This document discusses several important industrial products and manufactured substances. It provides details on the production and uses of sulphuric acid, ammonia, alloys, synthetic polymers, glass, ceramics, and composite materials. Sulphuric acid is manufactured through the contact process and is used to make fertilizers and batteries. Ammonia is produced via the Haber process and converted into fertilizers. Alloys are metal mixtures that are stronger than pure metals. Glass and ceramics are hard, brittle materials made from sand and clay, respectively. Composite materials combine substances like metals and polymers to produce materials with improved properties.
The document discusses the variety of minerals found in the Earth's crust, including both natural elements like gold and silver as well as natural compounds like bauxite and magnetite. It also covers the reactivity series of metals and how more reactive metals must be extracted from their ores using methods like heating with carbon or electrolysis, while less reactive metals can be found in purer form. A variety of everyday uses for common minerals are presented, along with the environmental impacts that can result from mining activities.
The document discusses the properties of two groups of elements - Group 18 noble gases and Group 1 alkali metals.
Group 18 consists of helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and oganesson. Noble gases have full outer electron shells, making them chemically inert. Their melting and boiling points increase down the group as atomic size increases and van der Waals forces strengthen.
Group 1 includes lithium, sodium, potassium, cesium, and francium. Alkali metals react by losing one electron to form stable ions. Reactivity increases down the group as the valence electron is more loosely held. They react with water to form hydroxides and oxygen to form ox
Structure & essay Questions (chemical bond)Mudzaffar Shah
Table 1 shows the proton numbers of elements P, Q, and R.
(1) P, Q, and R form ionic bonds when combined. PQ2 and R2Q have different properties - PQ2 has low melting/boiling points and is volatile, while R2Q has high melting/boiling points and can conduct electricity when molten.
(2) Table 2 shows elements W, Y, and Z. W and Z can form an ionic compound by W donating an electron to form W+ and Z accepting to form Z-. Y and Z form a covalent compound by Y sharing 4 electrons to form 4 single covalent bonds with 4 Z atoms.
The document provides information on several chemistry concepts and experiments. It includes:
1) A chapter on matter that discusses states of matter, kinetic theory, and heating curves.
2) Chapters on chemical formulas, periodic table, chemical bonds, and electrochemistry.
3) An experiment on determining the end point of a neutralization reaction between potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
Soap is a salt of a carboxylic acid made from reacting natural fats/oils with an alkali like sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. Soap has both a hydrophilic ionic head that is soluble in water and a hydrophobic tail that is soluble in oils/grease. Detergents are similar but are made synthetically from petroleum and have a sulphonate or sulphate group instead of a carboxylate group. Both work by lowering the surface tension of water to emulsify and suspend oils/grease for removal. Detergents are more effective than soap in hard water since they form soluble salts rather than insoluble precipitates.
The document discusses the variety of minerals found in the Earth's crust, including both natural elements like gold and silver as well as natural compounds like bauxite and magnetite. It also covers the reactivity series of metals and how more reactive metals must be extracted from their ores using methods like heating with carbon or electrolysis, while less reactive metals can be found in purer form. A variety of everyday uses for common minerals are presented, along with the environmental impacts that can result from mining activities.
The document discusses the properties of two groups of elements - Group 18 noble gases and Group 1 alkali metals.
Group 18 consists of helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and oganesson. Noble gases have full outer electron shells, making them chemically inert. Their melting and boiling points increase down the group as atomic size increases and van der Waals forces strengthen.
Group 1 includes lithium, sodium, potassium, cesium, and francium. Alkali metals react by losing one electron to form stable ions. Reactivity increases down the group as the valence electron is more loosely held. They react with water to form hydroxides and oxygen to form ox
Structure & essay Questions (chemical bond)Mudzaffar Shah
Table 1 shows the proton numbers of elements P, Q, and R.
(1) P, Q, and R form ionic bonds when combined. PQ2 and R2Q have different properties - PQ2 has low melting/boiling points and is volatile, while R2Q has high melting/boiling points and can conduct electricity when molten.
(2) Table 2 shows elements W, Y, and Z. W and Z can form an ionic compound by W donating an electron to form W+ and Z accepting to form Z-. Y and Z form a covalent compound by Y sharing 4 electrons to form 4 single covalent bonds with 4 Z atoms.
The document provides information on several chemistry concepts and experiments. It includes:
1) A chapter on matter that discusses states of matter, kinetic theory, and heating curves.
2) Chapters on chemical formulas, periodic table, chemical bonds, and electrochemistry.
3) An experiment on determining the end point of a neutralization reaction between potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
Soap is a salt of a carboxylic acid made from reacting natural fats/oils with an alkali like sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. Soap has both a hydrophilic ionic head that is soluble in water and a hydrophobic tail that is soluble in oils/grease. Detergents are similar but are made synthetically from petroleum and have a sulphonate or sulphate group instead of a carboxylate group. Both work by lowering the surface tension of water to emulsify and suspend oils/grease for removal. Detergents are more effective than soap in hard water since they form soluble salts rather than insoluble precipitates.
NOTA BAB 4 (SIRI KEREAKTIFAN LOGAM) SAINS TINGKATAN 3 KSSMNorsuhada Mahyuddin
1. Kereaktifan logam diukur dengan tindak balasnya dengan oksigen, yang paling reaktif akan menghasilkan nyalaan terang sedangkan yang kurang reaktif akan menghasilkan pembakaran/perubahan warna.
2. Berdasarkan eksperimen ini, siri kereaktifan logam dibentuk dengan logam paling reaktif di atas.
3. Terdapat tiga kaedah pengekstrakan logam iaitu melalui elektrolisis, penurun
Teaching aids for students or teachers regarding chemistry for Form 4 students. Naphthalene is the common example use by teachers to describe the changes in states of matter. Included in the slides are the precautions steps in the heating and cooling experiments.
Based on the diagram above, name the labelled parts and state their functions:
A - Safety goggle
Function: To protect eyes from chemical splashes or flying objects.
B - Gloves
Function: To protect hands from chemicals and prevent skin contact with hazardous substances.
C - Laboratory coat
Function: To protect body from chemicals and prevent contamination of clothing.
D - Face mask
Function: To protect face and prevent inhalation of hazardous fumes/vapours.
E - Safety shoes
Function: To protect feet from chemicals, broken glass and prevent slips.
F - Fume chamber
Function: To contain and remove noxious fumes/vap
PEPERIKSAAN AKHIR TAHUN BAHASA MELAYU KERTAS 2 , TINGKATAN 4, SMK SULTAN ISMA...Normarjana Ibrahim
Dokumen tersebut merupakan soalan-soalan untuk peperiksaan akhir tahun tingkatan 4 bahasa melayu tahun 2012. Soalan-soalan tersebut meliputi rumusan, petikan rencana, drama, prosa klasik dan puisi tradisional, serta pengetahuan dan kemahiran bahasa.
This document discusses chemical formulae and equations. It defines relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass, which are used to calculate the mass of elements and compounds from their chemical formulae. The mole concept is introduced, relating the Avogadro constant to the number of particles in a given number of moles. Relationships are shown between moles, mass, particles and volume. Empirical and molecular formulae are distinguished. Ionic compounds have formulae showing cation and anion combinations. Examples of writing and balancing chemical equations are provided.
Alloys are mixtures of two or more elements where the major component is a metal. They are made to increase hardness and strength, prevent corrosion, and improve appearance. Common alloys include bronze, brass, steel, stainless steel, duralumin, and pewter. The addition of other elements to a metal disturbs the orderly arrangement of its atoms, reducing their ability to slide past one another. This makes alloys stronger and harder than pure metals. Alloys find uses where these properties are beneficial, such as in construction, transportation, tools, and cookware.
1) Chemical bonds can be either ionic or covalent. Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred between metals and non-metals to form ions. Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between non-metals.
2) Sodium chloride forms when sodium donates an electron to chlorine to form ions that are attracted in an ionic bond. Hydrogen molecule forms when hydrogen atoms share an electron pair in a single covalent bond.
3) Ionic compounds have high melting points, conduct electricity when molten or dissolved, and dissolve in water but not organic solvents. Covalent compounds have lower melting points, do not conduct electricity, and dissolve in organic solvents but not water.
Chemical formulae, equations, calculations, and reactions are summarized. Molar mass, moles, volume, and molarity calculations are explained for gases, solids, liquids, and solutions. Common cationic and anionic symbols are listed. Formulae for molecules and ions are provided. Periodic trends and reactions of Groups 1 and 17 are summarized. Electrochemistry principles of electrolytes, discharge reactions, and test observations are condensed. Characteristics of acids, bases, and ionization are highlighted. Solubility, preparation, color, and effects of heating for various salts are summarized concisely.
Tindak balas kimia boleh menghasilkan perubahan suhu bergantung kepada sama ada haba dibebaskan (eksotermik) atau diserap (endotermik). Kajian menunjukkan larutan natrium hidroksida menyebabkan peningkatan suhu manakala larutan ammonium klorida menyebabkan penurunan suhu, mengesahkan hipotesis bahawa bahan kimia berbeza menghasilkan suhu yang berbeza apabila bertindak balas dengan air.
The document summarizes different types of alloys and their compositions and uses. It also discusses composite materials and their properties. Some key points:
1. Alloys like bronze, brass and steel are harder than their base metals like copper and iron due to mixing in other metals like tin, zinc and carbon during production. This makes them suitable for applications requiring strength.
2. Stainless steel contains chromium which makes it highly corrosion resistant, suitable for cutlery and surgical instruments.
3. Composite materials combine materials like metals and polymers to take advantage of the strengths of each, producing materials that are stronger, lighter, and more durable than their components alone.
Powder’s Morphology and Cross-sectional SEM Images for Nickel based hard coat...Venkataraman Bandaru
This document discusses nickel-based hard coatings for wear, oxidation, and corrosion protection. It provides information on powder production methods, including water or gas atomization, fused or sintered and crushed powders, agglomerated and sintered powders, clad powders, and blend powders. It also discusses various powder materials like pure metals, alloys, superalloys, and carbides, providing examples of each along with SEM images of their powder cross-sections. The coatings are intended to improve surface properties and provide protection in industrial applications.
NOTA BAB 4 (SIRI KEREAKTIFAN LOGAM) SAINS TINGKATAN 3 KSSMNorsuhada Mahyuddin
1. Kereaktifan logam diukur dengan tindak balasnya dengan oksigen, yang paling reaktif akan menghasilkan nyalaan terang sedangkan yang kurang reaktif akan menghasilkan pembakaran/perubahan warna.
2. Berdasarkan eksperimen ini, siri kereaktifan logam dibentuk dengan logam paling reaktif di atas.
3. Terdapat tiga kaedah pengekstrakan logam iaitu melalui elektrolisis, penurun
Teaching aids for students or teachers regarding chemistry for Form 4 students. Naphthalene is the common example use by teachers to describe the changes in states of matter. Included in the slides are the precautions steps in the heating and cooling experiments.
Based on the diagram above, name the labelled parts and state their functions:
A - Safety goggle
Function: To protect eyes from chemical splashes or flying objects.
B - Gloves
Function: To protect hands from chemicals and prevent skin contact with hazardous substances.
C - Laboratory coat
Function: To protect body from chemicals and prevent contamination of clothing.
D - Face mask
Function: To protect face and prevent inhalation of hazardous fumes/vapours.
E - Safety shoes
Function: To protect feet from chemicals, broken glass and prevent slips.
F - Fume chamber
Function: To contain and remove noxious fumes/vap
PEPERIKSAAN AKHIR TAHUN BAHASA MELAYU KERTAS 2 , TINGKATAN 4, SMK SULTAN ISMA...Normarjana Ibrahim
Dokumen tersebut merupakan soalan-soalan untuk peperiksaan akhir tahun tingkatan 4 bahasa melayu tahun 2012. Soalan-soalan tersebut meliputi rumusan, petikan rencana, drama, prosa klasik dan puisi tradisional, serta pengetahuan dan kemahiran bahasa.
This document discusses chemical formulae and equations. It defines relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass, which are used to calculate the mass of elements and compounds from their chemical formulae. The mole concept is introduced, relating the Avogadro constant to the number of particles in a given number of moles. Relationships are shown between moles, mass, particles and volume. Empirical and molecular formulae are distinguished. Ionic compounds have formulae showing cation and anion combinations. Examples of writing and balancing chemical equations are provided.
Alloys are mixtures of two or more elements where the major component is a metal. They are made to increase hardness and strength, prevent corrosion, and improve appearance. Common alloys include bronze, brass, steel, stainless steel, duralumin, and pewter. The addition of other elements to a metal disturbs the orderly arrangement of its atoms, reducing their ability to slide past one another. This makes alloys stronger and harder than pure metals. Alloys find uses where these properties are beneficial, such as in construction, transportation, tools, and cookware.
1) Chemical bonds can be either ionic or covalent. Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred between metals and non-metals to form ions. Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between non-metals.
2) Sodium chloride forms when sodium donates an electron to chlorine to form ions that are attracted in an ionic bond. Hydrogen molecule forms when hydrogen atoms share an electron pair in a single covalent bond.
3) Ionic compounds have high melting points, conduct electricity when molten or dissolved, and dissolve in water but not organic solvents. Covalent compounds have lower melting points, do not conduct electricity, and dissolve in organic solvents but not water.
Chemical formulae, equations, calculations, and reactions are summarized. Molar mass, moles, volume, and molarity calculations are explained for gases, solids, liquids, and solutions. Common cationic and anionic symbols are listed. Formulae for molecules and ions are provided. Periodic trends and reactions of Groups 1 and 17 are summarized. Electrochemistry principles of electrolytes, discharge reactions, and test observations are condensed. Characteristics of acids, bases, and ionization are highlighted. Solubility, preparation, color, and effects of heating for various salts are summarized concisely.
Tindak balas kimia boleh menghasilkan perubahan suhu bergantung kepada sama ada haba dibebaskan (eksotermik) atau diserap (endotermik). Kajian menunjukkan larutan natrium hidroksida menyebabkan peningkatan suhu manakala larutan ammonium klorida menyebabkan penurunan suhu, mengesahkan hipotesis bahawa bahan kimia berbeza menghasilkan suhu yang berbeza apabila bertindak balas dengan air.
The document summarizes different types of alloys and their compositions and uses. It also discusses composite materials and their properties. Some key points:
1. Alloys like bronze, brass and steel are harder than their base metals like copper and iron due to mixing in other metals like tin, zinc and carbon during production. This makes them suitable for applications requiring strength.
2. Stainless steel contains chromium which makes it highly corrosion resistant, suitable for cutlery and surgical instruments.
3. Composite materials combine materials like metals and polymers to take advantage of the strengths of each, producing materials that are stronger, lighter, and more durable than their components alone.
Powder’s Morphology and Cross-sectional SEM Images for Nickel based hard coat...Venkataraman Bandaru
This document discusses nickel-based hard coatings for wear, oxidation, and corrosion protection. It provides information on powder production methods, including water or gas atomization, fused or sintered and crushed powders, agglomerated and sintered powders, clad powders, and blend powders. It also discusses various powder materials like pure metals, alloys, superalloys, and carbides, providing examples of each along with SEM images of their powder cross-sections. The coatings are intended to improve surface properties and provide protection in industrial applications.
Materials science is an interdisciplinary field that studies the structure and properties of various materials. It applies concepts from physics, chemistry, and engineering. The document discusses several classes of materials - ionic crystals, covalent materials, metals and alloys, semiconductors, superconductors, polymers, composites, ceramics, glasses, and catalysts. It provides examples and applications for each type of material, highlighting their importance across different industries like transportation, energy, electronics, and more.
Products from rocks (summary of the AQA module)dhmcmillan
The document summarizes information about products made from rocks and extracting metals and fuels from raw materials. It discusses how limestone decomposes into quicklime and carbon dioxide when heated, and how quicklime forms calcium hydroxide when mixed with water. It also explains how crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation, and how burning fuels produces gases like carbon dioxide, water vapor, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide.
Metals having chemical and electrochemical reactions with their surroundings can go bad and become unusable. It’s called corrosion. Many metals , especially iron , undergo corrosion when exposed to air and water. 1/10 of all metallic materials produced every year becomes unusable and it’s not possible to recycle them. Loss caused by corrosion costs billion of dollars every year. This study presents the results of corrosion resistance of ground blast furnace slag (GBFC) , chrome slag (CS)and corn stem ash. (CSA) In this study GBFC , CS and CSA , produced as a result of some procedures , are mixed with pitch in different portions. The reason for mixing with pitch is to gain the adherence. Then the iron plates were coated with this mixture. Coated and uncoated plates were undergone corrosion in Na Cl solution (35g/L Na Cl ). Having kept in the solution for one mount , the coated and uncoated plates were taken out and dried. The plates were put into Na Cl solution with the help of electrodes and the potential differences were measured. Our aim to do so was to reduce the potential difference. If the potential difference reduces , the electric currency reduces , so the corrosion is reduced too. The potential difference of the uncoated iron plates was 0.501 volts. Of coated with pitch 0.301 and mixed up with our experiment materials was 0. So the corrosion was reduced totally. This means: Billions of dollars loss is prevented A profitable use of GBFC , which is environmentally harmful , can be made and the nature can be protected. An economical use of CS , which is thrown away can be gained Some profit can be gained from corn stems that are left to be rotten in the fields. If the substance we’ve produced is used all the fields that iron is used , such as buildings , ships , water pipes etc , billions of dollars can be saved.
The document discusses the manufacture of sulphuric acid, ammonia, alloys, synthetic polymers, glass and ceramics. Sulphuric acid is manufactured through the contact process involving combustion of sulphur to produce sulfur dioxide, oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide and absorption of sulfuric acid. Ammonia is manufactured through the Haber process involving reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressure and temperature over an iron catalyst. Common alloys include steel, brass and bronze which have improved properties compared to pure metals. Synthetic polymers are long chain molecules formed by polymerization and include plastics such as polyethylene, PVC and nylon. Glass is made mainly from silica while ceramics such
Composite materials are made by combining two or more dissimilar materials to take advantage of their combined properties. They consist of a matrix phase that binds together the dispersed phase to form a single mechanical unit. Composites offer advantages over traditional materials like metals and polymers, including higher strength and stiffness for a given weight, better corrosion and heat resistance, and easier fabrication. Common applications of composites include use in vehicles, sports equipment, electronics and construction.
The document discusses several topics related to chemistry including:
1. How to test for the proportion of oxygen in the atmosphere by using copper in a reaction that uses up oxygen.
2. The rock cycle and the three main types of rocks: sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks.
3. Electrolysis and how it can be used to produce chlorine from sodium chloride solution or aluminum from molten bauxite ore.
classification of refractories and commonly used refractory brickssunrise refractory
This document classifies and describes various refractory materials based on their chemical composition, physical form, manufacturing method, oxide content, refractoriness, and common uses. The key refractory materials discussed include zirconia, alumina, silica, magnesia, chromite, carbon, and fireclay. Zirconia refractories have very high strength and low thermal conductivity, making them suitable for high temperature insulation. Alumina refractories are versatile and can withstand temperatures up to 1850°C in oxidizing and reducing environments. Silica refractories have excellent mechanical strength near their melting point but are susceptible to spalling below 650°C. Magnesia and chromite refractories have good resistance to corros
This document discusses common materials used in orthotics, including aluminum, rubber, plastics, adhesives, plaster of paris, leather, and fabrics. It provides details on the properties and uses of metals, specifically noting that metals like aluminum, iron, and alloys like steel are widely used due to their strength, conductivity, and other material properties. The document also summarizes properties of other materials commonly used in orthotics, such as rubber, plastics, adhesives, plaster of paris, and leather.
The document provides an overview of metallurgy and metal extraction processes. It discusses:
1) Different methods of metal extraction including pyrometallurgy (using heat), hydrometallurgy (using water), and electrometallurgy (using electricity).
2) Properties and applications of cast iron, which has 2-4.5% carbon content and is strong in compression.
3) The process of extracting iron from iron ore in a blast furnace, producing pig iron which can then be further processed to make wrought iron or steel.
The document discusses the properties and production processes of aluminum and copper. Aluminum is lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is produced through a process involving refining bauxite ore with caustic soda to extract aluminum oxide, which is then smelted using electrolysis to produce aluminum. Copper is highly conductive and ductile with good corrosion resistance. It has been used for millennia to make tools and weapons. Copper is mined from sulfide ores and purified through physical separation and chemical processes like flotation and smelting to remove impurities.
The document discusses several manufactured substances used in industry. It focuses on alloys, synthetic polymers, glass, and composite materials. For each category, it provides examples of specific materials, their compositions, properties, and common uses. Alloys discussed include bronze, brass, steel, stainless steel, and pewter. Synthetic polymers mentioned are polythene, polypropene, polyvinyl chloride, perspex, terylene, and nylon. The document also examines different types of glass and their characteristics.
This document discusses several industrial metals including iron, aluminum, vanadium, and titanium. It provides details on the production processes and uses of these metals. Specifically, it describes how iron is used as a catalyst in the Haber process to produce ammonia. It outlines the electrolytic process for producing primary aluminum from bauxite ore. The document discusses how vanadium is used as a catalyst in the contact process for producing sulfuric acid. Finally, it notes that titanium is used in jet engine and piping applications due to its strength and corrosion resistance.
Corrosion is the deterioration of materials due to chemical reactions with their environment. It can occur due to factors like humidity, corrosive gases, stress, electrical currents, and bacteria. There are two main types of corrosion: dry/chemical corrosion which involves direct chemical reactions, and wet/electrochemical corrosion which involves the formation of anodic and cathodic areas on a metal surface. Common corrosion prevention methods include using surface coatings, galvanization, alloyed steels, cathodic protection, and new solutions like EonCoat which provides a maintenance-free protective layer.
Corrosion is the destruction or deterioration of metallic materials due to chemical and electrochemical reactions with their environment. There are two main types of corrosion - dry corrosion caused by direct chemical reactions with gases, and wet corrosion caused by electrochemical reactions when metals are in contact with an electrolyte. Various factors influence the corrosion rate, including the metal properties, environmental conditions, and nature of corrosion products. Common corrosion control methods include cathodic protection, using corrosion inhibitors, and applying protective coatings to the metal surface.
Corrosion occurs via an electrochemical process involving an anode, cathode, and electrolyte. At the anode, metal atoms lose electrons and form positively charged ions, while at the cathode electrons are accepted. The electrolyte carries ions between the anode and cathode, enabling the flow of electrons. Proper surface preparation is critical for coating adhesion and longevity. It involves removing contaminants and increasing surface area via abrasive blasting or other methods. Abrasive blasting roughens the surface, forming a profile that improves adhesion through mechanical interlocking and chemical bonding between the coating and substrate.
This document contains information about chemistry concepts taught using the "Round Robin" method. It includes 8 sections called PINTAR that cover topics like solubility rules for salts, reactions to form salts, tests to identify cations, and the behavior of salts when heated. The purpose is for students to memorize the content through repeated oral recitation of the sections in a round-robin style until all students have memorized the full content.
The document summarizes key aspects of the periodic table, including:
1) It describes the historical development of the periodic table by scientists like Lavoisier, Dobereiner, Newlands, Meyer, and Mendeleev.
2) It explains the modern arrangement of elements in the periodic table based on proton number and discusses the properties of elements in the same group and period.
3) It provides examples of properties and reactions of representative elements from groups 1, 17, 18 and period 3 of the periodic table. Transition elements and semimetals are also discussed.
1. The document provides lesson notes on the structure of the atom, including the particulate nature of matter, states of matter, atomic structure, isotopes, and the electronic structure of atoms.
2. It explains key concepts such as the kinetic particle theory, processes of changing state, diffusion, the historical development of atomic models, subatomic particles, and electron configuration.
3. Examples are given to illustrate isotopes and the arrangement of electrons in shells, with the first shell holding up to 2 electrons and the second up to 8.
The document summarizes the process of electrolysis for two types of electrolytes: molten sodium chloride and aqueous electrolytes. For molten sodium chloride, sodium and chloride ions move to the cathode and anode, respectively, where they are discharged. Sodium forms at the cathode while chlorine gas forms at the anode. For aqueous electrolytes like dilute sulfuric acid, hydrogen, sulfate, and hydroxide ions are present and migrate to the electrodes where hydrogen gas forms at the cathode and oxygen gas forms at the anode.
This document describes the electrolysis of a copper(II) sulfate solution using copper electrodes. During electrolysis, copper ions and hydrogen ions move to the cathode where copper ions are discharged to form a brown copper deposit, while hydroxide and sulfate ions move to the anode where the copper electrode dissolves to release copper ions and electrons. The process results in the cathode gaining mass and thickness while the anode loses mass and becomes thinner, but the concentration and blue color of the copper ions in the solution remains unchanged.
The document describes the electrolysis of a 1.0 mol/dm3 sodium chloride solution using carbon electrodes. During electrolysis, sodium and chloride ions move to the cathode and anode respectively. At the cathode, hydrogen ions are discharged to produce hydrogen gas while at the anode, chloride ions are discharged to produce chlorine gas. The solution becomes alkaline after electrolysis due to the presence of sodium hydroxide.
Electrolysis is a process where an electrolyte is broken down into its constituent elements when electricity passes through. An electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy using a battery, electrolyte, and two electrodes. During electrolysis, anions move toward the anode and cations move toward the cathode, where they are discharged by gaining or losing electrons.
Electrolytes are substances that can conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water, as they dissociate into ions that are free to move. Non-electrolytes do not contain ions and cannot conduct electricity either when molten or dissolved. While solid ionic compounds cannot conduct due to their tightly bound ions, they can conduct in molten or aqueous states as their ions gain freedom of movement.
Batteries use direct current for electrolysis, with an ammeter or bulb indicating current flow. The anode connects to the positive terminal and cathode to the negative, while a rheostat controls current through the electrolyte, with electrolysis decomposing the electrolyte through anions moving to the anode and cations to the cathode, converting electrical to chemical energy.
The document provides information about electrolysis experiments using different electrolyte solutions and electrodes. In the first experiment, a sodium sulfate solution is electrolyzed using carbon electrodes. Ions move to the electrodes and gases are produced. Hydrogen gas is collected at one electrode. In the second experiment, dilute sodium chloride solution is electrolyzed and chlorine gas is collected at one electrode.
An acid is a chemical substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) in water, while a base reacts with an acid to produce salt and water. Strong acids fully ionize in water to produce a high concentration of H+ ions, while weak acids only partially ionize, producing a low H+ concentration. Strong bases fully ionize to produce a high concentration of hydroxide (OH-) ions, unlike weak bases. Acids have sour tastes, turn litmus paper red, and are electrolytes in water. They react with metals, bases, carbonates, and alkalis to produce salts, hydrogen gas, water, and carbon dioxide. Bases have bitter tastes, turn litmus paper blue, and are electrolytes
1. Faridahhamat/chapter 9/saser
CHAPTER 9 : MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY
Industrial products are very important nowadays. There are
manufactured purposely for our comfort.
These products are :
1. Sulphuric acid
2. ammonia
3. alloys
4. synthetic polymers
5. glass
6. ceramics
7. composite materials
SULPHURIC ACID
Uses:
1. Manufacture of : Detergents, artificial fabres and paint.
2. As electrolyte in car batteries
3. production of fertilizer
Manufacture:
The process called Contact Process
The raw materials used are sulphur, air and water.
The stages of process:
STAGE 1:Formation Of Sulphur Dioxide
Molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxde
S + O2 SO2
Sulphur dioxide alsa can be produced by roasting sulphide ores
( lead )II sulphide) in air.
STAGE 2: Formation Of Sulphur Trioxide
Sulphur dioxide and access oxygen gas pass over vanadium (V)
oxide catalyst at 450 C to produce sulphur trioxide , SO3.
2 SO2 + O2 2SO3
Optimum condition used are:
Temperature: 450 C
1
2. Faridahhamat/chapter 9/saser
Pressure: 1 atm
Catalyst : Vanadium(V) oxide
About 97 % conversion occurs under this condition.
STAGE 3 : Formation Of Sulphuric Acid
Consists of 2 steps:
Step 1 : SO3 is dissolved with concentrated sulphuric acid to
form oleum.
SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7
Step 2 : Oleum is then diluted with water to produce
concentrated sulphuric acid.
H2S2O7 + H2O 2 H2SO4
H2SO4 can be formed if react SO3 directly to water:
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
But it is not done in industry because SO3 reacts too violently.
A lot of heat and large cloud of sulphuric acid mist are
produced which are corrosive and can pollute the environment.
It is difficult to condense.
SO2 And Environment Pollution
SO2 is released into atmosphere from:
1. burning of fossil fuels containing sulphur
2. The burning of sulphur (Contact process)
3. The extraction of certain metals from their sulphide ores
Will cause:
1. acid rain
2. coughing
3. chest pain
4. shortness of breath
5. bronchitis and lung disease
2
3. Faridahhamat/chapter 9/saser
AMMONIA ANND ITS SALTS
Uses Of Ammonia
To make fertilizers which is important to provide nitrogen for the
healthy growth of plants.
Can be converted to nitric acid which used to synthetic fibres,
explosives, wood pulp, paints, varnishes, lacquers rocket propellants.
The Properties of Ammonia
Alkaline
Colourless gas
Pungent smell
Less dense than water
Burns in oxygen gas but not in air
Is very soluble in water
Gives a white fume when a reacted with hydrogen chloride gas, HCl.
Manufacture of Ammonia
Through Haber Process
This process combines nitrogen gas from the air with hydrogen gas
derived mainly from natural gas to form Ammonia, NH3.
Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air.
Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas.
Step :
1. The ratio of one volume of nitrogen gas to three volumes of hydrogen is
passed through the reactor.
2. The mixture is compressed to high temperature ( 200 atm) at 450 C.
3. Iron is used as catalyst in this process.
N2 + 3H2 2 NH3
Preparation Of Ammonium Fetilisers :
Ammonium fertilizers contain ammonium ions. In the soil, the ammonium
ions are oxidised to nitrate ions.
Example of ammonium fertilisers:
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1. Ammonium sulphate ( (NH4)2SO4 )
2. Ammonium nitrate ( NH4NO3 )
3. Ammonium phosphate ( (NH4)3PO4 )
Example : What is the percentage by mass of nitrogen in ammonium
sulphate, (NH4)2SO4
ALLOY
Is mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in
which the major component is metal.
Pure metals are make up of the same type and same size of atoms.
The orderly arrangement of atoms make the metal ductile and malleable.
Orderly arrangement of atoms in metal enables the layer of atoms to
slide on one another when force is applied.
Arrangement of atom in
pure Metal: Closely packed
& In an orderly manner
Force Layers of atoms slide
over each other.
Most pure metals are weak and soft.
The properties of pure metal can be improved by making them into
alloys.
Alloys are stronger, harder, and resistant to corrosion, have a better
furnish and luster.
The example of alloy. ( refer text book page 160 )
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Why make alloys ?
1. To improve the appearance of the pure metal
2. to increase the strength and hardness of the pure metal
3. to increase the resistance to corrosion of the pure metal.
The Arrangement Of Atom In Alloys
The presence of atoms of other metals that are of different size
disturb the orderly arrangement of atoms in the metal. This decrease
the layer of atoms from sliding.
Thus alloy is stronger and harder than its pure metal.
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Polymer : Large molecules make up of many identical repeating sub-units
called monomers which are joined together by covalent bonds.
Polymerization : a process to join the monomer into chains by repeated
linking.
2 types of polymer :
1. naturally occurring polymers
2. Synthetic polymers : man-made polymer.
Ex : Polythene, polyvinyl chloride, polypropene, Perspex, nylon and
terylena.
GLASS AND CERAMICS
Glass : made from sand
The major component: silica, SiO2.
There are so many types of glass; fused glass is the simplest one which
is mainly silica, SiO2.
Fused glass : Highly resistant glass. It can be heated to an extremely
high temperature and then can be plunged into icy, cold water without
cracking.
It’s expensive but still widely used because of its ;
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1. Great purity
2. optical transparency
3. high temperature
4. chemical durability
5. Resistance to thermal shock.
It is used as :
1. Laboratory glassware
2. lenses
3. Telescope mirrors
4. optical fibres.
Ex : Starch, cellulose, wool, protein, silk and natural rubber.
The most common glass : Soda lime glass
Made by heating sand with limestone/ sodium carbonate.
Can be melted at a relatively low temperature
Easy to be shaped and has a good chemical durability.
High thermal expansion coefficient.
Expands a lot when it is heated and contracts a lot too when it is
cooled.
Do not withstand heat.
Used to make : flat glass, electrical bulbs, mirrors and glass
containers.
Soda lime glass + Boron oxide, B2O3 Borosilicate glass
Has a lower thermal expansion coefficient
3 times as heat resistant as soda-lime glass
More resistant to chemical attacks because it contains less alkali.
Good to use in cookware, laboratory glassware and automobile
headlight.
Used in glass pipelines and applications which require superior
resistance to thermal shock and greater chemical durability.
Ceramic
Made from clay. Ex : Kaolin ( Aluminiumsilicate, Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O )
When the clay is heated to a very high temperature, they undergo a
series of chemical reactions and are hardened permanently to form
ceramic.
Ex : clay pots, bricks, tiles and mugs.
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Ceramics are very hard, brittle, chemically inert, do not corrode, high
melting point and are good insulators of electricity and heat.
Suitable for making abrasive, construction material,
tableware, insulators in electrical equipments and
refractories.
Comparing properties of glass and ceramics
How are they alike:
1. Hard
2. brittle
3. strong under compression
4. do not corrode
5. good electrical insulator
6. good heat insulator
7. resistant to chemical attacks
How are they different:
Glass Ceramics
Highly transparent Optical transparency Opaque
Can be melted and Moulding Cannot be melted and
remoulded remoulded
Lower melting point Melting point Very high melting point
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Structural material that is formed by combining two or more different
substances such as metal, alloys, glass, ceramic and polymers. These
materials are created for specific application.
The material formed has properties that are better than the original
components.
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Types of Composite Material
Reinforced Concrete
Concrete: Consists a mixture of stones, chips and sand bound together
by cement. It is strong but brittle and weak in tension.
Steel : Strong in tension.
Concrete reinforced with steel wires, steel bars or any polymers
fibres, the resulting combination is a very tough material with
more tensile strength.
The composites are good for the construction of large structures
like high-rise building, bridges and oil platforms.
It is also cheap and can be moulded into any shape.
Superconductors
Capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when
they are cooled to extremely low temperature.
They are used in the bullet trains in Japan, magnetic energy-storage
systems, generators, transformers and computer parts.
Fibre optic
Fibre optic cable consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that
are surrounded by a glass cladding.
They are used to replace copper wire in long distance telephone lines, in
mobile phone, video camera and to link computer within local area
network.
Fibre optic is good to use because they have law material costs, high
transmission capacity, chemical stability and less susceptible to
interference.
Fibre Glass
Formed when glass fibres are used to reinforce plastic.
Properties : High tensile strength, can be easily coloured, low in density
easily moulded and shaped and can be made into thin layers.
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Used to make household products like water storage tanks, badminton
rackets, small boats, skis and helmets.
Photochromic Glass
Produced by embedding photochromic substances like silver chloride,
AgCl crystals in glass or transparent polymers.
Used for making optical lenses, car windshields, smart energy efficient
windows in buildings, information display panels, lense in cameras,
optical switches and light intensity meters.
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