but less secure. Client/server networks have a central server that manages resources and authorization for client computers, providing better security, performance, and backup but at a higher cost than peer-to-peer.
A computer network can be categorized based on its size as PAN, LAN, MAN, or WAN. A PAN covers an area of about 30 feet and connects personal devices like laptops and phones. A LAN connects computers within a building using cables, providing faster data transfer and higher security than larger networks. A MAN interconnects multiple LANs within a city using telephone lines to connect organizations like businesses, schools, and governments. A WAN spans large geographic areas like countries and states, with the internet being the largest example, connecting networks globally.
Data encoding converts data into a signal form for transmission. It represents digital data with digital or analog signals. Common encoding methods include unipolar, bipolar, and polar encoding. Unipolar encoding uses a single voltage level to represent 1s and 0s, while bipolar uses two voltage levels. Specific techniques include NRZ, RZ, and biphase encoding. NRZ encodes without returning to zero between bits, while RZ returns to zero mid-bit. Biphase encodings like Manchester and differential Manchester use signal transitions to represent data and synchronize clocks. Block coding maps groups of bits to code words, like 4B/5B encoding which maps 4 data bits to 5-bit code words.
Flow control is a data link layer mechanism that regulates the amount of data sent by the sender to ensure the receiver can process it. It works by having the sender wait for acknowledgment from the receiver before sending more data. Common flow control methods include stop-and-wait, which only allows one packet to be sent at a time, and sliding window protocols, which allow multiple packets to be sent before waiting for acknowledgment. Flow control prevents buffer overflows and frame losses at the receiver.
This document summarizes a lecture on register transfer language and microoperations. It introduces register transfer language as a way to describe the transfer of data between registers using microoperations. Common microoperations include register transfer, arithmetic operations, logic operations, and shift operations. Specific circuit implementations for operations like addition, subtraction, and incrementing are discussed. Memory transfer microoperations for reading from and writing to memory are also covered.
This document provides an introduction and overview of the Python programming language. It outlines the key topics that will be covered in a Python tutorial, including basic data types, variables, control structures, functions, classes, exceptions, modules and packages, and the standard library. The document consists of slides from a 2002 presentation on Python given by Guido van Rossum, the creator of Python. It encourages attendees to follow along with the tutorial using the interactive Python shell.
This document provides an overview of the OSI reference model, which is an internationally standardized architecture for how network communication should work. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model from the physical layer up to the application layer. Each layer provides services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below. The layers relate to either communication technologies (layers 1-4) or user applications (layers 5-7). The document also discusses how the OSI model differs from Internet protocols and covers concepts like connection types, reliability, and the relationship between services and protocols.
Packet switching is a technique used in computer networks where messages are divided into packets that contain header information with the destination. Each packet is routed independently through the network based on its header. There are two main approaches for packet switching: datagram packet switching treats each packet independently and routes them without maintaining connection state, while virtual circuit switching establishes a pre-planned route via a call setup before sending packets along a fixed path for the connection's duration.
Computer organization and architecture are related but distinct fields. Computer organization deals with how hardware components are interconnected and work together to realize the specifications set by computer architecture. Computer architecture determines attributes like instruction sets, memory organization, and input/output mechanisms. Studying computer organization and architecture is important for understanding how computers work at both the hardware and software levels. It provides knowledge about system design, components, and performance.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
This document discusses schema refinement through normalization. Schema refinement aims to eliminate data redundancy and anomalies like insertion, update, and deletion anomalies. It introduces normalization as a technique to decompose tables and refine the schema. Redundancy can lead to problems like redundant storage, update anomalies if one copy of data is changed without updating others, and insertion and deletion anomalies where adding or removing data could impact unrelated information. The document uses an example of a student details table to illustrate these problems and how decomposition can address redundancy.
joins in dbms its describes about how joins are important and necessity in d...AshokRachapalli1
Joins in DBMS allow combining data from multiple tables. Inner joins return rows where the join condition is satisfied, while outer joins also return rows with no matches and fill unmatched columns with NULL. Natural joins automatically join on common columns with matching names and domains, while theta joins use any comparison operator in the join condition. Equi joins specifically use equality comparisons.
Database languages are used to define, manipulate, and control access to data in a database management system. There are four main types of database languages: Data Definition Language (DDL) defines the database structure; Data Manipulation Language (DML) reads, inserts, updates, and deletes data; Data Control Language (DCL) controls user access privileges; and Transaction Control Language (TCL) manages transactions and rolling back or committing changes to the database.
The document discusses different levels of computer memory and cache memory. It describes four levels of memory:
1) Register - Stores data accepted by the CPU.
2) Cache memory - Faster memory that temporarily stores frequently accessed data from main memory.
3) Main memory - The memory the computer currently works on but data is lost when powered off.
4) Secondary memory - External memory that stores data permanently but is slower than main memory.
It then discusses cache memory in more detail, describing it as very high-speed memory that stores copies of frequently used data from main memory to reduce average access time. It explains the concepts of cache hits, misses, and hit ratio. Finally, it
The document discusses different types of addressing modes used in computer instructions, including implied, immediate, direct, indirect, register direct, register indirect, relative, indexed, base register, auto-increment, and auto-decrement addressing modes. It provides examples and explanations of each addressing mode type.
The document discusses input/output (I/O) organization in a computer system. It describes I/O interfaces that allow communication between internal storage and external devices. Data transfer can occur via programmed I/O, interrupt-initiated I/O, or direct memory access (DMA). DMA allows direct transfer between I/O devices and memory without CPU involvement by using a DMA controller. An I/O processor (IOP) is also described, which is a dedicated processor that handles I/O operations and transfers data between devices and memory.
Virtual memory allows programs to access memory addresses that do not physically exist, expanding the available address space. It works by dividing memory into pages that are stored on disk until needed, then copied into RAM. When a program accesses a non-present page, a page fault occurs and the operating system handles copying the correct page into memory transparently to the program. This allows more programs to run than would otherwise fit in physical memory.
This document discusses techniques for reducing cache misses and improving memory performance. It introduces the concepts of compulsory, capacity and conflict misses. Methods covered for reducing misses include increasing block size, associativity, using victim caches, pseudo-associativity, hardware/software prefetching, and compiler optimizations like merging arrays, loop interchange, fusion and blocking. Both hardware and software prefetching are described as well as the tradeoffs between binding and non-binding prefetching.
Disk-based storage uses a memory hierarchy to balance performance and cost. Large, slower disks are used for persistent storage due to their low cost per byte, while smaller, faster memory like DRAM is used for temporary storage. A disk contains platters that spin, allowing read/write heads to access sectors organized into tracks on the platters. Disk access time is dominated by seek time to position the heads and rotational latency waiting for the desired sector to spin under the head. Disks present a logical block interface to the operating system, while sectors are mapped to physical locations on disk surfaces.
Digital systems perform elementary operations called micro operations on information stored in registers. There are two main types: arithmetic micro operations that change information, such as addition, subtraction, and shift operations; and logic micro operations that perform binary operations on bit strings, like AND, OR, and XOR. Common components that perform these micro operations include binary adders, adder-subtractors, incrementers, and the Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit.
The document discusses computer instruction formats and addressing modes. It provides details on:
- Instruction codes contain operation codes and addresses to specify operations and memory/register locations.
- There are two addressing modes - direct addressing uses the operand's address while indirect uses a pointer.
- A basic instruction format has 12 bits for the address, 1 bit for the mode, and 3 bits for the operation code.
- An instruction cycle has four phases - fetch, decode, read effective address, and execute the instruction.
There are two main types of computer network architectures: peer-to-peer and client/server. Peer-to-peer networks connect computers of equal status without a central server, making them useful for small networks but less secure. Client/server networks have a central server that manages resources and authorization for client computers, providing better security, performance, and backup but at a higher cost than peer-to-peer.
A computer network can be categorized based on its size as PAN, LAN, MAN, or WAN. A PAN covers an area of about 30 feet and connects personal devices like laptops and phones. A LAN connects computers within a building using cables, providing faster data transfer and higher security than larger networks. A MAN interconnects multiple LANs within a city using telephone lines to connect organizations like businesses, schools, and governments. A WAN spans large geographic areas like countries and states, with the internet being the largest example, connecting networks globally.
Data encoding converts data into a signal form for transmission. It represents digital data with digital or analog signals. Common encoding methods include unipolar, bipolar, and polar encoding. Unipolar encoding uses a single voltage level to represent 1s and 0s, while bipolar uses two voltage levels. Specific techniques include NRZ, RZ, and biphase encoding. NRZ encodes without returning to zero between bits, while RZ returns to zero mid-bit. Biphase encodings like Manchester and differential Manchester use signal transitions to represent data and synchronize clocks. Block coding maps groups of bits to code words, like 4B/5B encoding which maps 4 data bits to 5-bit code words.
Flow control is a data link layer mechanism that regulates the amount of data sent by the sender to ensure the receiver can process it. It works by having the sender wait for acknowledgment from the receiver before sending more data. Common flow control methods include stop-and-wait, which only allows one packet to be sent at a time, and sliding window protocols, which allow multiple packets to be sent before waiting for acknowledgment. Flow control prevents buffer overflows and frame losses at the receiver.
This document summarizes a lecture on register transfer language and microoperations. It introduces register transfer language as a way to describe the transfer of data between registers using microoperations. Common microoperations include register transfer, arithmetic operations, logic operations, and shift operations. Specific circuit implementations for operations like addition, subtraction, and incrementing are discussed. Memory transfer microoperations for reading from and writing to memory are also covered.
This document provides an introduction and overview of the Python programming language. It outlines the key topics that will be covered in a Python tutorial, including basic data types, variables, control structures, functions, classes, exceptions, modules and packages, and the standard library. The document consists of slides from a 2002 presentation on Python given by Guido van Rossum, the creator of Python. It encourages attendees to follow along with the tutorial using the interactive Python shell.
This document provides an overview of the OSI reference model, which is an internationally standardized architecture for how network communication should work. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model from the physical layer up to the application layer. Each layer provides services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below. The layers relate to either communication technologies (layers 1-4) or user applications (layers 5-7). The document also discusses how the OSI model differs from Internet protocols and covers concepts like connection types, reliability, and the relationship between services and protocols.
Packet switching is a technique used in computer networks where messages are divided into packets that contain header information with the destination. Each packet is routed independently through the network based on its header. There are two main approaches for packet switching: datagram packet switching treats each packet independently and routes them without maintaining connection state, while virtual circuit switching establishes a pre-planned route via a call setup before sending packets along a fixed path for the connection's duration.
Computer organization and architecture are related but distinct fields. Computer organization deals with how hardware components are interconnected and work together to realize the specifications set by computer architecture. Computer architecture determines attributes like instruction sets, memory organization, and input/output mechanisms. Studying computer organization and architecture is important for understanding how computers work at both the hardware and software levels. It provides knowledge about system design, components, and performance.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
The CBC machine is a common diagnostic tool used by doctors to measure a patient's red blood cell count, white blood cell count and platelet count. The machine uses a small sample of the patient's blood, which is then placed into special tubes and analyzed. The results of the analysis are then displayed on a screen for the doctor to review. The CBC machine is an important tool for diagnosing various conditions, such as anemia, infection and leukemia. It can also help to monitor a patient's response to treatment.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning an...gerogepatton
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Applications (NLAIM 2024) offers a premier global platform for exchanging insights and findings in the theory, methodology, and applications of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their applications. The conference seeks substantial contributions across all key domains of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their practical applications, aiming to foster both theoretical advancements and real-world implementations. With a focus on facilitating collaboration between researchers and practitioners from academia and industry, the conference serves as a nexus for sharing the latest developments in the field.
artificial intelligence and data science contents.pptxGauravCar
What is artificial intelligence? Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks that are commonly associated with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason.
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Artificial intelligence (AI) | Definitio