This document discusses measurement and metrology. It defines measurement and metrology, describes their needs and objectives. It discusses different modes of measurement including primary, secondary and tertiary measurement. It also describes various methods of measurement and elements of a generalized measurement system including sensing, transduction, manipulation, transmission, processing and presentation. Finally, it outlines important static performance characteristics for selecting suitable instruments such as readability, range, linearity, repeatability and reproducibility.
1. The document discusses the basics of metrology and measurement including the elements that affect precision and accuracy in measurement.
2. It describes the key elements of a metrology system as the standard, workpiece, instrument, person, and environment. Variations in any of these elements can introduce errors.
3. Several types of errors are also outlined including systematic, random, environmental, loading, and dynamic errors. Understanding error sources is important for achieving accurate measurements.
Please refer this file just as reference material. More concentration should on class room work and text book methodology.
Introduction to Mechanical Measurement
Metrology is the science of measurement. It has three main tasks: defining measurement units, realizing measurement units through scientific methods, and establishing traceability in documenting measurement accuracy. Metrology is essential in scientific research and various industries. It covers establishing standards, developing measurement methods, analyzing errors, and ensuring instrument accuracy. Metrology helps plan lives and enable commercial exchanges with confidence as measurements can be seen everywhere.
Ch-4: Measurement systems and basic concepts of measurement methodsSuraj Shukla
This document provides an introduction and overview of measurement systems and concepts. It discusses:
- The basic components of a generalized measurement system, including sensing, conversion, manipulation, processing, transmission and presentation stages.
- Key definitions and concepts in measurement like accuracy, error, calibration, threshold, sensitivity and hysteresis.
- Classification schemes for transducers based on factors like the physical phenomenon, power type, output type and electrical phenomenon.
- Types of transducers like active vs passive, primary vs secondary, analog vs digital, and examples within resistive, capacitive, inductive and other categories.
The document defines key terms related to measurement and instrumentation. It discusses measurement concepts including physical quantities, data, information, parameters and measurands. It also describes instrumentation components like transducers, sensors and actuators. Measurement systems involve detection, signal conditioning and readout stages. The document reviews calibration procedures, measurement errors, and static and dynamic instrument characteristics.
This document discusses measurement and mechanical measurements. It defines measurement as comparing an unknown magnitude to a predetermined standard. Measurement provides quantitative descriptions and must use accurate standards and reliable methods. Mechanical measurements are important for research, design, and development. They are classified as mechanics measurements or power measurements. Mechanics measurements use empirical, rational, or experimental design methods and include measurements of length, mass, and time. Power measurements monitor quantities like pressure, temperature, and flow rates in systems like steam plants. Measurement systems generally work by converting the measured quantity to an analogous signal, processing the signal, and presenting the results. Calibration is important to prove a system's reliability by applying known inputs. Transducers are key components that convert one energy
This document provides an introduction to sensors and instrumentation. It discusses key concepts such as measurement, standards, direct and indirect measurement methods, types of instruments including mechanical, electrical and electronic. It also covers performance characteristics of instruments like accuracy, sensitivity, static and dynamic errors. Common sensors are described along with their applications. The roles of transducers and elements of a measurement system are explained. Methods for instrument calibration using standards are also summarized.
1. The document discusses the basics of metrology and measurement including the elements that affect precision and accuracy in measurement.
2. It describes the key elements of a metrology system as the standard, workpiece, instrument, person, and environment. Variations in any of these elements can introduce errors.
3. Several types of errors are also outlined including systematic, random, environmental, loading, and dynamic errors. Understanding error sources is important for achieving accurate measurements.
Please refer this file just as reference material. More concentration should on class room work and text book methodology.
Introduction to Mechanical Measurement
Metrology is the science of measurement. It has three main tasks: defining measurement units, realizing measurement units through scientific methods, and establishing traceability in documenting measurement accuracy. Metrology is essential in scientific research and various industries. It covers establishing standards, developing measurement methods, analyzing errors, and ensuring instrument accuracy. Metrology helps plan lives and enable commercial exchanges with confidence as measurements can be seen everywhere.
Ch-4: Measurement systems and basic concepts of measurement methodsSuraj Shukla
This document provides an introduction and overview of measurement systems and concepts. It discusses:
- The basic components of a generalized measurement system, including sensing, conversion, manipulation, processing, transmission and presentation stages.
- Key definitions and concepts in measurement like accuracy, error, calibration, threshold, sensitivity and hysteresis.
- Classification schemes for transducers based on factors like the physical phenomenon, power type, output type and electrical phenomenon.
- Types of transducers like active vs passive, primary vs secondary, analog vs digital, and examples within resistive, capacitive, inductive and other categories.
The document defines key terms related to measurement and instrumentation. It discusses measurement concepts including physical quantities, data, information, parameters and measurands. It also describes instrumentation components like transducers, sensors and actuators. Measurement systems involve detection, signal conditioning and readout stages. The document reviews calibration procedures, measurement errors, and static and dynamic instrument characteristics.
This document discusses measurement and mechanical measurements. It defines measurement as comparing an unknown magnitude to a predetermined standard. Measurement provides quantitative descriptions and must use accurate standards and reliable methods. Mechanical measurements are important for research, design, and development. They are classified as mechanics measurements or power measurements. Mechanics measurements use empirical, rational, or experimental design methods and include measurements of length, mass, and time. Power measurements monitor quantities like pressure, temperature, and flow rates in systems like steam plants. Measurement systems generally work by converting the measured quantity to an analogous signal, processing the signal, and presenting the results. Calibration is important to prove a system's reliability by applying known inputs. Transducers are key components that convert one energy
This document provides an introduction to sensors and instrumentation. It discusses key concepts such as measurement, standards, direct and indirect measurement methods, types of instruments including mechanical, electrical and electronic. It also covers performance characteristics of instruments like accuracy, sensitivity, static and dynamic errors. Common sensors are described along with their applications. The roles of transducers and elements of a measurement system are explained. Methods for instrument calibration using standards are also summarized.
The document discusses various methods of measurement used in mechanical engineering. It describes 6 main methods: direct, indirect, comparative, coincidence, deflection, and complementary. The direct method involves measuring a quantity directly using instruments like calipers or micrometers. The indirect method measures related quantities using transducers. Other methods compare an unknown quantity to a standard, detect small differences through alignment, indicate values through deflection, or determine a quantity by combination with a known value. The document also defines key terms in measurement like accuracy, precision, sensitivity, and calibration, and discusses sources of error.
This document outlines the course objectives and syllabus for a Measurements and Instrumentation course.
The course aims to: [1] Familiarize students with measuring instrument characteristics and concepts of analog and digital instruments; [2] Teach students how to evaluate instrument performance using bridges, transducers, and different measurement techniques; and [3] Demonstrate various transducers and sensors used to measure physical quantities.
The syllabus covers 5 units - science of measurements, analog instruments, digital instruments, comparative measurement methods, and transducers and data acquisition systems. Key topics include instrument elements, static and dynamic performance, error analysis, and an overview of common measurement devices.
This document provides an overview of measurement and instrumentation concepts. It discusses topics such as measurement definitions, standards of measurement, generalized measurement systems, instruments, static and dynamic characteristics, and errors in measurements. Examples of measurement systems like pressure gauges and thermometers are provided. Measurement applications in processes and experimentation are also mentioned.
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT Dinesh Sharma
This document discusses measurement techniques and instruments. It covers the basic components, classifications, functions, and errors of measurement instruments. The key points are:
- Measurement instruments have components for deflection, control, and damping of the pointer. Deflection indicates the measured quantity, control opposes deflection, and damping reduces oscillations.
- Instruments can be classified as analog or digital, absolute or secondary. Accuracy depends on design, materials, and errors like systematic, random, and environmental errors.
- Measurements involve comparing an unknown quantity to a standard and expressing the result numerically. Direct comparison is used when possible, otherwise indirect methods are used. Proper standards and methods are required for meaningful results.
This document discusses metrology and measurement. It defines metrology as the field concerned with measurement, including theoretical and practical problems related to measurement. It establishes metrology as including the establishment, reproduction, and transfer of measurement standards.
The document outlines the principal fields of metrology, including establishing measurement units and standards, measurement methods and accuracy, measuring instruments, observer capabilities, and gauge design. It describes the types of metrology as scientific, industrial, and legal metrology. Scientific metrology deals with maintaining highest level standards. Industrial metrology ensures adequate functioning of instruments in industry. Legal metrology regulates measuring instruments.
The document also discusses measurement units, errors, accuracy, precision, calibration, and factors that affect measurements
The document provides an introduction to measurement and instrumentation. It defines key terms like measurement, instrumentation, transducers, sensors and calibration. It discusses different types of measurements and instruments, including direct comparison and indirect comparison methods. The document also reviews units of measurement and standards. It describes general instrumentation system structures and the stages of detection, signal conditioning and readout. Finally, it discusses applications of measurement and instrumentation in various domains like home, vehicles and industry.
EMI Introduction types of measurements static dynamicGopalakrishnaU
Classification of instruments
• Analog instrument
The measured parameter value is display by the moveable pointer. The pointer will
moved continuously with the variable parameter/analog signal which is measured.
The reading is inaccurate because of parallax error (parallel) during the skill reading.
E.g: ampere meter, voltage meter, ohm meter etc.
• Digital instrument
The measured parameter value is display in decimal (digital) form which the reading can
be read thru in numbers form. Therefore, the parallax error is not existed and terminated.
The concept used for digital signal in a digital instrument is logic binary ‘0’and ‘1’.
1.2 Characteristic of instruments
Figure 1.1 presents a generalized model of a simple instrument. The physical process to
be measured is in the left of the figure and the measurand is represented by an observable
physical variable X.
Figure 1.1: Simple instrument mode
Two basic characteristic of an instrument is essential for selecting the most suitable
instrument for specific measuring jobs:
1. Static characteristic
2. Dynamic characteristic
Static characteristic of an instrument are, in general, considered for instruments which are
used to measure an unvarying process condition.
Several terms of static characteristic that have discussed:
1. Instrument – A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of a
quantity under observation.
2. Measurement – The process of determining the amount, degree, capacity by
comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units
being used.
3. Accuracy – The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to
the expected (desired) value.
4. Resolution – The smallest change in a measured variable to which instruments
will response. Also known as ‘Threshold’.
5. Precision – A measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e.
successive readings do not differ or the consistency of the instrument output for a
given value of input. A very precise reading though is not perfectly an accurate
reading.
X
X X
ecision n − Pr = 1− with Xn = measured value
X = average value or expected value
Process of measurement
Measurement is essentially the act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison between a
given quantity and a quantity of the same kind chosen as a unit. The result of
measurement is expressed by a number representing the ratio of the unknown quantity to
the adopted unit of measurement.
The step taken before measure:
1. Procedure of measurement: Identified the parameter or variable to be measured,
how to record the result
2. Characteristic of parameter: Should know the parameter that to be measured; ac,
dc, frequency or etc.
3. Quality: Time and cost of equipment, the instrument ability, the measurement
knowledge and suitable result.
4. Instrument: Choose a suitable equipment; multimeter, voltmeter, oscilloscope or
etc.
The document provides information on the syllabus for a course on Engineering Metrology and Measurements. It includes 5 units that will be covered: Basics of Measurements, Linear and Angular Metrology, Form and Surface Measurements, Advanced Techniques in Metrology, and Applications of Measurements. The syllabus outlines the topics, instructional hours, textbooks, and reference books for the course.
This document provides an overview of instrumentation and measurement concepts. It discusses that instrumentation deals with measurement techniques and measuring devices. Measurement involves comparing an unknown quantity to a standard.
A measurement system consists of various elements including a primary sensing element to detect the measured quantity, a transducer to convert it to another form, and elements for signal manipulation, transmission, processing, presentation and storage. Measurement methods can be direct, comparing the measured quantity directly to a standard, or indirect, using a measurement system with multiple elements. Measurements are used for process monitoring, control and experimental analysis.
This lecture introduces measurement and instrumentation. It defines measurement and instrumentation, discusses types of measurements and instruments. It reviews units of measurement, standards of measurement, and calibration. Measurement and instrumentation are used in various applications including home appliances, vehicles, and industrial processes to monitor and control parameters and improve operations.
This document provides an overview of metrology and measurement concepts. It discusses the introduction to metrology, the need for measurement, components of a generalized measurement system, types of standards, units of measurement, types of measurements/methods of measurement, types of measuring instruments, accuracy vs precision, and factors affecting accuracy and precision. It also defines types of errors in measurement such as gross errors, measurement errors, systematic errors, and random errors.
This document provides an overview of metrology and measurement concepts. It discusses the introduction to metrology, the need for measurement, components of a generalized measurement system, types of standards, units of measurement, types of measurements/methods of measurement, types of measuring instruments, accuracy vs precision, and factors affecting accuracy and precision. It also defines types of errors in measurement such as gross errors, measurement errors, systematic errors, and random errors.
1. The document discusses the syllabus for the course 20ME601 - Metrology and Measurements.
2. The syllabus is divided into 5 units which cover topics like basics of metrology, linear and angular measurements, form measurement, measurement of mechanical parameters, and advances in metrology.
3. Key concepts discussed include types of metrology, components of a generalized measurement system, standards, units, types of measurements/methods of measurements, types of measuring instruments, factors affecting accuracy and precision, and types of errors in measurements.
Introduction to Measurement Transducers.pptPratheepVGMTS
Mechanical measurements involve determining unknown quantities by comparing them to known standards. There are three main stages in a measurement system: the detector-transducer stage senses the input signal, the intermediate modifying stage conditions the signal, and the terminating stage provides an output reading. Accuracy and precision are important metrics, with accurate referring to closeness to the true value and precise referring to reproducibility of readings. Many factors like calibration, environmental disturbances, and human errors can introduce inaccuracies and uncertainties into measurements. Proper measurement techniques and validated measurement systems are needed to obtain reliable experimental data.
This document discusses concepts related to measurement including direct and indirect measurement methods, classification of instruments, errors in measurement, and calibration. It defines key terms such as measurement, accuracy, sensitivity, and calibration. It describes the elements of a measurement system including the primary sensing element, variable conversion element, and data presentation element. It also covers static characteristics such as accuracy, sensitivity, and dynamic response characteristics.
This document discusses concepts related to measurement including direct and indirect measurement methods, types of instruments, characteristics of measurement systems, errors in measurement, and calibration. It defines key terms like measurement, accuracy, sensitivity, static and dynamic errors. Measurement systems have elements like primary sensing, variable conversion and data presentation. Characteristics include accuracy, sensitivity, reproducibility, speed of response and fidelity. Errors can be gross, systematic, random or residual. Calibration checks instruments against a known standard.
This document discusses concepts related to measurement including direct and indirect measurement methods, classification of instruments, errors in measurement, and calibration. It defines key terms like measurement, accuracy, sensitivity, and calibration. Measurement instruments are classified as mechanical, electrical, or electronic. Errors are categorized as gross, systematic, or random. The document also covers topics like mean, standard deviation, and probable error for measurement data analysis.
InternalInternal combustion engines provide outstanding drivability and durability, with more than 250 million highway transportation vehicles in the United States relying on them. Along with gasoline or diesel, they can also utilize renewable or alternative fuels (e.g., natural gas, propane, biodiesel, or ethanol). They can also be combined with hybrid electric powertrains to increase fuel economy or plug-in hybrid electric systems to extend the range of hybrid electric vehicles.
HOW DOES AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE WORK?
Combustion, also known as burning, is the basic chemical process of releasing energy from a fuel and air mixture. In an internal combustion engine (ICE), the ignition and combustion of the fuel occurs within the engine itself. The engine then partially converts the energy from the combustion to work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving piston. The expanding combustion gases push the piston, which in turn rotates the crankshaft. Ultimately, through a system of gears in the powertrain, this motion drives the vehicle’s wheels.
The document discusses coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery and cardiac rehabilitation. It defines CABG as a surgery that creates new routes around blocked coronary arteries using healthy vessels from other parts of the body. It then describes the goals, indications, contraindications, procedures, complications, and post-operation recovery process for CABG. The document concludes by outlining the three phases of cardiac rehabilitation, including exercise prescriptions and safety guidelines for each phase.
The document discusses various methods of measurement used in mechanical engineering. It describes 6 main methods: direct, indirect, comparative, coincidence, deflection, and complementary. The direct method involves measuring a quantity directly using instruments like calipers or micrometers. The indirect method measures related quantities using transducers. Other methods compare an unknown quantity to a standard, detect small differences through alignment, indicate values through deflection, or determine a quantity by combination with a known value. The document also defines key terms in measurement like accuracy, precision, sensitivity, and calibration, and discusses sources of error.
This document outlines the course objectives and syllabus for a Measurements and Instrumentation course.
The course aims to: [1] Familiarize students with measuring instrument characteristics and concepts of analog and digital instruments; [2] Teach students how to evaluate instrument performance using bridges, transducers, and different measurement techniques; and [3] Demonstrate various transducers and sensors used to measure physical quantities.
The syllabus covers 5 units - science of measurements, analog instruments, digital instruments, comparative measurement methods, and transducers and data acquisition systems. Key topics include instrument elements, static and dynamic performance, error analysis, and an overview of common measurement devices.
This document provides an overview of measurement and instrumentation concepts. It discusses topics such as measurement definitions, standards of measurement, generalized measurement systems, instruments, static and dynamic characteristics, and errors in measurements. Examples of measurement systems like pressure gauges and thermometers are provided. Measurement applications in processes and experimentation are also mentioned.
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT Dinesh Sharma
This document discusses measurement techniques and instruments. It covers the basic components, classifications, functions, and errors of measurement instruments. The key points are:
- Measurement instruments have components for deflection, control, and damping of the pointer. Deflection indicates the measured quantity, control opposes deflection, and damping reduces oscillations.
- Instruments can be classified as analog or digital, absolute or secondary. Accuracy depends on design, materials, and errors like systematic, random, and environmental errors.
- Measurements involve comparing an unknown quantity to a standard and expressing the result numerically. Direct comparison is used when possible, otherwise indirect methods are used. Proper standards and methods are required for meaningful results.
This document discusses metrology and measurement. It defines metrology as the field concerned with measurement, including theoretical and practical problems related to measurement. It establishes metrology as including the establishment, reproduction, and transfer of measurement standards.
The document outlines the principal fields of metrology, including establishing measurement units and standards, measurement methods and accuracy, measuring instruments, observer capabilities, and gauge design. It describes the types of metrology as scientific, industrial, and legal metrology. Scientific metrology deals with maintaining highest level standards. Industrial metrology ensures adequate functioning of instruments in industry. Legal metrology regulates measuring instruments.
The document also discusses measurement units, errors, accuracy, precision, calibration, and factors that affect measurements
The document provides an introduction to measurement and instrumentation. It defines key terms like measurement, instrumentation, transducers, sensors and calibration. It discusses different types of measurements and instruments, including direct comparison and indirect comparison methods. The document also reviews units of measurement and standards. It describes general instrumentation system structures and the stages of detection, signal conditioning and readout. Finally, it discusses applications of measurement and instrumentation in various domains like home, vehicles and industry.
EMI Introduction types of measurements static dynamicGopalakrishnaU
Classification of instruments
• Analog instrument
The measured parameter value is display by the moveable pointer. The pointer will
moved continuously with the variable parameter/analog signal which is measured.
The reading is inaccurate because of parallax error (parallel) during the skill reading.
E.g: ampere meter, voltage meter, ohm meter etc.
• Digital instrument
The measured parameter value is display in decimal (digital) form which the reading can
be read thru in numbers form. Therefore, the parallax error is not existed and terminated.
The concept used for digital signal in a digital instrument is logic binary ‘0’and ‘1’.
1.2 Characteristic of instruments
Figure 1.1 presents a generalized model of a simple instrument. The physical process to
be measured is in the left of the figure and the measurand is represented by an observable
physical variable X.
Figure 1.1: Simple instrument mode
Two basic characteristic of an instrument is essential for selecting the most suitable
instrument for specific measuring jobs:
1. Static characteristic
2. Dynamic characteristic
Static characteristic of an instrument are, in general, considered for instruments which are
used to measure an unvarying process condition.
Several terms of static characteristic that have discussed:
1. Instrument – A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of a
quantity under observation.
2. Measurement – The process of determining the amount, degree, capacity by
comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units
being used.
3. Accuracy – The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to
the expected (desired) value.
4. Resolution – The smallest change in a measured variable to which instruments
will response. Also known as ‘Threshold’.
5. Precision – A measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e.
successive readings do not differ or the consistency of the instrument output for a
given value of input. A very precise reading though is not perfectly an accurate
reading.
X
X X
ecision n − Pr = 1− with Xn = measured value
X = average value or expected value
Process of measurement
Measurement is essentially the act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison between a
given quantity and a quantity of the same kind chosen as a unit. The result of
measurement is expressed by a number representing the ratio of the unknown quantity to
the adopted unit of measurement.
The step taken before measure:
1. Procedure of measurement: Identified the parameter or variable to be measured,
how to record the result
2. Characteristic of parameter: Should know the parameter that to be measured; ac,
dc, frequency or etc.
3. Quality: Time and cost of equipment, the instrument ability, the measurement
knowledge and suitable result.
4. Instrument: Choose a suitable equipment; multimeter, voltmeter, oscilloscope or
etc.
The document provides information on the syllabus for a course on Engineering Metrology and Measurements. It includes 5 units that will be covered: Basics of Measurements, Linear and Angular Metrology, Form and Surface Measurements, Advanced Techniques in Metrology, and Applications of Measurements. The syllabus outlines the topics, instructional hours, textbooks, and reference books for the course.
This document provides an overview of instrumentation and measurement concepts. It discusses that instrumentation deals with measurement techniques and measuring devices. Measurement involves comparing an unknown quantity to a standard.
A measurement system consists of various elements including a primary sensing element to detect the measured quantity, a transducer to convert it to another form, and elements for signal manipulation, transmission, processing, presentation and storage. Measurement methods can be direct, comparing the measured quantity directly to a standard, or indirect, using a measurement system with multiple elements. Measurements are used for process monitoring, control and experimental analysis.
This lecture introduces measurement and instrumentation. It defines measurement and instrumentation, discusses types of measurements and instruments. It reviews units of measurement, standards of measurement, and calibration. Measurement and instrumentation are used in various applications including home appliances, vehicles, and industrial processes to monitor and control parameters and improve operations.
This document provides an overview of metrology and measurement concepts. It discusses the introduction to metrology, the need for measurement, components of a generalized measurement system, types of standards, units of measurement, types of measurements/methods of measurement, types of measuring instruments, accuracy vs precision, and factors affecting accuracy and precision. It also defines types of errors in measurement such as gross errors, measurement errors, systematic errors, and random errors.
This document provides an overview of metrology and measurement concepts. It discusses the introduction to metrology, the need for measurement, components of a generalized measurement system, types of standards, units of measurement, types of measurements/methods of measurement, types of measuring instruments, accuracy vs precision, and factors affecting accuracy and precision. It also defines types of errors in measurement such as gross errors, measurement errors, systematic errors, and random errors.
1. The document discusses the syllabus for the course 20ME601 - Metrology and Measurements.
2. The syllabus is divided into 5 units which cover topics like basics of metrology, linear and angular measurements, form measurement, measurement of mechanical parameters, and advances in metrology.
3. Key concepts discussed include types of metrology, components of a generalized measurement system, standards, units, types of measurements/methods of measurements, types of measuring instruments, factors affecting accuracy and precision, and types of errors in measurements.
Introduction to Measurement Transducers.pptPratheepVGMTS
Mechanical measurements involve determining unknown quantities by comparing them to known standards. There are three main stages in a measurement system: the detector-transducer stage senses the input signal, the intermediate modifying stage conditions the signal, and the terminating stage provides an output reading. Accuracy and precision are important metrics, with accurate referring to closeness to the true value and precise referring to reproducibility of readings. Many factors like calibration, environmental disturbances, and human errors can introduce inaccuracies and uncertainties into measurements. Proper measurement techniques and validated measurement systems are needed to obtain reliable experimental data.
This document discusses concepts related to measurement including direct and indirect measurement methods, classification of instruments, errors in measurement, and calibration. It defines key terms such as measurement, accuracy, sensitivity, and calibration. It describes the elements of a measurement system including the primary sensing element, variable conversion element, and data presentation element. It also covers static characteristics such as accuracy, sensitivity, and dynamic response characteristics.
This document discusses concepts related to measurement including direct and indirect measurement methods, types of instruments, characteristics of measurement systems, errors in measurement, and calibration. It defines key terms like measurement, accuracy, sensitivity, static and dynamic errors. Measurement systems have elements like primary sensing, variable conversion and data presentation. Characteristics include accuracy, sensitivity, reproducibility, speed of response and fidelity. Errors can be gross, systematic, random or residual. Calibration checks instruments against a known standard.
This document discusses concepts related to measurement including direct and indirect measurement methods, classification of instruments, errors in measurement, and calibration. It defines key terms like measurement, accuracy, sensitivity, and calibration. Measurement instruments are classified as mechanical, electrical, or electronic. Errors are categorized as gross, systematic, or random. The document also covers topics like mean, standard deviation, and probable error for measurement data analysis.
InternalInternal combustion engines provide outstanding drivability and durability, with more than 250 million highway transportation vehicles in the United States relying on them. Along with gasoline or diesel, they can also utilize renewable or alternative fuels (e.g., natural gas, propane, biodiesel, or ethanol). They can also be combined with hybrid electric powertrains to increase fuel economy or plug-in hybrid electric systems to extend the range of hybrid electric vehicles.
HOW DOES AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE WORK?
Combustion, also known as burning, is the basic chemical process of releasing energy from a fuel and air mixture. In an internal combustion engine (ICE), the ignition and combustion of the fuel occurs within the engine itself. The engine then partially converts the energy from the combustion to work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving piston. The expanding combustion gases push the piston, which in turn rotates the crankshaft. Ultimately, through a system of gears in the powertrain, this motion drives the vehicle’s wheels.
The document discusses coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery and cardiac rehabilitation. It defines CABG as a surgery that creates new routes around blocked coronary arteries using healthy vessels from other parts of the body. It then describes the goals, indications, contraindications, procedures, complications, and post-operation recovery process for CABG. The document concludes by outlining the three phases of cardiac rehabilitation, including exercise prescriptions and safety guidelines for each phase.
The document summarizes a project to develop a solar air cooling system using fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) instead of metal components. It begins with an introduction on the need for air cooling systems and issues with existing systems like high power consumption. It then provides a literature review on relevant research and patents. The methodology section outlines the research, experimental setup, materials to be used, testing approach, and work plan. Key objectives are to reduce power consumption using solar power and costs by using FRP, while increasing durability. Research gaps with current systems and advantages of FRP over other materials like metal, wood, and aluminum are also discussed.
The document provides an overview of geometric tolerances, which specify functional requirements for manufactured parts beyond just size tolerances. It defines various geometric tolerances including: (1) tolerances on shape or form like straightness, flatness, circularity, and cylindricity; (2) tolerances on orientation like parallelism, perpendicularity, and angularity; and (3) tolerances on position like concentricity and symmetry. Examples are given to illustrate how each tolerance type places limits on a feature's allowable form, orientation, or location relative to a datum.
This document discusses interferential therapy (IFT), which uses amplitude-modulated medium frequency currents for therapeutic purposes. It defines IFT and classifies frequencies. IFT uses two medium frequency currents that interfere to produce a rhythmic variation in amplitude known as a beat frequency, which can stimulate tissues. The beat frequency is controlled by the input frequencies and different types of frequency modulation like constant beat or variable sweep are used in IFT to target different conditions.
This document presents a solar air cooling system that uses fiber as its core material. It begins with an introduction and then reviews 4 relevant studies on solar cooling systems and applications of fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP). The first study provides an overview of solar cooling systems for buildings using solar thermal energy. The second describes how FRP makes a cost-effective alternative to steel reinforcement. The third and fourth articles discuss the design and experimental testing of solar PV-based evaporative air coolers.
Technology entrepreneurship involves operating small businesses owned by engineers or scientists, finding problems or applications for a particular technology, launching new ventures that introduce new applications or exploit opportunities relying on scientific and technical knowledge. It is defined based on creating and capturing value for a firm through investment in projects that interdependently influence and are influenced by advances in relevant scientific and technological knowledge. Some advantages of technical entrepreneurship include prosperity for individuals, firms and nations. However, it also carries high costs and risks of failure due to experimentation required for innovation.
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common degenerative joint disease affecting synovial joints. It involves breakdown of cartilage and underlying bone. Key features include joint pain, stiffness, and loss of function. Risk factors include older age, obesity, joint injury, and genetic predisposition. Diagnosis is based on clinical history, physical exam, and x-ray findings such as joint space narrowing and osteophyte formation. Physical therapy aims to reduce pain and improve function through exercises and other conservative treatments.
This document outlines the methodology for a research project which includes researching existing literature, setting up the experimental equipment using appropriate materials, running experiments according to a design of experiments, collecting results in tables and charts, and analyzing the results to draw conclusions.
This document presents a solar powered air cooling system. It discusses how traditional air cooling systems have high power consumption and costs. The proposed solar air cooling system uses solar panels to power it, reducing electricity usage. It also aims to reduce costs by using fiber reinforced plastic instead of metal for components like panels, tanks and ducts. This increases durability as the plastic materials are less prone to corrosion from water. The methodology involves researching current systems, building a prototype solar system, testing it and comparing results to show reductions in costs and electricity consumption while improving durability.
Brakes are a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system, most often through friction. They are used to slow or stop a moving vehicle, wheel, or axle. Brake liners are composed of heat-resistant, tough materials that are capable of enduring high temperatures from friction during braking. They are typically mounted to a solid metal backing. Drum brakes are used as wheel brakes on some vehicles and cranes, where the brake shoe is forced outward against the drum to produce braking. Disc brakes use brake fluid to transfer pressure from the operator to the actual brake mechanism near the wheel. When the brake pedal is pressed, fluid flows into a pressure chamber, causing the piston to
SEMINAR_HOW TO LEAD A HAPPY LIFE_IU1941110063.pptxAdityaSingh1761
Aditya Singh discusses how to lead a happy life in his human values and personal ethics class. His student ID is IU1941110063 and he is studying the topic of what leads to a happy life.
The document describes a solar powered air cooling system that uses fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) instead of metal to address some issues with traditional systems. Specifically, it aims to reduce power consumption and costs by running the system on solar power and using lower-cost FRP for components. This should also increase durability as FRP is less susceptible to corrosion from water than metal. The methodology involves researching current systems and materials, building an experimental FRP-based setup, testing it, and analyzing the results to see if the objectives of lower costs, higher durability and reduced energy usage are achieved compared to metal-based designs.
MSM PRESENTATION _ IRON AND CARBON DIAGRAM_ ADITYA SINGH.pptxAdityaSingh1761
This document provides information about a presentation on the iron-carbon diagram. It lists the presenter's name as Aditya Singh, with an IU number of IU1941110063. The presenter's subject is Material Science and Metallurgy and they are studying Mechanical Engineering.
This document discusses various types of linear measurement instruments. It begins by defining linear measurement and classifying linear measuring instruments as direct or indirect, graduated or non-graduated. Common instruments like steel rules, calipers, vernier calipers are then described in detail, outlining their construction, measurement applications, specifications, and reading procedures. The document provides an overview of linear measurement tools and techniques.
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11TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTING ENGINEERING
3-6 June 2024, Niš, Serbia
2. Measurement and Metrology
• Science of measurement
• Depending on field of application
• Today (in broader sense) with some practical terms
2
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
3. Metrology
Practical terms related with measurement:
• Errors in measurements
• Methods of measurements
• Measuring Instruments
• Units of measurement and their standards
• Industrial inspection and its different techniques
• Measuring instruments and accuracy
3
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
4. Needs of Measurement and Metrology
• To ensure that the part to be measured conforms to the established standard.
• To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
• To provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no faulty product reaches
the customers.
• To coordinate the functions of quality control, production, procurement &
other departments of the organization.
• To judge the possibility of making some of the defective parts acceptable
after minor repairs.
4
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
5. Objectives of Measurement and Metrology
• Although the basic objective of a measurement is to provide the required
accuracy at a minimum cost, metrology has further objectives in a modem
engineering plant with different shapes which are:
• To minimize the cost of inspection by efficient and effective use of available
facilities,
• To minimize the cost of rejection and re-work through application of
statistical quality control techniques.
• To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
• To determine the process capabilities and ensure that these are better than
relevant component tolerances.
• To do complete evaluation of newly developed products.
5
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
6. Modes of Measurement
Based upon the number of conversions, three basic categories of measurements
have been developed.
They are;
1. Primary measurement
2. Secondary measurement
3. Tertiary measurement
6
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
7. Modes of Measurement
1. Primary measurement
• Direct observation and comparison
• Not involvement of any conversion
Ex. Length, Height, Depth or Width etc. measurement.
7
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
8. Modes of Measurement
2. Secondary measurement
• >Indirect method >Involvement of one conversion
• Ex. Pressure or Temperature measurement
3. Tertiary measurement
⚫ >Indirect method >Involvement of 2 conversion
⚫ Ex. Measurement of rotating shaft
8
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
10. Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure
With contact Instrument is placed in contact
with the object. For ex. vernier
calliper
Without contact Instrument not placed in contact
with the object. (use of sensor)
Absolute or
Fundamental
Based on the measurements of
base quantities entering into the
definition of the quantity.
10
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
11. Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure
Comparative Based on the comparison of the
value of a quantity to be
measured with a known value of
the same quantity.
Null measurement Here, difference between
measurand value and known
value of same quantity with
which it is compared is brought to
zero.
11
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
12. Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure
Substitutional Method Quantity to be measured is
replaced by a known value of the same
quantity, so selected that the effects
produced in the
indicating device by these two values
are the same (a type of direct
comparison).
Complementary Method The value of quantity to be measured is
combined with known value of the same
quantity.
Ex: Volume determination by liquid
displacement.
12
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
13. Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure
Transposition
Quantity to be measured
is first balanced by a
known value and then
balanced by an other
new known value.
Value of quantity measured is
first balanced by an initial known
value A of same quantity, then
measured by quantity is put in
place of this known value. Then,
it is balanced again by another
value B. If the position of
element in equilibrium.
13
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
14. Methods of Measurement
Type of Method Technique to measure
Coincidence Measurements coincide with
certain lines and signals. Ex.
Callipers
Deflection The value of the quantity to be
measured is directly indicated by the
deflection of a pointer on a calibrated
scale
14
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
16. Generalized Measurement System
Elements of measuring system
1. Primary sensing element
• Quantity under measurement makes its first contact with primary
sensing element.
• Sense the condition, state or value of the process variable by
extracting a small part of energy from the measurand,
• and then produce an output which reflects this condition, state or
value of measurand.
16
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
18. Generalized Measurement System
Elements of measuring system
2. Variable conversion (transducer) element
Convert one physical form into another form without changing
the information content of the signal.
18
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
19. Generalized Measurement System
Elements of measuring system
3. Variable manipulation element
Modifies the signal by amplification, filtration or other means so that
desired output produced according to some mathematical rule for Ex. i/p x
constant = o/p
19
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
20. Generalized Measurement System
Elements of measuring system
4. Data transmission element
Transmits the signal from one location to
another without changing its information contents.
20
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
21. Generalized Measurement System
Elements of measuring system
5. Data processing element
the databefore it displayed or finally
modifies
recorded
• perform mathematical operation such as
addition subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.
• to calculate average, statistical and logarithmic values
• to convert data into desired form.
• to separate undesired signal from output signal.
• to provide correction on the output signal.
21
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
23. Generalized Measurement System
Elements of measuring system
6. Data presentation elements
Provides a record or indication of the output
(i)Transmitting information (measured quantity) to another
location or devices.
(ii)Signaling: To givea signal that the pre-defined value has
been reached.
(iii)Recording : To produce a continuous record of
measured quantity in written form.
(iv)Indicating : To indicate the specific value on calibrated
scale.
23
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
24. Performance characteristics
Important to select most suitable instrument for specific
measurement.
Static Performance characteristics:
• Desired input to the instrument not change w.r.t time.
Dynamic Performance characteristics:
24
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
25. Static Performance characteristics
• Readability: This term indicates the
closeness with which the scale of the
instrument may be read.
• Susceptibility of device to have its
indications converted into meaningful
number.
• Least count: It is the smallest difference
between two indications that can be
detected on the instrument scale.
25
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
26. Static Performance characteristics
• Range: It represents the highest possible value that can be measured
by an instrument or limits within which instrument is designed to
operate.
• Linearity: A measuring system is said to be linear if the output is
linearly proportional to the input.
26
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
27. Static Performance characteristics
• Repeatability: It is defined as the ability of a measuring system to
repeat output readings when the same input is applied to it
consecutively, under the same conditions, and in the same direction.
• Reproducibility: It is defined as the degree of closeness with which
the same value of a variable may be measured at different times.
• System response: Response of a system may be defined as the ability
of the system to transmit & present all the relevant information
contained in the input signal.
27
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
28. Static Performance characteristics
• Threshold: Min. value of i/p required to cause a detectable
change from ‘0(zero)’ o/p.
✔ If i/p increased gradually from ‘0(zero)’, there will be
some min. value below which no o/p change can be
detected.
28
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
29. Static Performance characteristics
Hysteresis:
✔ Hysteresis is the maximum
differences in two output (indicated
values) at same input (measurand)
value within the specified range
when input is continuously increased
from zero and when input is
continuously
for maximum
decrcased
value.
✔ Maximum
diff. between
increasing input value and the
decreasing input value at the same
output. 29
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
30. Static Performance characteristics
• Calibration: Procedure of making, adjusting
or checking a scale so that readings of an
instrument conforms to an accepted
standard.
• Sensitivity: Ratio of o/p response to a
specific range in i/p.
• Dead zone: Largest change of
i/p quantity for which instrument does not
indicate output.
30
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
31. Static Performance characteristics
Zonal Drift: Combination of both
Zero Drift:
calibration
whole
gradually
shifts due to slippage
• Drift: gradual variation or undesired change in o/p during constant i/p.
• Span: proportional change in the indication or change along the upward scale
31
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
32. Static Performance characteristics
Loading effect:
Any instrument, invariably extracts energy from system, the
original signal should remain undistorted. This is
incapability of system to faithfully measure signal in
undistorted form.
32
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
33. Static Performance characteristics
• Accuracy: It is degree to which the measured value agrees with
true value. Max. amount by which result differs from the true
value.
• Precision: It is repeatability or reproducibility of the
measurement. If instrument is not precise, great difference in
dimension measured again and again.
33
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
34. Measurement Errors
What is Error ?
• It is difference between indicated or measured value and true value.
• It is impossible to made measurement with perfect accuracy
34
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
36. Measurement Errors
Gross errors
• Human mistakes
• Careless readings, mistake in recordings,
• improper application of instrument
• Can not treated mathematically
• Can be avoided only by taking care in reading
and recording
36
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
37. Measurement Errors
Systematic error
• Have definite magnitude and direction.
• Can be repeated consistently with repetition of
experiments.
• To locate these errors: repeated measurements
under different conditions or with different
equipment or possible by an entirely different
methods.
37
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
38. Measurement Errors
Instrumental error
• Due to design or construction /assembly of instruments
• Limiting accuracy
• Improper selection of instrument
• Poor maintenance
• For Ex. Errors due to friction, wear, slips, vibration
• Errors due to incorrect fitting of scale at zero, non-uniform
division of scale, bent pointer.
38
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of
Mech. Engg.
39. Measurement Errors
Operational error
• Misuse of instrument
• Poor operational techniques
• For Ex. Errors in flow measurement if
flow- meter is placed immediately after a
valve or a bend.
39
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
40. Measurement Errors
Environmental errors
• due to conditions external to the measuring instrument, including
conditions in the area surrounding the instrument,
• such as effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric
pressure, or magnetic or electrostatic fields.
• For ex. Buoyant effect of the wind causes errors on precise
measurement of weights by pan balance.
40
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
41. Measurement Errors
Environmental errors
• These errors may be avoided by
• (i) Use instrument under conditions for which it was design and calibrated.
This atmospheric condition can be maintain by air conditioning.
• (ii) Provide sealing certain components in the instrument.
• (iiii) Make calibration of instrument under the local atmospheric conditions
41
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
42. Measurement Errors
System interaction errors
• Interaction between system (to be measured) and instrument body.
So it change the condition of the system.
• For Ex. A ruler pressed against a body (system) resulting the
deformation of the body.
42
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
43. Measurement Errors
Observation errors :
Due to poor capabilities and carelessness of operators.
• i. Parallax : These errors may arise when the pointer and scale not
in same plane or line of vision of observer is not normal to the
scale.
43
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
44. Measurement Errors
Observation errors :
• Due to poor capabilities and carelessness of operators.
2. Personal bias: Observer tendency to read high or low, anticipate a signal and
read too
3. Wrong reading, wrong calculations, wrong recording data, etc.
44
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
45. Measurement Errors
Random Error
• Accidental in their incidence
Variable in magnitude and usually follow a certain statistical
(probability) law.
• Friction and stickiness in instrument
• Vibration in instrument frame or supports
• Elastic deformation
• Large dimensional tolerances between the mating parts.
• Supply power fluctuations
• Backlash in the movement.
45
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
46. ASSIGNMENT 1
Q 1. What is Metrology ? Explain its need and objectives.
Q 2. Explain the modes of measurement.
Q 3. Explain the methods of measurement.
Q 4. Depict by a line diagram generalized measurement
system.
Q 5. Explain the elements of measurement system in detail.
Q 6. Explain performance charactristics.
Q 7. Explain measurement errors.
By: Mudit M. Saxena, Dept. of Mech. Engg.
46