Metrology is the science of measurement. It has three main tasks: defining measurement units, realizing measurement units through scientific methods, and establishing traceability in documenting measurement accuracy. Metrology is essential in scientific research and various industries. It covers establishing standards, developing measurement methods, analyzing errors, and ensuring instrument accuracy. Metrology helps plan lives and enable commercial exchanges with confidence as measurements can be seen everywhere.

1. CONCEPTS OF
MEASUREMENTS
g.gOPINATH

2. WHAT IS METROLOGY
SCIENCE OF MEASUREMENTS
Everything
has to do with
measurement
Designing
Conducting
Analyzing
Results
Experiment
or test
within the Metrology realm
Allowing people to
plan their lives
and make
commercial
exchange with
confidence
CAN BE SEEN
EVERYWHERE

3. METROLOGY
 Metrology Covers Three Main Tasks:
 The definition of internationally accepted units of
measurement
 The realization of units of measurement by scientific
method
 Establishment of traceability chain in documenting the
accuracy of a measurement
“Metrology is essential in scientific research”

4. Meaning of Metrology
• Metrology is the science of measurement.
• Metrology may be divided depending upon the quantity
to be measured like metrology of length, metrology of
time.
• But for engineering purposes, it is restricted to
measurement of length and angles and other qualities
which are expressed in linear or angular terms.
• In the broader sense it is not limited to length
measurement but is also concerned with industrial
inspection and its various techniques.

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• Metrology is mainly concerned with:
(1) Establishing the units of measurements, ensuring
the uniformity of measurements.
(2) Developing methods of measurement.
(3) Errors of measurement.
(4) Accuracy of measuring instruments and their care.
(5) Industrial inspection and its various techniques.

6. • In design, design engineer should not only
check his design from the point of view of the
strength or economical production, but he
should also keep in mind how the dimensions
specified can be checked or measured.
• Higher productivity and accuracy can be
achieved by properly understood, introduced the
Metrology.
• You can improve the measuring accuracy and
dimensional and geometrical accuracies of the
product.
Necessity and importance of MetrologyNecessity and importance of Metrology

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• Proper gauges should be designed and used for
rapid and effective inspection.
• Also automation and automatic control, which
are the modern trends for future developments,
are based on measurement. Digital instruments
also we can used for inspection.

8. CATEGORIES OF METROLOGY
 Scientific Metrology – Development of measurement
standards
 Industrial Metrology – To ensure the adequate functioning
of measurement instruments used in
industry, production & testing
laboratories
 Legal Metrology or
Weights & Measures – Accuracy of measurement where
these have influence on the
transparency of economic
transactions, health & safety

9. AREAS OF INDUSTRIAL METROLOGY
 Mechanical Metrology – Realises , maintains and
disseminates the national measurement standards in the
areas of Mass, Volume, Pressure and Dimension
 Electrical Metrology –– Realises , maintains and
disseminates the national measurement standards in the
areas of AC/DC, low frequency, time & frequency and
temperature

10. 10
Units of Measurement
SI Units published by BIPM(Bureau of Weights and Measures)
Base Units…
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

11. Mechanical Measurements
• Act of measurement—the quantitative
comparison between a predefined
standard and a measurand to produce
a measured result
• Measurand : physical parameter or
variable to be measured
• Standard: basis for comparison of
quantitative value to measurand.

12. Standards organizations
• SASO— Saudi Arabian Standards
organization
• ISO—International Organization for
Standardization
• Others—ASME, NFPA, ASTM, etc.

13. Objectives of Metrology:
• The basic objective of a measurement is to
provide the required accuracy at a minimum
cost.
1.1. Complete evaluationComplete evaluation of newly developed
products.
2. Determination of Process CapabilitiesProcess Capabilities.
3. Determination of the measuring instrumentinstrument
capabilitiescapabilities and ensure that they are quite
sufficient for their respective measurements.
4. Minimising the cost of inspectioncost of inspection by effective
and efficient use of available facilities.

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5. Reducing the cost of rejectscost of rejects and rework
through application of statistical quality control
techniques.
6.6. To standardiseTo standardise the measuring methods.
7. To maintainmaintain the accuraciesthe accuracies of measurement.
8. To prepare designprepare design for all gauges and special
inspection fixtures.

15. Fundamentals Methods of
Measurements
There are two basic methods of measurement:
• Direct comparison: with a primary or
secondary standard
• Indirect comparison—conversion of
measurand input into an analogous form
which can be processed and presented as
known function of input
- A transducer is required to convert the
measurand into another form

16. Measuring system:
 A measuring system is made of five elements:
These are:
(1) Standard
(2) Work piece
(3) Instrument
(4) Person
(5) Environment
- The most basic element of measurement is a standard without
which no measurement is possible.
- Once the standard is chosen select a work piece on which
measurement will be performed.
- Then select a instrument with the help of which measurement will be
done.
- The measurement should be performed under standard
environment.
- And lastly there must be some person or mechanism to carry out
the measurement.

17. Generalized measuring
system
Number of measuring instrument used in
practice.
1) Primary sensing element
2) Variable conversion element
3) Variable manipulation
4) Data transmission element
5) Data processing element
6) Data presentation element

18. Generalized Measurement
System

19. Generalized Measuring System
• Sensor or transducer stage to detect
measurand and Convert input to a form
suitable for processing e.g. :
- Temp. to voltage - Force to distance
• Signal conditioning stage to modify the
transduced signal e.g. :
Amplification, Attenuation, Filtering, Encoding
• Terminating readout stage to present desired
output (Analog or Digital form)

20. Primary sensing element:
• Receives energy from the measured
medium and o/p corr to measurand.
• O/p –Analogous electrical signal by
transducer.
Variable conversion element:
• O/p elect signal volt, freq - more suitable
form
Variable manipulation:
• Manipulate the signal and preserving
original nature. Amplifies I/p signal

21. Data transmission element:
• Transmits the data from one element to
the other.
Data processing element:
• Modify the data before displayed or finally
recorded.
• Separate signal hidden in noise, provide
correction.

22. Data presentation element:
• Communicate the information of
measured variable to a human observer
for monitoring, control or analysis purpose.
Ex; analog indicator, digital, recorder.

23. Measurement system of a filled thermal
system

24. Measurement system of a filled thermal
system

25. Measurement system
• Filled thermal system-process
temperature measurement.
• Primary sensing element & variable
conversion element-liquid or gas filled
temp bulb-sense I/p and convert it in to
pressure.
• Data transmission element: Pr is
transmitted thro the capillary tube.

26. • Variable conversion element: spiral
bourdon type pressure gauge.P-L
• Variable manipulation element: linkage
and gearing arrangement.
• Data presentation element- pointer and
scale

27. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
• A broad classification of the instruments
based on the application mode of
operation, manner of energy conversion
and the nature of energy conversion and
the nature of output signal is given,

28. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
1. Deflection and null type instruments
2. Analog and digital instruments
3. Active and passive instruments
4.Automatic and manually operated
instruments
5.Contacting and non contacting
instruments
6. Absolute and secondary instruments
7. Intelligent instruments.

29. Deflection and null type instruments

30. Active and passive instruments

31. Pressure Gauge

32. Automatic operated instrument - example

33. Absolute instrument

34. Contacting and non contacting instruments
• Examples
• Contact type – Thermometer
• Non contact type – Optical pyrometer

35. A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that
intercepts and measures thermal radiation, a
process known as pyrometry. This device can
be used to determine the temperature of an
object's surface.

37. Intelligent instruments

38. sensitivity
 One of the qualities of measuring instruments is
their sensitivity. A measuring instrument is more
sensitive the smaller the quantity that it is able to
measure.
 Sensitivity -- a measure of the smallest signal the
instrument can measure. Usually, this is defined at the
lowest range setting of the instrument.
 For example, an AC meter with a lowest measurement
range of 10 V may be able to measure signals with 1 mV
resolution but the smallest detectable voltage it can
measure may be 15 mV. In this case, the AC meter has
a resolution of 1 mV but a sensitivity of 15 mV.

39. Accuracy:
• Accuracy is defined as the closeness of the
measured value with true value.
OR
• Accuracy is defined as the degree to which the
measured value agrees with the true value.
• Practically it is very difficult to measure the true
value and therefore a set of observations is
made whose mean value is taken as the true
value of the quantity measured.

40. Precision:
• A measure of how close repeated trials are to each
other.
OR
• The closeness of repeated measurements.
• Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process. It
refers to the group of measurements for the same
characteristics taken under identical conditions.
• It indicated to what extent the identically performed
measurements agree with each other.
• If the instrument is not precise it will give different results
for the same dimension when measured again and
again.

41. Distinction between Precision and
Accuracy

42. • Figure shows the difference between the concepts of
accuracy versus precision using a dartboard analogy that
shows four different scenarios that contrast the two terms.
• A: Three darts hit the target center and are very close
together = high accuracy and precision
• B: Three darts hit the target center but are not very close
together = high accuracy, low precision
• C: Three darts do not hit the target center but are very
close together = low accuracy, high precision
• D: Three darts do not hit the target center and are not
close together = low accuracy and precision

43. Factors affecting the accuracy of
the measuring system:
• The basic components of an accuracy evolution
are the five elements of a measuring system
such as:
1. Factors affecting the calibration
standards.
2. Factors affecting the work piece.
3. Factors affecting the inherent
characteristics of the instrument.
4. Factors affecting the person, who carries out
the measurements.
5. Factors affecting the environment.

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1. Factors affecting the standard. It may be affecting by:
- Coefficient of thermal expansion,
- calibration internal
- stability with time
- elastic properties
- geometric compatibility
2. Factors affecting the work piece, these are
- cleanliness, surface finish, surface defects etc.
- elastic properties
- hidden properties
- arrangement of supporting workpiece.

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3 .Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of
instrument.
- Scale error
- effect of friction, hysteresis, zero drift
- calibration errors
- repeatability and readability
- constant geometry for both workpiece and
standard
4. Factors affecting person:
- training skill
- ability to select the measuring instruments and
standard
- attitude towards personal accuracy achievements
- sense of precision appreciation

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5. Factors affecting environment:
- temperature, humidity etc.
- clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance
precision
- temperature equalization between standard, workpiece
and instrument,
- thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from
lights, heating elements, sunlight and people.
The above analysis of five basic metrology elements can
be composed into the acronym.
SWIPE for convenient reference
Where, S- standard
W- Workpiece
I- Instrument
P- Person
E- Environment

47. Sensitivity:
• Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of
displacement of the indicating device of an
instrument, with respect to the measured
quantity.
• Sensitivity of thermometer means that it is
the length of increase of the liquid per
degree rise in temperature. More sensitive
means more noticeable expansion.

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• In other words, sensitivity of an instrument
is the ratio of scale spacing to the scale
division value. For example, if on a dial
indicator, the scale spacing is 1 mm and
the scale division value is 0.01 mm then
sensitivity is 100. It is also called as
amplification factor or gearing ratio.

49. Readability:
• Readability refers to the ease with which
the readings of a measuring instrument
can be read.
• Fine and widely spaced graduation lines
improve the readability.
• To make the micrometers more readable
they are provided with venier scale or
magnifying devices.

50. Calibration:
• The calibration of any measuring
instrument is necessary to measure the
quantity in terms of standard unit.
• It is carried out by making adjustments
such that the read out device produces
zero output for zero input.

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• The process whereby the magnitude of
the output of a measuring instrument is
related to the magnitude of the input force
driving the instrument (i.e. Adjusting a
weight scale to zero when there is nothing
on it).
• The accuracy of the instrument depends
on the calibration.
• If the output of the measuring instrument
is linear and repeatable, it can be easily

52. Magnification:
• Magnification is the process of enlarging
something only in appearance, not in
physical size so that it is more readable.
(The stamp appears larger with the use of a magnifying
glass.)

53. Repeatability:
• It is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the
same results for the measurements for the same
quantity, when the measurements are carried out
- by the same observer,
- with the same instrument,
- under the same conditions,
- without any change in location,
- without change in the method of measurement,
- the measurements are carried out in short intervals of
time.
• It may be expressed in terms of dispersion of the results.

54. Reproducibility:
• Reproducibility is the closeness of the
agreement between the results of
measurements of the same quantity, when
individual measurements are carried out:
- by different observers,
- by different methods,
- using different instruments,
- under different conditions, locations, times etc.
• It may be expressed in terms of the dispersion of
the results.

55. Backlash:
• In Mechanical Engineering, backlash, is
clearance between mating components,
sometimes described as the amount of
lost motion due to clearance or slackness
when movement is reversed and contact
is re-established.

56. Hysteresis:
• It is the difference between the indications
of a measuring instrument when the same
value of measured quantity is reached by
increasing or decreasing that quantity.
• It is caused by friction, slack motion in the
bearings and gears, elastic deformation,
magnetic and thermal effects.

57. Drift:
• It is an undesirable gradual deviation of the
instrument output over a period of time that is
unrelated to changes in input operating
conditions or load.
• An instrument is said to have no drift if is
reproduces the same readings at different times
for same variation in measured quantity.
• It is caused by wear and tear, high stress
developed at some parts etc.

58. Threshold:
• The min. value below which no output
change can be detected when the input of
an instrument is increased gradually from
zero is called the threshold of the
instrument.
• Threshold may be caused by backlash.

59. Resolution:
• When the input is slowly increased from some
non-zero value, it is observed that the output
does not change at all until a certain increment
is exceeded; this increment is called resolution.
• It is the min. change in measured variable which
produces an effective response of the
instrument.
• It may be expressed in units of measured
variable

60. Dead zone and Dead Time:
Dead Zone:
• The largest change of input quantity for which
there is no change of output of the instrument is
termed as dead zone.
• It may occur due to friction in the instrument
which does not allow the pointer to move till
sufficient driving force is developed to overcome
the friction loss.
• Dead zone caused by backlash and hysteresis
in the instrument.

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Dead Time:
• The time required by a measurement
system to begin to respond to a change in
the measurand is termed as dead time.
• It represents the time before the
instrument begins to respond after the
measured quantity has been changed.

62. Errors in measurements:
• It is never possible to measure the true
value of a dimension, there is always
some error.
• The error in the measurement is the
difference between the measured value
and the true value of measured
dimensions.
• The error in measurement may be
expressed either as on absolute error or
as a relative error.

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Absolute error:
- True absolute error: It is the algebraic
difference between the result of
measurement and the conventional true
value of the quantity.
- Apparent absolute error: If the series of
measurement are made then the algebraic
difference between one of the results of
measurement and the arithmetical mean
is known as apparent absolute error.

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Relative error:
- It is the quotient of absolute error and the
true value or the arithmetical mean for
series of measurement.

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• Types of errors:
During measurement several types of error may
arise, these are:
1. Static errors which includes:
(a) Reading errors
(b) Characteristic errors
(c) Environmental errors
2. Instrumental loading errors.
3. Dynamic errors.

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1.Static errors:
- These errors result from the physical
nature of various components of
measuring system. There are three basic
sources of static errors:
(a) Reading errors:
- These errors occur due to carelessness
of operators. These do not have any direct
relationship with other types of errors
within the measuring system.

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Reading errors include:
 Parallax error:
parallax errors arise on account of pointer and
scale not being in same plane, we can eliminate
this error by having the pointer and scale in
same plane.
 Wrong scale reading and wrong recording of
data.
 Inaccurate estimates of average reading.
 Incorrect conversion of units in calculations.

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(b) Characteristics error:
 It is defined as the deviation of the
output of the measuring system from the
theoretical predicated performance or
from nominal performance specifications.
Linearity errors, repeatability, hysteresis
are the characteristics errors if theoretical
output is straight line. Calibration error is
also included in characteristics error.

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(c) Environmental errors:
 These error result from the effect of
surrounding such as temperature,
pressure, humidity etc. on measuring
system.
It can be reduced by controlling the
atmosphere according to the specific
requirement.

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2. Instrument loading error:
 Loading errors results from the change in
measurand itself when being measured.
 Instrument loading error is the difference
between the value of measurand before and
after the measurement.
 For example a soft or ductile component is
subjected to deformation during measurement
due to the contact pressure of the instrument
and cause a loading error. The effect of this
error is unavoidable.

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3. Dynamic errors:
Dynamic error, also called measurement
error, is the difference between the true
value of measuring quantity and value
indicated by measurement system if no
static error is assumed.
These errors can be broadly classified as:

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(a) Systematic or controllable errors:
- These errors are controllable in both their
magnitude and stress. These can also be
determined and reduced. These are due to:
(1) Calibrations errors:
- The actual length of standards such as
scales will vary from nominal value by small
amount. This will cause an error in
measurement of constant magnitude.

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(2) Atmospheric error:
- Variation in atmospheric condition (i.e
temperature, pressure and moisture
content) at the place of measurement from
that of internationally agreed standard
values (20’ temp. and 760 mm of Hg
pressure) can give rise to error in
measurand size of the component.

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(3) Stylus pressure:
- Another common source of error is the
pressure with which the workpiece is pressed
while measuring. Though the pressure involved
is generally small but this is sufficient enough to
cause appreciable deformation of both the stylus
and the workpiece.
-Variations in force applied by the anvils of
micrometer on the work to be measured results
in the difference in its readings. In this case error
is caused by the distortion of both micrometer
frame and workpiece.

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(4) Avoidable errors:
- These errors may occur due to parallax,
non alignment of workpiece centers,
improper location of measuring
instruments such as a thermometer in
sunlight while measuring temperature.

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(b) Random errors:
- The random errors occur randomly and the
specific causes of such errors cannot be
determined. The likely sources of this type of
error are:
• Small variations in the position of setting standard
and workpiece.
• Slight displacement of lever joints in the measuring
instrument.
• Friction in measuring system.
• Operator errors in reading scale.

77. Difference between Systematic and
Random errors:
Systematic error
- These errors are
repetitive in nature
and are of constant &
similar form.
- These errors result
from improper
conditions.
Random error
- These are non
consistent. The
sources giving rise to
such errors are
random.
- Such errors are
inherent in the
measuring system.

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- Expect personal
errors all other
systematic errors can
be controlled in
magnitude and sense.
- If properly analyzed
these can be
determined and
reduced or
eliminated.
- Specific causes,
magnitudes and
sense of these errors
cannot be determined
from the knowledge of
measuring system.
- These errors cannot
be eliminated, but the
results obtained can
be corrected.

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- These errors includes
calibration errors,
variation in atmosphere,
pressure, misalignment
error etc.
- These errors includes
Small variations in the
position of setting
standard and workpiece,
Slight displacement of
lever joints in the
measuring instrument,
Friction in measuring
system, Operator errors
in reading scale.

80. Calibration
• Calibration involves the determination of the
relationship between the input and output of
a measurement system
• Eliminate Bias error
• The proving of a measurement system’s
capability to quantify the input accurately
• Calibration is accomplished by applying
known magnitudes of the input and
observing the measurement system output
• The indirect measuring system must be
calibrated.

81. CALIBRATION
• Once a measurement device is selected, it must
be calibrated
– Calibration –Comparison of instrument’s reading to a
calibration standard
– Calibration standard created from a measurement
• Inherent error
• Basic issue is how do we know that what we
record has any relation to what we wish to
measure?

82. Calibration using Primary
or/and Secondary Standards
• Known input signal and find the output.
- To establish the correct output scale.
- To find instrument reliability.
- To eliminate bias error (systematic error)
• For linear relation o/p ∝ I/p needs single
point calibration.
• For non-linear relation needs multi-point
calibrations.
• Static calibration – vs – Dynamic calibration

83. Primary Standards For
Comparison and Calibration
• SI System: Meter – Kg -- Sec.– Kelvin – volt -
Mole – Ampere – Radian
• LENGTH (meter): Distance traveled by light
in vacuum during 1/299792458 of a sec.
• MASS (Kg.): International prototype (alloy of
platinum and iridium) kept near Paris.
• TIME (Sec.): Duration of 9192631770 periods of
the radiation emitted between two excitation
levels of Cesium-133
• TEMPERATURE (Kelvin): K = o
C + 273

84. Dimensional Analysis
• Data presented in dimensionless form.
• Reducing No
of experimental variables.
No
of variables - No
of dims.= No
of π groups
• Use pi method or by inspection
• Basic dimensions: M L T θ(kg,m,sec,o
k)
• Saving(time&$)(10 tests –vs- 104
tests for F= fn
(L,V,ρ, μ ))
Force coef. F/ρv2
L2
= fn
(Reynolds numberρvL/μ)
• Helping in exp. Planning, insight, and similitude.

85. Uncertainty of Measurements
• Measurement error = Measured result - True
value
• The true value of a measurand is Unknown
( Error is unknown )
• The potential value of error can be estimated
(uncertainty)
• Two types of error:
- Systematic errors (bias) and Random errors
( Statistics to estimate random errors)