The document summarizes the Roman legend of Romulus and Remus, the twin founders of Rome. According to the legend, their grandfather Numitor was overthrown and their mother was made a Vestal Virgin. Mars fell in love with their mother and she gave birth to the twins. Their uncle Amulius feared they would overthrow him, so he had them placed in a trough on the Tiber River. They were rescued and raised by a she-wolf and later adopted by a shepherd. As adults, they killed Amulius and restored their grandfather to the throne, founding the city of Rome.

1. Chapter Six
Etruscan and Roman Art

2. Romulus and Remus
• According to the Roman legend, Romulus was the
founder of Rome and Remus was his twin brother.
Their story begins with their grandfather Numitor,
king of the ancient Italian city of Alba Longa, was
deposed by his brother Amulius. Numitor's daughter,
Rhea Silvia, was made a Vestal Virgin by Amulius -
this means that she was made a priestess of the
godess Vesta and forbidden to marry. Nevertheless,
Mars, the god of war, fell in love with her and she
gave birth to twin sons.

3. • Amulius, fearing that the boys would grow up
to overthrow him, had them placed in a
trough and thrown into the River Tiber. At that
time the river was in flood, and when the
waters fell, the trough, still containing the two
boys, came ashore. They were found by a she-wolf
who, instead of killing them, looked after
them and fed them with her milk. A
woodpecker also brought them food, for the
woodpecker, like the wolf, was sacred to Mars.

4. • Later the twins where found by Faustulus, the king's
shepherd. He took them home to his wife and the
two adopted them, calling them Romulus and
Remus. They grew up as bold and strong young men,
leading a warlike band of shephards.
• One day Remus was captured and brought before
Numitor for punishment. Numitor noticing how
unlike a shepherd's son he was, questioned him and
before long realized who he was. Romulus and
Remus than rose against Amulius, killed him and
restored the kingdom to their grandfather.

7. The technique of spanning using
an arch, as contrasted with
trabeation, which uses the straight,
horizontal lintel or trabeation.

8. A simple vault created
by extending an arch
horizontally in space
alonga single axis,
creating a tunnel. Used
extensively for
underground vaulting
and, in the Middle Ages,
as the simplest form of
vaulting a long hall,
such as a nave. Its
lateral thrusts are
distributed equally
along the barrel or
tunnel. When the axis
twists, as around an
apse or in a crypt, an
annular ("ring") vault is
created.

9. A vault created when
two arches cross one
another at right angles.
The diagonal
intersections are called
groins. The advantage
of the groin vault is that
its weight and thrusts
are concentrated at the
four corners.

10. Roman Architectural Terms
• Columns
The Roman orders of columns are used:- Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite.
The orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely
decorative, set against a wall. When against walls, the orders often appear as pilasters.
Arches
Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often used in
arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of
entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch.
Vaults
Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike
the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular.
Domes
The Dome is used frequently, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from
the exterior, and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible
internally.

11. • Ceilings
Roofs are fitted with flat or coffered ceilings. They are not left open as in Medieval
architecture. They are frequently painted or decorated.
Doors
Doors usually have square lintels. They may be set within an arch or surmounted by a
triangular or segmental pediment. Openings that do not have doors are usually arched and
frequently have a large or decorative keystone.
Windows
Windows may be paired and set within a semi-circular arch. They may have square lintels
and triangular or segmental pediments, which are often used alternately. In the Mannerist
period the “Palladian” arch was employed, using a motif of a high semi-circular topped
opening flanked with two lower square-topped openings. Windows are used to bring light
into the building. Stained glass does not feature.
Walls
External walls are generally of highly-finished ashlar masonry, laid in straight courses. The
corners of buildings are often emphasised by rusticated “quoins”. Basements are often
rusticated. Internal walls are smoothly plastered. Internal surfaces are often decorated with
frescoes.

12. Porta Augusta
Perugia, italy. 3rd and
2nd Century

13. Reconstruction of Etruscan temple according to the
description of Vitruvius and archeological evidence

14. Plan of an Etruscan
Temple based on
descriptions by
Vitruvius

15. VITRUVIUS
• 1st century BC Roman Architect
• Marcus Vitruvius is the author of the famous treatise
'De architectura'.
• The work is divided into 10 books dealing with city
planning and architecture in general; building
materials; temple construction; public buildings; and
private buildings; clocks, hydraulics; and civil and
military engines.
• Vitruvius was an admirer of Greek architecture and
wished to preserve the classical tradition in the
design of temples and public buildings. His work was
used as a classic text book from ancient Roman times
to the Renaissance.

16. Tuscan, Roman Doric, Roman Ionic, Corinthian and Composite.

18. The Two Dancers. In this masterpiece from the Tomb of
the Triclinium at Tarquinia, a couple dressed in their
finest costume dance into the hereafter.

19. Sarcophagus of Cerveteri, limestone?, c. 520 bce, Etruscan.

20. Temple of Minerva; Painted terra-cotta
roof decoration. 5’ -10” Sculptor maybe
Vulca
c. 510 -500 B.C.

21. Etruscan bronze head, with inlaid eyes, of a Roman, so-called
Lucius Junius Brutus, leader of the rebellion against
Tarquinius.

23. Early Rome
Ruled by Etruscan kings, but following a
popular revolution in 509 BC., the dynasty was
ejected and replaced with the res publicae --
the "activity of the Roman people" -- or a
Republic. The Republican constitution sought
to share rulership, or imperium (from
imperare, "to order" or "command"), between
the Patricians, or aristocratic elite, and the
Plebeians, or common people.

24. Like the Greek city states, the Roman Republic
was a form of civic democracy, administered
by assemblies of the Roman people, an
executive body or Senate, and the elective
magistracies, of which the most important
were the Consulate and Tribunate. Unlike the
Greek city states, Roman citizenship was not
restricted by birth or property requirements.

25. Roman citizenship, and its associated political and
legal advantages, was a far more inclusive concept
that could be obtained as a reward for service to the
state. This astute policy enabled Rome to absorb
conquered populations by providing the incentive of
participation in the Roman state in return for the
benefits of empire. Service in the Roman army was
the principal way of earning these benefits, and it
was Roman military prowess that was to win Rome
an empire.

26. • The republic began, and finished, as a state largely
dominated by the two upper classes, the senators,
who qualified by birth and wealth, and the
equestrians or knights (equites); until the second
century BC, the latter were, by reason of their
property holding, provided at public expense with a
horse, with which they were required to report for
military duty. The constitutional change from
monarchy to republic was gradual. The main
functions of the king, including full military
command, were undertaken by two consuls with
equal powers, elected for one year only.

27. • From 367 BC, one consulship was normally
held by a plebeian, though by this time
consular duties were mainly formal. The
consul was so named because he “consults”
the people and the senate. The constitution
allowed, however, that in time of crisis, and
particularly in war, a single “dictator” could be
nominated to exercise complete control for
not more than six months.

28. Aulus Metellus, found
near Perugia. Late 2nd
or early 1st century BC.
Bronze, height 5’11”

29. Life-size bust of
Pompey: first-century
AD copy of
a contemporary
likeness.

30. • Pompey was first elected consul in 70 BC while under
the statutory age-limit and without having held any
office of state, though he had already made a name
for himself as a soldier. In 67 BC he was appointed to
rid the Mediterranean of pirates. The resources and
powers put at his disposal were formidable, and
included 250 ships, and a hundred thousand marines
and four thousand cavalry from Rome alone, which
he reinforced with what was offered by other
interested nations. By a concerted sweep against the
pirates and their strongholds, he forced them out of
business in three months. He took twenty thousand
prisoners, most of whom he spared and offered
employment as farmers.

31. Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar

32. The Pont du Gard in Provence was completed by the Romans in the first
century AD as part of a 50km aqueduct to convey water from a spring at
Uzès to the garrison town of Nemausus (Nimes). The bridge is constructed
from limestone blocks fitted together without mortar and secured with iron
clamps. The three tiered structure avoids the need for long compressive
members.

33. Concrete
• The Roman builders had concrete available unlike the Greeks.
Another great advantage for the Romans was the use of the
semi-circular arches to form vaults and domes. The great
Pantheon shows many examples of these. Roman builders
could not use marble all the time, because it was expensive
and there was a limited amount. However there was a
plentiful supply of terracotta, stone and brick. Early in their
development they invented the material concrete. It was
made by mixing pazzolana, a strong volcanic material with
rubble and a mixture of limes. The concrete was used to make
walls, domes, vaulted rooves of solid concrete, concrete with
brick ribs and faced structure with marble, or mosaic. Tools
such as a plumb bob, a bronze square, bronze dividers, bronze
foot rule and chisels were used in building

34. Model resconstruction of the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia.
Palestrina, Italy late 2nd century BC. Concrete covered with
veneer of stucco.

35. The Temple of Portunus is perhaps the most frequently cited example of
Roman Republican temple architecture in the world. Built in the late-second
to first century B.C., the temple dedicated to the god of ports and harbors
rises gracefully near the Tiber in Rome’s Forum Boarium. Its raised podium
and colonnaded porch are usually described as a combination of Etruscan
and Greek architectural elements and were hallmarks of Roman temple
design for centuries.

36. Mason Carre is a pseudoperipteros temple with 6 Corinthian columns in
front in Early Imperial Rome period when the Roman temples have been
strongly influenced by Greek temple style.

38. The Roman Forum is located in a valley that is between the
Palatine hill and the Capitoline hill. It originally was a marsh, but
the Romans drained the area and turned it into a center of political
and social activity. The Forum was the marketplace of Rome and
also the business district and civic center. It was expanded to
include temples, a senate house and law courts. When the Roman
Empire fell, the Forum became forgotten, buried and was used as a
cattle pasture during the Middle Ages.

39. The Roman Forum
• Much of the forum has been destroyed.
Columns and stone blocks are all that remain
of some temples. The arch of Titus and the
arch of Septimius Severus still stand and are
in good shape. Like many other ancient
Roman buildings, stone blocks have been
removed from the Forum and used to build
nearby churches and palaces.

40. Augustus of Prima
Porta
Marble 27 B.C. - 14
A.D.
The statue of Augustus
was found in 1863 nine
miles away from Rome
in the surburb of Prima
Porta after which the
statue was named. The
7 ft. (2.08 m.) tall
statue is now on
display at the Vatican
Museum

41. It has long been known
that classical statues
were painted. Indeed,
their creators sometimes
chose different kinds of
stone for different parts of
their statues according to
the way they reacted to
paint and wax, using
types that could be highly
polished for the fleshy
parts and coarser
varieties that would
absorb paint for the
drapery.

42. ARA PACIS AUGUSTAE DIMENSIONS: HEIGHT: ca.6.1m
LENGTH: north and south, 11.63m; east and west, 10.52m
DATE: 13-9BC

43. • The Altar of Augustan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae) was built to
commemorate Augustus' return from the western provinces
of Spain and Gaul, where he had busy settling matters since
16BC.
It was set up on the Field of Mars (Campus Martius) in the
north of Rome, with its stepped entrance on the west side of
the enclosing screen walls.
The Ara Pacis Augustae, a monument of outstanding historical
and artistic value, was reconstructed in the late 1930s from
fragments discovered as early as 1568. This 'Altar of Peace'
was commissioned by the Senate in 13 BC to give thanks for
Augustus' gift of peace to the entire Roman world after the
victories in Spain and Gaul. It was consecrated on the Campus
Martius in 9 BC with solemn ceremony.

44. • It consists of a rectangular marble precinct wall on a
podium with two doors, each reached by a staircase.
Inside, at the top of three steps, is the richly
decorated altar. The precinct wall has magnificent
sculptural decorations both inside consisting of
festoons with paterae (vessels) and bucrania (ox
skulls) - and on the outside, where it is divided into
two sections horizontally. The lower band has an
elegant repeating frieze of acanthus volutes with
swans and animals, while the upper band portrays
four mythological scenes (one on each side of the
doors) and the procession to mark the consecration
of the altar, divided between the two shorter sides.

45. • While the one on the north side is badly damaged and less
important, the group of characters on the south side is of
great interest because it includes Augustus together with
priests, magistrates and members of the imperial family. This
illustration (which restores the gaps) shows the procession on
the south side, with the exception of the first sector in which
the reliefs are lost. The procession is headed by two of the
lictors, followed by Augustus between two consuls; then come
the four Flaminian priests and the Flaminian lictor; Agrippa,
his son Gaius Caesar and the former's wife Julia, Augustus'
daughter; Tiberius; Antonia the Younger (Augustus' niece) and
her husband Drusus, Tiberius' brother, with his son
Germanicus;Antonia the Elder (Augustus'niece) with her
children Domitius and Domitia, and finally her husband,
Domitius Ahenobarbus.

46. Imperial Procession from the Ara Pacis, 13-9 B.C.

47. Allegory of Peace

48. Gemma Augustea early 1st century C.E.

49. • The city of Pompeii in Italy, buried by the 79 AD eruption of Vesuvius
Volcano seen in the background, was and still is a time capsule of Greek
and Roman art and architecture. Much, but not all, of the city has been
excavated from beneath the 6 meters of ash fall and pyroclastic-flow
deposits that blanketed the area. In a way, the eruption destroyed and
preserved the city at the same time; few man-made places on Earth have
survived for nearly 2000 years.

50. The most famed excavation in Europe is that of Pompeii, a small city near
modern Naples, that along with its sister town of Herculaneum, was totally
buried by an glowing ash avalanche released during the 79 A.D. eruption of
Vesuvius. This is an aerial oblique photo of the present-day ruins

51. Bodies cast in
volcanic ash in
eruption of
Mount
Vesuvius

52. Street in Pompeii

54. Plan of the villa of the mysteries
A roman house usually
consisted of small rooms laid out
around one or two open courts,
the atrium and the peristyle.
The peristyle was a planted
interior court enclosed by
columns.

55. Peristyle Garden, House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Rebuilt 62 – 79 AD.

56. A CUBICULUM IN A VILLA AT BOSCOREALE,
NEAR POMPEII
These frescoes are now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York, set up as they were in the villa.

57. The Villa of the Papiri
(Reconstructed in Malibu,
California)

58. Roman wall painting
• Roman wall painting is described as having
four distinct styles, identified from the wall
paintings found at Pompeii, Herculaneum,
Boscoreal and other cities buried under the
volcanic ash of Mt. Vesuvius. Roman mosaics
either imitated the painting styles or became
very abstract.

59. • The First Style Roman wall painting,
"Incrustation" (right) is thought
to imitate Greek painting that created flat
areas of color and 'faux" finishes (like a fake
marble or oak finish).

60. • In the second style Roman wall painting,
called the "architectural style," space extends
beyond the room with various perspective
("illusion of three-dimensional space on a flat
two-dimensional surface) devices. Roman
artists came close to developing a true linear
perspective.

61. • In the Third Style Roman Wall Painting, called
the "Ornate Style," pictorial illusion is
confined to "framed" images, where even the
"framing" is painted on. The overall
appearance is flat rather than a 3-d illusion of
space.

62. • The Fourth Style Roman Wall Painting, called
the "Intricate Style," confines full three-dimensional
illusion to the "framed images,"
which are placed like pictures in an
exhibition. The images themselves do not
relate to one another nor do they present a
narrative, as in the Second Style.

63. Initiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus in the Villa of Mysteries
Second style Wall paintings c. 60 – 50 B.C.

64. Garden Scene from the Villa of Livia at Primaporta
(near Rome) late 1st century B.C.

65. Cityscape, Detail of a wall painting from a bedroom in the house of
Publis Fannis Synistor, Boscoreale, Late 1st Century AD.

66. House of M.
Lucretius Fronto,
Pompeii
mid 1st century
AD.

67. Third Style from the Villa at Boscotrecase,
near Pompeii. 1st Century.

68. “Peaches and
Glass Jar," still
life fresco from
Herculaneum,
c.50 AD.

69. "Young Woman with a
Stylus," fresco from
Pompeii, 1st Century
AD.

70. Arch of Titus Rome 81 AD. erected by the Emperor
Domitian in honor of his brother, Titus after his death
Domitian and Titus are the sons of Vespasian

71. Spoils from the Temple of Solomon, Jerusalem
relief panel from the passage of the Arch of Titus
Marble – height 6’ 8”

72. Triumph Procession, of Titus relief panel from the passage of the
Arch of Titus Marble – height 6’ 8”

73. Portrait of the Emperor Vespasian
Father of the Flavian Dynasty
ca. 70 AD.

74. The Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum) Rome 72-80 AD. erected by
the Emperor Vespasian

76. The Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum) used vaulted construction

77. Portrait of a Young Flavian Woman
ca. 90 AD.

78. Palazzo Massimo,
Julia , Titus' daughter

79. Forum and Markets of Trajan
Basilica Ulpia, Column of Trajan, Greek and
Latin Libraries, Markets
100-113 AD.

80. Reconstruction of the Basilica Ulpia

81. Detail of the Reconstruction of the Basilica Ulpia

82. Model of central Rome showing Colosseum,
Palatine hill, and Circus Maximus

83. Markets of Trajan,
Rome: the main
hall. Made of
brick-faced
concrete, with
only some
detailing in stone
and wood, in
compliance with a
building code that
was put into effect
after AD 64.

84. Trajan, 100 AD.

85. The Trajan Column
• Trajan's column was erected A.D. 106 to 113
in honor of emperor Trajan. It was located at
the then just completed Trajan forum and
surrounded by buildings. The column
commemorates his victories in Dacia (now
Romania).
• The Trajan column including its base is 42m
high (138ft). This was exactly the height of the
hill that stood at this site. It had been leveled
to create an open space for the construction
of Trajan's Forum.

86. • Like an unrolled scroll, a spiral frieze winds twenty-three times
around the column, depicting the campaigns of Trajan in
Dacia in AD 101-102 and AD 105-106. It likely illustrates the
emperor's own commentary on the wars, a book, now lost,
that was housed in the adjacent library. Depicted in low relief,
there are one hundred and fifty-five scenes, in which more
than twenty-five hundred figures are represented, no less
than sixty of Trajan, himself. Only eighteen scenes actually
depict battles; most show the day-to-day activities of the
army. Situated between the two libraries and enclosed by a
peristyle, only the elaborately decorated base was not
obstructed from view, and it is not certain if these scenes
could be appreciated or even were ignored once the column
had been erected.
• At the top was a statue of the emperor in gilt bronze, access
to which was by a spiral staircase illuminated by a series of slit
windows cut into the marble.

87. Trajan’s Column
Marble 113 – 16 AD.

88. Detail of the Trajan Column

89. Pantheon
• It was built as a Roman temple and later consecrated as a
Catholic Church. Its monumental porch originally faced a
rectangular colonnaded temple courtyard and now enfronts
the smaller Piazza della Rotonda. Through great bronze doors,
one enters one great circular room. The interior volume is a
cylinder above which rises the hemispherical dome. Opposite
the door is a recessed semicircular apse, and on each side are
three additional recesses, alternately rectangular and
semicircular, separated from the space under the dome by
paired monolithic columns. The only natural light enters
through an unglazed oculus at the center of the dome and
through the bronze doors to the portico. As the sun moves,
striking patterns of light illuminate the walls and floors of
porphyry, granite and yellow marbles.

90. • The portico consists of three rows of eight columns, 14 m (46 feet) high of
Egyptian granite with Corinthian capitals. They support an entablature
facing the square, which bears the famous inscription in Latin, attributing
the construction to Agrippa, although the extant temple was rebuilt later
by Hadrian.
• The dome has a span of 43.2 m (142 feet), the largest dome until
Brunelleschi's dome at the Florence Cathedral of 1420-36.
• The interior volume is a cylinder above which springs the half sphere of
the dome. A whole sphere can be inscribed in the interior volume, with
the diameter at the floor of the cylinder of 43.3 m (143 feet) equaling the
interior height.
• Five rows of twenty-eight square coffers of diminishing size radiate from
the central unglazed oculus with a diameter of 8.7 m (29 feet) at the top of
the dome.
• The dome is constructed of stepped rings of solid concrete with less and
less density as lighter aggregate (pumice) is used, diminishing in thickness
to about 1.2 m (4 feet) at the edge of the oculus. The dome rests on a
cylinder of masonry walls 6 m (20 feet). Hidden voids and the interior
recesses hollow out this construction, so that it works less as a solid mass
and more like three continuous arcades which correspond to the three
tiers of relieving arches visible on the building exterior. Originally, these
exterior walls were faced with colored marbles.

91. Pantheon (118-128 AD.)
Rome
built by the emperor
Hadrian on the
foundations of a building
constructed by Marcus
Agrippa

92. Dome of the Pantheon

94. Aerial View of
Pantheon

97. Hadrian's Villa
• Hadrian's Villa (Villa Hadriana) was built by the
emperor Hadrian in the early second century CE. The
villa was a sumptuous complex of over 30 buildings,
covering an area of over 250 acres,
• "The villa was Hadrian's preferred residence when he
was in Rome. His choice of an imperial palace
outside Rome, instead one of the several palaces in
Rome, was probably influenced by the miserable
relations he had with the senate and the local Roman
aristocracy.

98. • Hadrian was born in Spain, just like his predecessor
Trajan, and the senate and the local aristocracy had
trouble coming to terms with another provincial on
the imperial throne.
• The way Hadrian had assumed power only reinforced
their opposition to him. Trajan's adoption of Hadrian
on his deathbed was immediately cast in doubt, and
when four military leaders, all Roman aristocrats who
had been close to Trajan and hence possible
contenders for the throne, were assassinated
immediately after Trajan's death, the senate
immediately suspected Hadrian of having ordered
the killings.

99. • Hadrian only arrived in Rome eleven months
after Trajan's death, and denied any
wrongdoing, but his relationship with the
senate never recovered from the crisis. As a
consequence Hadrian stayed very little in
Rome. He traveled extensively throughout
most of the empire in two prolonged periods,
in 121-125 CE and in 128-134 CE, and when in
Italy he preferred to stay away from Rome. A
grandiose imperial palace outside Rome, but
not too far away, was the perfect answer.

100. Hadrian's villa:, end of colonnade c. 130 – 135 AD.

101. Hadrian’s Wall
• By the time Hadrian became Emperor in 117
AD the Roman Empire had ceased to expand.
Hadrian was concerned to consolidate his
boundaries. He visited Britain in 122 AD, and
ordered a wall to be built between the
Solway Firth in the West and the River Tyne
in the east "to separate Romans from
Barbarians".

102. Hadrian’s Wall, Great Britain. 2nd Century AD.

103. Hadrian’s Wall

104. Roman Mosaics
• The expansion of the Roman Empire took mosaics
further afield, although the level of skill and artistry
was diluted. If you compare mosaics from Roman
Britain with Italian ones you will notice that the
British examples are simpler in design and less
accomplished in technique.
• Typically Roman subjects were scenes celebrating
their gods, domestic themes and geometric designs.
The inter-twined rope border effect here is called
"guilloche".

105. Detail of centaur,
mosaic
118-138 AD,
from Hadrian's
villa near Tivoli

106. Detail of centaur, mosaic 118-138 AD,
from Hadrian's villa near Tivoli

107. Hadrianic Roundels
• A series of eight roundels is located in pairs above the lateral archways.
They have been dated to Hadrian's reign on stylistic reasons, and images
of Hadrian and Antinous have been recognized in them.
• Some roundels have been modified. The central figure on all eight
roundels, which originally portrayed Hadrian, has been changed to depict
Constantine, while other recognisable figures from Hadrian's entourage,
such as Antoninus Pius, the adopted heir, and Antinous, Hadrian's young
favorite, remain unchanged. Besides this, the roundel showing a lion hunt
(N. face, 2nd. from the right) has been changed further.
• All eight roundels have an undecorated baseline on which the figures
stand, but this baseline has been re-carved into a slain lion that is not a
part of the original composition. On this roundel Antoninus Pius is in the
middle background, while Antinous is holding a horse on the extreme
right.

108. The Arch of Constantine

109. Hadrianic Roundels Marble c. 130 – 138 AD.
The first of these roundels depicts the emperor, probably Licinius, hunting a wild
boar. The emperor is on a horse about to strike the boar with a now missing spear.
The second roundel depicts Constantine sacrificing to the god Apollo. Constantine
was a follower of Apollo early in his career.

110. Imperial Portraits
• Element of Propaganda
• Sensitive modeling
• Expert drill work
• Captures subjects weakness

111. Equestrian Statue of
Marcus Aurelius
bronze - Originally gilded
ca. 176 AD.

112. Bust of the Emperor
Commodus as Hercules
marble
ca. 191-192 AD.

113. Detail of Bust of the
Emperor
Commodus as
Hercules
marble
ca. 191-192 AD.

114. Painted Portrait of Septimius Severus, Julia Domna,
and their Children Caracalla and Geta
painted wood
ca. 200 AD.

115. Portraits of Caracalla
marble
early third century AD.

116. Baths of Caracalla
• The Baths of Caracalla, the second largest baths complex in ancient
Rome, were built between 212 and 219 A.D. by the emperor
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, better known by his nickname
Caracalla.
• By the 3rd century A.D. the Romans had built many baths, in Rome
and elsewhere, and had acquired great skill in designing functional,
fully integrated complexes. The water supply and drainage system,
in particular, required careful planning to ensure an adequate flow
to and from the numerous hot and cold basins: it has been
calculated that the baths used 15-20,000 cubic meters of water per
day.
• The baths were fed by a branch of the Aqua Marcia aqueduct,
which brought pure water to Rome from springs in the hills near
Subiaco, over 90 km away. The water flowed into a huge cistern,
divided into 18 separate chambers for easy maintenance and with a
total capacity of 80,000 cu. m. From here it went by gravity flow
through pipes underneath the gardens to the main building.

117. • The baths (thermae) were designed along a central axis: the
caldarium or hot bath; a smaller area for the tepidarium or
warm bath; the basilica, which held the frigidarium or cold
bath; and the natatio, an open-air bathing pool.
• Symmetrically arranged on either side of the baths were
rooms for changing, massage, depilation, and medicinal use.
• From the changing rooms (apodyteria), one would go to the
gymnasia (palaestrae) to exercise and from there to a sauna
(laconica) to induce an even greater sweat.
• Then the bather passed to the caldarium, after which he
scraped his skin clean with a strigil, and to the tepidarium for
a cooler bath and, finally, to the frigidarium for a bracing
plunge in a cold bath, which was the regimen recommended
by Galen, himself.

119. Baths of Caracalla. Model

121. Phillip the Arab (ruled 244-
249 AD), marble, height 2'
4", Musei Vaticani, Rome

122. Santa Maria degli Angeli C. 298 -306 AD.

123. Santa Maria degli Angeli
Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri is on the Piazza
della Republica., Like so many of the churches in
Rome, it is built upon a supernatural event. In 1541 a
Sicilian priest, Fr. Antonio Lo Duca, had a vision of
angels in the ruins of the Diocletian Baths, and in the
1560’s Pope Pius IV ordered a church to be built
there. The resulting church was not only built on the
site of the Baths of Diocletian, but also recycled
some of the building materials, adapting the Baths
for the new use. Michelangelo provided the original
design for the church.

124. The Grande Ludovisi Sarcophagus

125. The Grande Ludovisi Sarcophagus
• The front of the sarcophagus shows a battle scene
between Roman soldiers and Germans. The
Germans have distinctive clothing, beards, and
hairstyles that distinguishes them from the
cleanshaven Romans. This work has been dated to
ca. 250 A.D. The Roman on horse back in the
center-top has been identified with Hostilian, son of
the emperor Decius, who died in 252 A.D.

126. The Tetrarchs Venice porphyry (a red-purple stone) ca. 300 C.E.

127. Basilica Trier, Germany early 4th century C.E.

128. Constantine I
• The Roman emperor, Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus,
or Constantine I, was born at Naissus, in Upper Moesia. He
was the eldest son of Constantinus Chlorus and Helena, and
first distinguished himself as a soldier in Diocletian's Egyptian
expedition (296), and then under Galerius in the Persian war.
In 305 the two emperors Diocletian and Maximian abdicated,
and were succeeded by Constantine Chlorus and Galerius.
• Constantine joined his father, who ruled in the west, at
Boulogne on the expedition against the Picts, and before
Constantinus died (306) he proclaimed his son his successor.
Galerius did not wish to quarrel with Constantine, yet he
granted him the title of Caesar only, refusing that of Augustus.

129. • Political complications now increased, until in 308
there were actually no less than six emperors at once
-- Galerius, Licinius and Maximin in the east, and
Maximian, Maxentius his son, and Constantine in the
west. Maxentius drove his father from Rome and
Maximian committed suicide (309).
• Maxentius threatened Gaul with a large army.
Constantine, crossing the Alps by Mont Cénis,
defeated Maxentius, who was drowned after the last
great victory at the Milvian Bridge near Rome (312).

130. • Before the battle a flaming cross inscribed "In this conquer"
was said to have caused Constantine's conversion to
Christianity. In 313, the edict of Milan, issued conjointly with
Licinius, gave civil rights and toleration to Christians
throughout the empire. Constantine was now sole emperor of
the west; and by the death of Galerius in 311 and of Maximin
in 313, Licinius became sole emperor of the east. After a war
(314) between the two rulers, Licinius had to cede Illyricum,
Pannonia and Greece, and Constantine for the next nine years
devoted himself to the correction of abuses, the
strengthening of his frontiers and the chastising of the
barbarians.
• Having in 323 again defeated Licinius, and put him to death,
Constantine was now sole ruler of the Roman world. He chose
the ancient Greek city of Byzantium for his capital, and in 330
inaugurated it under the name Constantinople. Christianity
became a state religion in 324 although paganism was not
persecuted.

131. Colossal Portrait of Constantine the Great from the Basilica Nova, Rome
Marble ca. 325-326 AD.

132. Reconstruction of
Colossal portrait of
Constantine in the
Basilica Nova

133. Basilica Nova
also known as the Basilica of Constantine and Maxentius
Forum, Rome
ca. 306-312

134. Basilica Nova diagram of interior

135. Dish from
Mildenhall,
England
Mid-4th Century
AD. Silver
diameter approx.
24”

136. Dish from Mildenhall, England
• The central feature is probably the face of Oceanus. He has a
beard of seaweed and four dolphins can be seen emerging
from his hair. The inner frieze depicts a sea revel of sea
nymphs riding a variety of mythical sea creatures.
• The broad outer frieze shows a wild revel. Bacchus is
holding a bunch of grapes and a thyrsus. The mighty
Hercules has been overcome by an excess of wine and is
supported by two young satyrs. Silenus is handing more
wine to Bacchus whilst Pan and a group of satyrs and
Maenads continue their frenzied dance.

137. "Priestess
celebrating the
rites of Bacchus,"
Ivory
11 ¾” x 4 ¾” each
panel
c. 390 - 401 AD.

138. Priestess of Bacchus
• C. 390-401 A famous ivory diptych documents the realtionship
of particians Quintus Aurelius Symmachus and Virius
Nicomachus Flavianus and their anti-Christian ways. It is a
revival piece of classic culture. It commemorates the marriage
of the two families. This one is inscibed, "Symmachorum"
with a elaborately dressed priest makes an offer to an
elaborate altar. Extremely skilled Roman ivory carvers were
commissioned by Pagans and Christians both. The folds and
wrinkles with the foliage is reminiscent of earlier works.