The document provides an overview of Mendel's laws of inheritance based on his experiments with garden peas. It defines key genetics terminology and describes Mendel's monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. His experiments demonstrated that traits are inherited as discrete units (genes) and that genes assort independently during gamete formation. The document also discusses exceptions to Mendel's laws, including codominance, incomplete dominance, and multiple alleles. Finally, it introduces the concept of genetic mapping using recombination frequencies.
The document summarizes the human life cycle and cell division processes. It discusses that the life cycle begins with a haploid sperm and egg fusing during fertilization to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes mitosis to develop into a multicellular organism. Meiosis occurs during gamete formation to produce haploid cells. Fertilization and meiosis alternate in the human life cycle to maintain the normal chromosome number between generations.
This document summarizes a presentation on cell-to-cell variability in gene expression. It discusses three main points: 1) Gene expression can vary significantly between genetically identical cells due to stochastic fluctuations in transcription and translation. 2) Variability in gene expression can be controlled and exploited through positive feedback loops and transcriptional bursting. 3) Variability at the single cell level generates phenotypic diversity at the population level that can impact processes like microbial virulence. The presentation examines variability through experiments on yeast adhesin genes and proposes experiments to further study the role of gene expression variability.
Agrobacterium and plant viruses can be used as biological vectors for plant transformation. Agrobacterium mediates transformation via its tumor-inducing plasmid, using virulence genes to transfer T-DNA containing the gene of interest into the plant genome. Plant viruses can also act as gene vectors by engineering viral genomes to contain and deliver foreign genes. Retroviruses have been developed as viral vectors for animal gene transfer due to their ability to stably integrate into the host chromosome.
Horizontal gene transfer with gene mappingSalman Khan
This document discusses horizontal gene transfer and gene mapping in prokaryotes. It begins by defining horizontal gene transfer as the movement of genetic information between independent organisms, as opposed to vertical gene transfer between parents and offspring. The three main types of horizontal gene transfer in prokaryotes are transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Gene mapping can be performed using these horizontal gene transfer mechanisms to determine the relative locations of genes on the bacterial chromosome.
The helper plasmid was not transferred into the recipient strain. It remained in the donor strain and served to mobilize the desired donor plasmid (encoded GFP and TetR) into the recipient strain in a triparental mating.
Bacterial heredity and variation can occur through several mechanisms. Genetic variation arises from mutations in bacterial chromosomes and genetic elements like plasmids, bacteriophages, and transposable elements. Gene transfer and recombination can also introduce variation as bacteria can undergo transformation, conjugation, and transduction to exchange genetic material. This allows bacteria to evolve new traits like antibiotic resistance or changes in virulence over multiple generations.
1. There are three main types of gene transfer between bacteria: conjugation, transformation, and transduction.
2. Conjugation involves the direct transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells via cell-to-cell contact through a conjugation tube or pilus. Transformation occurs through the uptake of naked DNA from the environment. Transduction is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another via bacteriophages.
3. The mechanisms of conjugation, transformation, and transduction are described, including the roles of F factors, Hfr strains, competence factors, and specialized vs. generalized transduction. Key experiments in the discovery of these processes are also summarized.
1) The document provides an overview of DNA structure and function. It describes DNA as the genetic material that carries hereditary information from one generation to the next in the form of genes.
2) The key experiments that proved DNA is the genetic material are described, including Griffith's transformation experiment, Avery's work showing the transforming principle is DNA, and Hershey and Chase's experiment using radioactive labeling of DNA and proteins in bacteriophages.
3) Watson and Crick are credited with discovering the double helix structure of DNA in 1953 based on Chargaff's rules of base pairing and X-ray crystallography data. Their model explained DNA's ability to self-replicate semiconserv
The document summarizes the human life cycle and cell division processes. It discusses that the life cycle begins with a haploid sperm and egg fusing during fertilization to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes mitosis to develop into a multicellular organism. Meiosis occurs during gamete formation to produce haploid cells. Fertilization and meiosis alternate in the human life cycle to maintain the normal chromosome number between generations.
This document summarizes a presentation on cell-to-cell variability in gene expression. It discusses three main points: 1) Gene expression can vary significantly between genetically identical cells due to stochastic fluctuations in transcription and translation. 2) Variability in gene expression can be controlled and exploited through positive feedback loops and transcriptional bursting. 3) Variability at the single cell level generates phenotypic diversity at the population level that can impact processes like microbial virulence. The presentation examines variability through experiments on yeast adhesin genes and proposes experiments to further study the role of gene expression variability.
Agrobacterium and plant viruses can be used as biological vectors for plant transformation. Agrobacterium mediates transformation via its tumor-inducing plasmid, using virulence genes to transfer T-DNA containing the gene of interest into the plant genome. Plant viruses can also act as gene vectors by engineering viral genomes to contain and deliver foreign genes. Retroviruses have been developed as viral vectors for animal gene transfer due to their ability to stably integrate into the host chromosome.
Horizontal gene transfer with gene mappingSalman Khan
This document discusses horizontal gene transfer and gene mapping in prokaryotes. It begins by defining horizontal gene transfer as the movement of genetic information between independent organisms, as opposed to vertical gene transfer between parents and offspring. The three main types of horizontal gene transfer in prokaryotes are transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Gene mapping can be performed using these horizontal gene transfer mechanisms to determine the relative locations of genes on the bacterial chromosome.
The helper plasmid was not transferred into the recipient strain. It remained in the donor strain and served to mobilize the desired donor plasmid (encoded GFP and TetR) into the recipient strain in a triparental mating.
Bacterial heredity and variation can occur through several mechanisms. Genetic variation arises from mutations in bacterial chromosomes and genetic elements like plasmids, bacteriophages, and transposable elements. Gene transfer and recombination can also introduce variation as bacteria can undergo transformation, conjugation, and transduction to exchange genetic material. This allows bacteria to evolve new traits like antibiotic resistance or changes in virulence over multiple generations.
1. There are three main types of gene transfer between bacteria: conjugation, transformation, and transduction.
2. Conjugation involves the direct transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells via cell-to-cell contact through a conjugation tube or pilus. Transformation occurs through the uptake of naked DNA from the environment. Transduction is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another via bacteriophages.
3. The mechanisms of conjugation, transformation, and transduction are described, including the roles of F factors, Hfr strains, competence factors, and specialized vs. generalized transduction. Key experiments in the discovery of these processes are also summarized.
1) The document provides an overview of DNA structure and function. It describes DNA as the genetic material that carries hereditary information from one generation to the next in the form of genes.
2) The key experiments that proved DNA is the genetic material are described, including Griffith's transformation experiment, Avery's work showing the transforming principle is DNA, and Hershey and Chase's experiment using radioactive labeling of DNA and proteins in bacteriophages.
3) Watson and Crick are credited with discovering the double helix structure of DNA in 1953 based on Chargaff's rules of base pairing and X-ray crystallography data. Their model explained DNA's ability to self-replicate semiconserv
This document discusses the genetic material in microbes. It begins by covering how Gierer and Schramm discovered that tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) contains RNA as its genetic material after isolating RNA from TMV and showing it was sufficient to infect tobacco plants. It then discusses the properties DNA must have to serve as a genetic material, including being present in all cells, able to store and transmit information stably, replicate accurately, and direct cell functions. The document concludes by covering the chemical stability of DNA, which depends on hydrogen bonding between bases and interactions between the hydrophobic bases that stack inside the helix.
Genetic engineering involves direct manipulation of an organism's DNA. It has applications in medicine, agriculture, pollution control and more. Key techniques include isolating genes, manipulating DNA through cloning and PCR, and reintroducing DNA into organisms. This allows transferring genes between species to produce transgenic plants and animals with desired traits. While it promises medical benefits, ethical issues around patenting life and unintended consequences require consideration.
- Griffith's experiment showed that a non-pathogenic strain of bacteria could be transformed into a pathogenic strain after exposure to heat-killed pathogenic bacteria. This indicated the presence of a "transforming principle" that could alter the bacteria's genetic properties.
- Later experiments by Avery, MacLeod and McCarty identified DNA as the molecule responsible for bacterial transformation. They showed that DNA is the genetic material that is able to transform one type of bacteria into another through uptake and incorporation of foreign DNA.
- Transformation, transduction, and conjugation are mechanisms by which prokaryotes can transfer genetic material between each other. Transformation involves taking up free DNA from the environment, while conjugation involves direct transfer of DNA through
This document provides an overview of genetic engineering and its applications to microorganisms. It defines genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. The key steps involved are isolating the gene of interest, inserting it into a vector, introducing the vector into a host cell, and harvesting the gene product from the clone. Common hosts used are bacteria, yeast, plant and animal cells. The document also discusses some tools used in genetic engineering like restriction enzymes and DNA ligase. It outlines several applications of genetic engineering in medicine, research, agriculture and industry. It concludes by noting some ethical and safety concerns regarding genetically modified organisms.
Bacterial genetics /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental acad...Indian dental academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy provides dental crown & Bridge,rotary endodontics,fixed orthodontics,
Dental implants courses.for details pls visit www.indiandentalacademy.com ,or call
0091-9248678078
This document provides an overview of bacterial genetics and gene transfer. It discusses how genetics guide life through generations and how the discovery of DNA structure by Watson and Crick began the field of bacterial genetics. The key methods of gene transfer between bacteria are conjugation, transduction, and transformation. Conjugation involves direct transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to another via cell contact and pili. Transduction occurs through bacteriophages transferring DNA between cells. Transformation is when naked DNA is taken up from the environment. Bacterial genetics follows the same principles as other organisms, with DNA carrying genetic information that is passed down.
Introduction to Genetic Material, Physical and Chemical properties of the same and various types of coiling mechanisms as well as information about chromosomal and extra-chromosomal DNA.
Genetics of Microorganisms. Forms of variation in microbes : Non-heredity and...Eneutron
1. The document discusses genetic variation in microorganisms, including both heritable and non-heritable forms. Non-heritable variation includes modifications to morphology, culture properties, and enzyme functions in response to environmental conditions.
2. Heritable variation occurs through mutations, which are stable changes to the microbe's genes, and recombinations like transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Mutations can involve changes to a single DNA base pair or larger duplications and deletions.
3. Important genetic elements in microbes include plasmids, which can confer new functions, and transposons, which can move genetic material within and between genomes. Gene engineering and biotechnology make use of the genetic properties
What are an expression vector? Detailed description of plant gene structure. Plant expression vector systems are generally consists of Ri and Ti plasmids.
The other vectors which are generally used are DNA and RNA viruses.
The document discusses research into controlling inflammatory and immune responses through proteins like STAT 3 and GR. It also discusses the potential medical applications of studying the genetics of sea urchins, which share over 7,000 genes with humans. Researchers hope to better understand transcription factors and how genetic expression is regulated in order to develop new treatments for diseases. Studying other species like sea urchins and sponges that can return cells to a stem cell state may also provide insights into how humans can fight diseases through genetic manipulation and therapy.
Restriction enzymes are endonucleases that cut DNA at specific recognition sequences. They break the covalent phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides within a DNA strand and the hydrogen bonds between the strands. Originally found in bacteria as a defense mechanism, over 3000 restriction enzymes are now known and commercially available. They are important tools for molecular biologists as they create "sticky ends" or overhangs on DNA fragments that allow them to be recombined through annealing of complementary sequences.
On the basis of need of specific content of any topic, i prepared a slides of plasmid for needy students. I'm also a student that's why i know how useful a proper presentation for us.
In this presentation, i try to cover some basic knowledge regarding to plasmid. If you like this ppt than please let me know, it gives me a motivation. If you need other topics ppt then write a topic name on comment section. THANK YOU
1. Griffith's experiments in 1928 showed that heat-killed type IIIS bacteria could transform live type IIR bacteria into the virulent type IIIS strain.
2. Avery, Macleod and McCarty repeated Griffith's experiments in 1944 using purified extracts and found that DNA is the transforming agent.
3. Hershey and Chase provided further evidence in 1952 using radioactive labeling to track the entry of bacteriophage components into infected bacteria, showing that DNA rather than protein enters bacterial cells during infection.
Antigen variation is common in protozoan parasites to evade the host immune system. Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that causes malaria, utilizes antigen variation through expression of different var genes encoding PfEMP1 proteins on the surface of infected red blood cells. Only one var gene is expressed at a time through epigenetic and nuclear architectural mechanisms to ensure low and coordinated switching of antigens and avoid immune clearance. PfEMP1 promotes adhesion of infected cells, causing microvascular obstruction and malaria pathogenesis.
Restriction Endonuclease: The Molecular Scissor of DNA - By RIKI NATHRIKI NATH
restriction enducleases are called the molecular scissors of DNA. types of restriction enzymes, their structures, subunits, most importantly the use of Type II restriction endonuclease in recombinant technology, mechanism of enzyme action and their applications.
This document summarizes a lecture on bacterial genetics and genetic variation. It discusses how bacteria can inherit genetic changes vertically through mutations during cell division, as well as horizontally through transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Horizontal gene transfer allows genes like those conferring antibiotic resistance or virulence factors to spread between bacteria. Mutation rates are low but significant given bacterial rapid growth. Insertion sequences and transposons are key drivers of major DNA rearrangements, with consequences like inactivating genes or altering gene expression. This genetic variability in bacteria has important implications for the evolution of pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance.
This document summarizes key information about bacterial genomes and genetic elements:
- Bacterial genomes vary in size and can contain one or more replicons like chromosomes and plasmids. Most bacteria have a single circular chromosome but some have linear or multiple chromosomes.
- Plasmids are extra-chromosomal DNA that can replicate independently. They often contain genes for functions like antibiotic resistance and virulence. Conjugative plasmids can transfer between bacteria.
- Other mobile genetic elements like transposons and integrons can move resistance genes between replicons. Site-specific recombination and horizontal gene transfer through transformation, transduction, and conjugation allow for genetic exchange between bacteria.
Bacterial genetics- gene mapping by recombinationGurvinder Kaur
Bacterial genomes contain a single circular chromosome as well as smaller circular plasmids. Genetic recombination in bacteria can occur through conjugation, transformation, or transduction. Conjugation involves the direct transfer of DNA from a donor to recipient bacterium through cell contact and formation of a cytoplasmic bridge. Lederberg and Tatum's experiments provided early evidence of genetic recombination in bacteria by showing that auxotrophic bacterial strains could exchange genes to become prototrophic.
This document summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of genetics. It describes how Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants examining seven different traits. He found that traits were passed to offspring in predictable ratios, either appearing dominant or recessive. His work established the laws of inheritance including dominance, segregation and independent assortment. The document provides examples of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses and explains how Mendel's findings laid the foundation of classical genetics.
The document defines key genetics vocabulary terms like genes, alleles, dominant, recessive, genotype and phenotype. It summarizes Gregor Mendel's pioneering experiments with pea plants, including his discovery that traits are inherited as discrete units (genes) and that some genes are dominant over others. It provides examples of applying genetics concepts like Punnett squares to predict offspring from crosses between parents with different traits.
The document defines key genetics vocabulary terms like genes, alleles, dominant, recessive, genotype, phenotype. It summarizes Mendel's experiments crossing pea plants with different traits like height. His results showed traits are inherited as discrete units (genes) and that some genes are dominant over others. The document provides examples of applying genetics concepts like Punnett squares to determine offspring probabilities from crosses.
This document discusses the genetic material in microbes. It begins by covering how Gierer and Schramm discovered that tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) contains RNA as its genetic material after isolating RNA from TMV and showing it was sufficient to infect tobacco plants. It then discusses the properties DNA must have to serve as a genetic material, including being present in all cells, able to store and transmit information stably, replicate accurately, and direct cell functions. The document concludes by covering the chemical stability of DNA, which depends on hydrogen bonding between bases and interactions between the hydrophobic bases that stack inside the helix.
Genetic engineering involves direct manipulation of an organism's DNA. It has applications in medicine, agriculture, pollution control and more. Key techniques include isolating genes, manipulating DNA through cloning and PCR, and reintroducing DNA into organisms. This allows transferring genes between species to produce transgenic plants and animals with desired traits. While it promises medical benefits, ethical issues around patenting life and unintended consequences require consideration.
- Griffith's experiment showed that a non-pathogenic strain of bacteria could be transformed into a pathogenic strain after exposure to heat-killed pathogenic bacteria. This indicated the presence of a "transforming principle" that could alter the bacteria's genetic properties.
- Later experiments by Avery, MacLeod and McCarty identified DNA as the molecule responsible for bacterial transformation. They showed that DNA is the genetic material that is able to transform one type of bacteria into another through uptake and incorporation of foreign DNA.
- Transformation, transduction, and conjugation are mechanisms by which prokaryotes can transfer genetic material between each other. Transformation involves taking up free DNA from the environment, while conjugation involves direct transfer of DNA through
This document provides an overview of genetic engineering and its applications to microorganisms. It defines genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. The key steps involved are isolating the gene of interest, inserting it into a vector, introducing the vector into a host cell, and harvesting the gene product from the clone. Common hosts used are bacteria, yeast, plant and animal cells. The document also discusses some tools used in genetic engineering like restriction enzymes and DNA ligase. It outlines several applications of genetic engineering in medicine, research, agriculture and industry. It concludes by noting some ethical and safety concerns regarding genetically modified organisms.
Bacterial genetics /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental acad...Indian dental academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy provides dental crown & Bridge,rotary endodontics,fixed orthodontics,
Dental implants courses.for details pls visit www.indiandentalacademy.com ,or call
0091-9248678078
This document provides an overview of bacterial genetics and gene transfer. It discusses how genetics guide life through generations and how the discovery of DNA structure by Watson and Crick began the field of bacterial genetics. The key methods of gene transfer between bacteria are conjugation, transduction, and transformation. Conjugation involves direct transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to another via cell contact and pili. Transduction occurs through bacteriophages transferring DNA between cells. Transformation is when naked DNA is taken up from the environment. Bacterial genetics follows the same principles as other organisms, with DNA carrying genetic information that is passed down.
Introduction to Genetic Material, Physical and Chemical properties of the same and various types of coiling mechanisms as well as information about chromosomal and extra-chromosomal DNA.
Genetics of Microorganisms. Forms of variation in microbes : Non-heredity and...Eneutron
1. The document discusses genetic variation in microorganisms, including both heritable and non-heritable forms. Non-heritable variation includes modifications to morphology, culture properties, and enzyme functions in response to environmental conditions.
2. Heritable variation occurs through mutations, which are stable changes to the microbe's genes, and recombinations like transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Mutations can involve changes to a single DNA base pair or larger duplications and deletions.
3. Important genetic elements in microbes include plasmids, which can confer new functions, and transposons, which can move genetic material within and between genomes. Gene engineering and biotechnology make use of the genetic properties
What are an expression vector? Detailed description of plant gene structure. Plant expression vector systems are generally consists of Ri and Ti plasmids.
The other vectors which are generally used are DNA and RNA viruses.
The document discusses research into controlling inflammatory and immune responses through proteins like STAT 3 and GR. It also discusses the potential medical applications of studying the genetics of sea urchins, which share over 7,000 genes with humans. Researchers hope to better understand transcription factors and how genetic expression is regulated in order to develop new treatments for diseases. Studying other species like sea urchins and sponges that can return cells to a stem cell state may also provide insights into how humans can fight diseases through genetic manipulation and therapy.
Restriction enzymes are endonucleases that cut DNA at specific recognition sequences. They break the covalent phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides within a DNA strand and the hydrogen bonds between the strands. Originally found in bacteria as a defense mechanism, over 3000 restriction enzymes are now known and commercially available. They are important tools for molecular biologists as they create "sticky ends" or overhangs on DNA fragments that allow them to be recombined through annealing of complementary sequences.
On the basis of need of specific content of any topic, i prepared a slides of plasmid for needy students. I'm also a student that's why i know how useful a proper presentation for us.
In this presentation, i try to cover some basic knowledge regarding to plasmid. If you like this ppt than please let me know, it gives me a motivation. If you need other topics ppt then write a topic name on comment section. THANK YOU
1. Griffith's experiments in 1928 showed that heat-killed type IIIS bacteria could transform live type IIR bacteria into the virulent type IIIS strain.
2. Avery, Macleod and McCarty repeated Griffith's experiments in 1944 using purified extracts and found that DNA is the transforming agent.
3. Hershey and Chase provided further evidence in 1952 using radioactive labeling to track the entry of bacteriophage components into infected bacteria, showing that DNA rather than protein enters bacterial cells during infection.
Antigen variation is common in protozoan parasites to evade the host immune system. Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that causes malaria, utilizes antigen variation through expression of different var genes encoding PfEMP1 proteins on the surface of infected red blood cells. Only one var gene is expressed at a time through epigenetic and nuclear architectural mechanisms to ensure low and coordinated switching of antigens and avoid immune clearance. PfEMP1 promotes adhesion of infected cells, causing microvascular obstruction and malaria pathogenesis.
Restriction Endonuclease: The Molecular Scissor of DNA - By RIKI NATHRIKI NATH
restriction enducleases are called the molecular scissors of DNA. types of restriction enzymes, their structures, subunits, most importantly the use of Type II restriction endonuclease in recombinant technology, mechanism of enzyme action and their applications.
This document summarizes a lecture on bacterial genetics and genetic variation. It discusses how bacteria can inherit genetic changes vertically through mutations during cell division, as well as horizontally through transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Horizontal gene transfer allows genes like those conferring antibiotic resistance or virulence factors to spread between bacteria. Mutation rates are low but significant given bacterial rapid growth. Insertion sequences and transposons are key drivers of major DNA rearrangements, with consequences like inactivating genes or altering gene expression. This genetic variability in bacteria has important implications for the evolution of pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance.
This document summarizes key information about bacterial genomes and genetic elements:
- Bacterial genomes vary in size and can contain one or more replicons like chromosomes and plasmids. Most bacteria have a single circular chromosome but some have linear or multiple chromosomes.
- Plasmids are extra-chromosomal DNA that can replicate independently. They often contain genes for functions like antibiotic resistance and virulence. Conjugative plasmids can transfer between bacteria.
- Other mobile genetic elements like transposons and integrons can move resistance genes between replicons. Site-specific recombination and horizontal gene transfer through transformation, transduction, and conjugation allow for genetic exchange between bacteria.
Bacterial genetics- gene mapping by recombinationGurvinder Kaur
Bacterial genomes contain a single circular chromosome as well as smaller circular plasmids. Genetic recombination in bacteria can occur through conjugation, transformation, or transduction. Conjugation involves the direct transfer of DNA from a donor to recipient bacterium through cell contact and formation of a cytoplasmic bridge. Lederberg and Tatum's experiments provided early evidence of genetic recombination in bacteria by showing that auxotrophic bacterial strains could exchange genes to become prototrophic.
This document summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of genetics. It describes how Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants examining seven different traits. He found that traits were passed to offspring in predictable ratios, either appearing dominant or recessive. His work established the laws of inheritance including dominance, segregation and independent assortment. The document provides examples of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses and explains how Mendel's findings laid the foundation of classical genetics.
The document defines key genetics vocabulary terms like genes, alleles, dominant, recessive, genotype and phenotype. It summarizes Gregor Mendel's pioneering experiments with pea plants, including his discovery that traits are inherited as discrete units (genes) and that some genes are dominant over others. It provides examples of applying genetics concepts like Punnett squares to predict offspring from crosses between parents with different traits.
The document defines key genetics vocabulary terms like genes, alleles, dominant, recessive, genotype, phenotype. It summarizes Mendel's experiments crossing pea plants with different traits like height. His results showed traits are inherited as discrete units (genes) and that some genes are dominant over others. The document provides examples of applying genetics concepts like Punnett squares to determine offspring probabilities from crosses.
The document discusses Mendel's experiments on monohybrid crosses using pea plants. It explains that a monohybrid cross involves a single trait determined by one gene, such as tall vs dwarf plants. Mendel observed that the ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes in the F2 generation is 3:1, while the ratio of genotypes is 1:2:1. His experiments supported his laws of segregation and independent assortment.
The document discusses Mendel's experiments on monohybrid crosses using pea plants. It explains that a monohybrid cross involves a single trait determined by one gene, such as tall vs dwarf plants. Mendel observed that the ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes in the F2 generation is 3:1, while the ratio of genotypes is 1:2:1. His experiments supported his laws of segregation and independent assortment.
The document provides definitions and explanations of key genetics vocabulary terms like genes, alleles, dominant, recessive, genotypes, phenotypes, Punnett squares, and more. It discusses Gregor Mendel's pioneering experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations of modern genetics, including his conclusions that heredity factors are individual units (genes) that segregate and assort independently. Sample genetics problems are also presented.
The document provides definitions and explanations of key genetics vocabulary terms like genes, alleles, dominant, recessive, genotypes, phenotypes, Punnett squares, and more. It discusses Gregor Mendel's pioneering experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations of modern genetics, including his conclusions that heredity factors are inherited individually as discrete units (genes) and that some gene forms may be dominant over others. Sample genetics problems applying these concepts to hypothetical crosses are also included.
This document summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants and the laws of inheritance he discovered. Mendel performed crosses between pea plants with contrasting traits like plant height, flower color, seed texture. He found that traits are inherited in predictable ratios, with dominant traits masking recessive ones. This led to his formulation of the Laws of Segregation and Independent Assortment, which state that alleles segregate during gamete formation and assort independently, resulting in predictable trait ratios among offspring. Mendel's work established the foundations of classical genetics.
This document provides a review on Mendel's legacy and genetics concepts. It includes vocabulary, multiple choice, short answer, and diagram labeling questions. The questions cover Mendel's experiments with pea plants, the concepts of dominant and recessive traits, F1 and F2 generations, the laws of segregation and independent assortment, and how genetic factors are distributed during meiosis.
This document provides an overview of Mendel's laws of inheritance and how they apply to patterns of inheritance in humans. It begins by defining key genetics concepts like genotype, phenotype, dominant, and recessive. It then explains Mendel's experiments with pea plants and how he used one-trait and two-trait crosses to formulate his two laws: the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment. The document shows how these laws can explain inheritance patterns through Punnett squares and meiosis. Finally, it discusses how Mendel's laws apply to human pedigrees, including autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and sex-linked patterns of inheritance. Pedigree charts are provided as examples to demonstrate
This document introduces heredity and Mendel's experiments that established the fundamental laws of inheritance. It discusses how DNA contains the genetic information that is contributed equally from both parents during reproduction. Mendel performed experiments with pea plants to study seven contrasting traits over multiple generations. His experiments demonstrated that traits segregate and only one allele is passed down from each parent, following a predictable pattern of dominant and recessive expression. His laws of segregation and dominance established that alleles separate and only one is expressed, while the law of independent assortment showed that two traits are passed down independently of each other during gamete formation.
This document summarizes Gregor Mendel's laws of genetics based on his experiments with pea plants. It describes the Law of Dominance, which states that hybrid offspring will exhibit the dominant trait, the Law of Segregation, where alleles separate and recombine during gamete formation, and the Law of Independent Assortment, where different traits are inherited independently. It provides examples for each law using Mendel's pea plant experiments and genotypes.
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
heredity and evolution class
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits. He found that traits are controlled by factors (now known as genes) that are transmitted from parents to offspring. Through his experiments with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, Mendel discovered his laws of inheritance - the law of segregation, the law of independent assortment, and the law of dominance. His findings formed the basis of classical genetics.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from one generation to the next. He found that traits are controlled by factors, now known as genes, that exist in different forms called alleles. In monohybrid crosses, he found that one allele can be dominant over the other in the first generation, but both alleles are passed down and segregate in a 3:1 ratio in the second generation. Mendel also discovered that genes for different traits assort independently during gamete formation according to his law of independent assortment.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key genetics concepts including:
1. Pedigrees are used to show ancestral relationships and transmission of genetic traits over generations.
2. A proband is the individual in a pedigree that prompted its construction.
3. Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment describe how alleles separate and assort independently during gamete formation and fertilization.
Law of Dominance - Recessive alleles will always be masked by dominant alleles .
Law of Segregation - At the time of gametes formation the two copies of each hereditary factor segregates so that offspring get one factor from each parent .
Law of Independent Assortment - Genes for one trait are not inherited together with another trait .
This document summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants and the laws of inheritance he developed based on his findings. It discusses how Mendel studied traits like pea color, shape, and flower color. His experiments led him to establish the laws of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment. The law of dominance states that one trait is dominant over another in hybrid offspring. The law of segregation explains that alleles separate during gamete formation. The law of independent assortment holds that inheritance of one trait does not influence that of another trait. Mendel's work formed the basis of modern genetics.
Notes for hereditynsksjsvsksvsksvjsvsjsvsusgsgdvhsvsusgsusvduvdudgudgdusvudgdushushshsgjsjsjsksjisjdjdjdjdjjdhdjnjhjjjxjdjdkndjcmdhzlbsisbsisbisbsjzjzjzjsjsjsusvshsnxjzjsjsjjzjzjzjzjzjznzkbKBKNzjjzjzjznxnzkzkjzjzkznjxjzjsjKNMnxjzjskakakjajzbzjzbjzbzjzbzjbajbajajsjjsjsjskajksjzjzjznjsjsjsjsnsksbjsbsjshkabakabsisbhdjsjzjzksbkabsisbsksbjsbakabiabsjsnanbaiabaihaajakabiabajabisbakakakkaisjdkssjksajjsjsksjksjsksjsjjsjnjhkvkfjhhhhjsjdjsksnisbsihsjdhdjdhdjhdjsbalabksbsksnsksbsosjjsjsksjsksnksbsjsbjsbdhdnskskjshdhdhdksjjsbdhdjsjehushdydu゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・(/。\)・゜゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚゜・.(iДi)。:゚j
This document discusses Mendelian genetics and Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants. It covers:
- Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants, studying traits like plant height, seed color, and flower color. He kept extremely detailed records.
- Through his experiments, Mendel discovered principles of heredity including that traits are inherited as discrete units (genes) and that some traits (like height) are dominant over others (like dwarfism).
- When Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants, all offspring were tall. But when he allowed these offspring to self-pollinate, the next generation showed a 3:1 ratio of tall to dwarf plants, demonstrating inheritance of traits.
This document discusses molecular biology techniques. It begins by outlining the learning objectives, which are to list techniques used in molecular biology and describe microscopic observation, centrifugation, extraction, electrophoresis, and chromatography. It then provides details on each technique, including their purposes and basic procedures. Microscopic observation is used to study cells, centrifugation separates substances by density, extraction isolates molecules like DNA and proteins, electrophoresis separates charged substances using an electric field, and chromatography separates mixtures based on how they interact with different materials.
This document discusses cytogenetic techniques used in genetics. It describes (1) cell culture techniques used to grow cells for analysis, (2) harvesting and chromosome spreading to view chromosomes, and (3) karyotyping and analysis to identify chromosomal abnormalities. Modern techniques like fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) allow visualization of specific DNA sequences and identification of DNA copy number changes.
This document provides an overview of gene and chromosomal mutations. It defines mutations as changes in genes or chromosomes that are passed down to offspring. There are two main types of mutations: gene mutations, which alter DNA sequences within a gene, and chromosomal mutations, which involve changes in chromosome structure or number. The document outlines several specific types of gene mutations, including point mutations, frameshift mutations, insertions, and deletions. It also describes different types of chromosomal mutations, such as duplications, inversions, translocations, and changes in chromosome number. The goal is to help students understand the various ways mutations can occur in human genes and chromosomes.
This document provides an overview of gene regulation in prokaryotes. It discusses operons, which are units of DNA that control the transcription of a set of genes. Specifically, it describes the lac and tryptophan operons in E. coli. The lac operon codes for enzymes involved in lactose digestion and is induced by the presence of lactose. The tryptophan operon codes for enzymes in the tryptophan synthesis pathway and is repressed by the presence of tryptophan. Both operons use a repressor protein that binds to the operator region to control transcription in response to environmental conditions.
This document provides an overview of DNA replication and protein synthesis. It begins by outlining the learning objectives, which are to describe basic cell chemicals, explain their physical and chemical characteristics, and understand their physiological functions. The topics covered include the basic chemical substances in cells, with a focus on nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. DNA replication is then described as the process by which a DNA molecule makes two identical copies of itself. Key steps involve unwinding the DNA double helix, synthesizing new strands to complement the existing ones, and RNA primers that assist DNA polymerase. Proteins are defined as large organic compounds composed of amino acid chains, with their sequence encoded in genes.
This document provides an overview of cell division through mitosis and meiosis. It begins by defining the learning outcomes, which are to define cell division, cell cycle, mitosis and meiosis; list the phases of mitosis and meiosis; and describe the events that occur in each phase. It then outlines the topics to be covered, which include cell division, the cell cycle (mitosis and meiosis), and the importance of mitosis and meiosis. The stages of the cell cycle are then defined, including interphase, the four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase), and cytokinesis. Meiosis is also introduced, dividing it into two divisions: Meiosis
This document discusses cytogenetic techniques used in biology. It begins by outlining the learning objectives which are to list cytogenetic techniques and understand cell culture, harvesting chromosomes, and karyotyping. It then describes various techniques including cell culture, harvesting and spreading chromosomes, karyotyping, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). The purpose of these techniques is to examine genetic components of cells including chromosomes to study genetic abnormalities.
Mutations are changes in genes or chromosomes that are passed on to offspring. There are two main types: gene mutations, which alter DNA sequences within a gene, and chromosomal mutations, which involve changes to chromosomes. Gene mutations include point mutations like substitutions of single nucleotide bases and frameshift mutations from insertions or deletions of bases. Chromosomal mutations involve changes in chromosome number, such as duplications, or structure, including deletions, inversions, and translocations of chromosomal segments. Understanding genetic mutations is important for developing knowledge of their effects in humans.
This document provides an overview of gene regulation in prokaryotes. It discusses operons, which are units of DNA that control the transcription of a set of genes. It specifically examines the lac and tryptophan operons in E. coli. The lac operon codes for enzymes involved in lactose digestion and is induced by the presence of lactose. The tryptophan operon codes for enzymes in the tryptophan synthesis pathway and is repressed by the presence of tryptophan. Both operons use a repressor protein that binds to the operator region to control transcription in response to environmental conditions.
This document provides an overview of DNA replication and protein synthesis. It begins by outlining the learning objectives, which are to describe basic cell chemicals, explain their physical and chemical characteristics, and understand their physiological functions. The topics covered include the basic chemical substances in cells, with a focus on nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. DNA replication is then described as the process by which DNA makes identical copies of itself. Finally, proteins are defined as large organic compounds composed of amino acid chains that are specified by genes.
The document discusses Mendel's experiments on inheritance using garden peas. It explains key terms like alleles, genotypes, phenotypes. It describes how Mendel conducted a monohybrid cross by breeding pure-breeding tall and short pea plants. His findings showed that traits are inherited in discrete units (now called genes) and follow predictable patterns, laying the foundation for modern genetics. The ratios of offspring in the F2 generation supported his first law of segregation.
This document provides an overview of cell division. It defines cell division and the cell cycle, which includes mitosis and meiosis. It outlines the topics to be covered, which are cell division, the cell cycle (including mitosis and meiosis), and the importance of mitosis and meiosis. It then describes the phases of interphase and mitosis, providing details about what occurs in each phase.
This document discusses molecular biology techniques. It begins by outlining the learning objectives, which are to list techniques used in molecular biology and describe microscopy, centrifugation, extraction, electrophoresis, and chromatography. It then provides details on each technique, including their purposes and basic procedures. Microscopy is used to produce magnified images of cells and structures. Centrifugation separates substances by density. Extraction isolates molecules like DNA, RNA, and proteins. Electrophoresis separates charged substances using an electric field. Chromatography separates mixtures based on interactions with a solid or liquid medium.
This document outlines topics related to cell membrane transportation. It discusses four main types of molecular movement across cell membranes: passive transport (diffusion, osmosis), active transport (sodium-potassium pump), and vesicular transport (endocytosis, exocytosis). The key learning objectives are to understand these transport mechanisms and how they allow for the movement of molecules into and out of cells.
This document provides an overview of cell components and structures. It begins with an introduction to the course and learning outcomes. It then covers topics such as the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane, membrane functions, membrane junctions, and special cell structures like microvilli. It also discusses the cytoskeleton, including the structures and functions of microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments, and associated structures like the centrosome and centrioles. The document uses diagrams and images to illustrate key cell structures and components.
This chapter introduces animal cells by discussing their structure, characteristics, functions and cellular division. It covers the history of cell discovery from Hooke to Virchow and presents the modern cell theory. The chapter distinguishes between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, describes the structures and organelles of plant and animal cells, and lists the objectives and learning outcomes of understanding cellular biology.
This introductory biology course focuses on animal cell structure, characteristics, functions, and cellular division. It also covers the theory of inheritance, including the structure and role of genes, DNA, and chromosomes. The course objectives are to understand animal cell structure and functions, cell cycle and division, and DNA, chromosomes, and the theory of inheritance. Upon completing the course, students will be able to describe key cell structures and processes, discuss inheritance concepts, and explain protein and DNA synthesis.
Have you ever been confused by the myriad of choices offered by AWS for hosting a website or an API?
Lambda, Elastic Beanstalk, Lightsail, Amplify, S3 (and more!) can each host websites + APIs. But which one should we choose?
Which one is cheapest? Which one is fastest? Which one will scale to meet our needs?
Join me in this session as we dive into each AWS hosting service to determine which one is best for your scenario and explain why!
Full-RAG: A modern architecture for hyper-personalizationZilliz
Mike Del Balso, CEO & Co-Founder at Tecton, presents "Full RAG," a novel approach to AI recommendation systems, aiming to push beyond the limitations of traditional models through a deep integration of contextual insights and real-time data, leveraging the Retrieval-Augmented Generation architecture. This talk will outline Full RAG's potential to significantly enhance personalization, address engineering challenges such as data management and model training, and introduce data enrichment with reranking as a key solution. Attendees will gain crucial insights into the importance of hyperpersonalization in AI, the capabilities of Full RAG for advanced personalization, and strategies for managing complex data integrations for deploying cutting-edge AI solutions.
“An Outlook of the Ongoing and Future Relationship between Blockchain Technologies and Process-aware Information Systems.” Invited talk at the joint workshop on Blockchain for Information Systems (BC4IS) and Blockchain for Trusted Data Sharing (B4TDS), co-located with with the 36th International Conference on Advanced Information Systems Engineering (CAiSE), 3 June 2024, Limassol, Cyprus.
TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
How does your privacy program stack up against your peers? What challenges are privacy teams tackling and prioritizing in 2024?
In the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey, we asked over 1,800 global privacy professionals and business executives to share their perspectives on the current state of privacy inside and outside of their organizations. This year’s report focused on emerging areas of importance for privacy and compliance professionals, including considerations and implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, building brand trust, and different approaches for achieving higher privacy competence scores.
See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
This webinar will review:
- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
- The top challenges for privacy leaders, practitioners, and organizations in 2024
- Key themes to consider in developing and maintaining your privacy program
Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing.pdfssuserfac0301
Read Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing to gain insights on AI adoption in the manufacturing industry, such as:
1. How quickly AI is being implemented in manufacturing.
2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
Your One-Stop Shop for Python Success: Top 10 US Python Development Providersakankshawande
Simplify your search for a reliable Python development partner! This list presents the top 10 trusted US providers offering comprehensive Python development services, ensuring your project's success from conception to completion.
Fueling AI with Great Data with Airbyte WebinarZilliz
This talk will focus on how to collect data from a variety of sources, leveraging this data for RAG and other GenAI use cases, and finally charting your course to productionalization.
CAKE: Sharing Slices of Confidential Data on BlockchainClaudio Di Ciccio
Presented at the CAiSE 2024 Forum, Intelligent Information Systems, June 6th, Limassol, Cyprus.
Synopsis: Cooperative information systems typically involve various entities in a collaborative process within a distributed environment. Blockchain technology offers a mechanism for automating such processes, even when only partial trust exists among participants. The data stored on the blockchain is replicated across all nodes in the network, ensuring accessibility to all participants. While this aspect facilitates traceability, integrity, and persistence, it poses challenges for adopting public blockchains in enterprise settings due to confidentiality issues. In this paper, we present a software tool named Control Access via Key Encryption (CAKE), designed to ensure data confidentiality in scenarios involving public blockchains. After outlining its core components and functionalities, we showcase the application of CAKE in the context of a real-world cyber-security project within the logistics domain.
Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-61000-4_16
In the rapidly evolving landscape of technologies, XML continues to play a vital role in structuring, storing, and transporting data across diverse systems. The recent advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) present new methodologies for enhancing XML development workflows, introducing efficiency, automation, and intelligent capabilities. This presentation will outline the scope and perspective of utilizing AI in XML development. The potential benefits and the possible pitfalls will be highlighted, providing a balanced view of the subject.
We will explore the capabilities of AI in understanding XML markup languages and autonomously creating structured XML content. Additionally, we will examine the capacity of AI to enrich plain text with appropriate XML markup. Practical examples and methodological guidelines will be provided to elucidate how AI can be effectively prompted to interpret and generate accurate XML markup.
Further emphasis will be placed on the role of AI in developing XSLT, or schemas such as XSD and Schematron. We will address the techniques and strategies adopted to create prompts for generating code, explaining code, or refactoring the code, and the results achieved.
The discussion will extend to how AI can be used to transform XML content. In particular, the focus will be on the use of AI XPath extension functions in XSLT, Schematron, Schematron Quick Fixes, or for XML content refactoring.
The presentation aims to deliver a comprehensive overview of AI usage in XML development, providing attendees with the necessary knowledge to make informed decisions. Whether you’re at the early stages of adopting AI or considering integrating it in advanced XML development, this presentation will cover all levels of expertise.
By highlighting the potential advantages and challenges of integrating AI with XML development tools and languages, the presentation seeks to inspire thoughtful conversation around the future of XML development. We’ll not only delve into the technical aspects of AI-powered XML development but also discuss practical implications and possible future directions.
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
How to Get CNIC Information System with Paksim Ga.pptxdanishmna97
Pakdata Cf is a groundbreaking system designed to streamline and facilitate access to CNIC information. This innovative platform leverages advanced technology to provide users with efficient and secure access to their CNIC details.
Programming Foundation Models with DSPy - Meetup SlidesZilliz
Prompting language models is hard, while programming language models is easy. In this talk, I will discuss the state-of-the-art framework DSPy for programming foundation models with its powerful optimizers and runtime constraint system.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
4. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.1. Terminologies
Introduction
Allele: is one member of pair or series of different forms of a gene
found on the same locus on homologous chromosome
Gamete: Mature male or female reproductive cell (sperm or
ovum) with a haploid set of chromosomes (23 for humans)
Gene: part of DNA molecule found in the chromosome that
determines a polypeptide through which an inheritable trait is
expressed
Genotype: The genetic constitution of an organism (only one or
two genes are considered at one time). Genotype can be
homozygous or heterozygous
Dominant allele: A gene is said to be dominant if it expresses its
phenotype even in the presence of a recessive gene.
4
Slide 4 of 10
5. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.1. Terminologies
Phenotype: Observable trait / traits of an individual; arises from
interactions between genes, & between genes & the environment.
Phenotype determines individual structure, physiology & behaviour
that include followings:
(a) character that can be observed.eg. Colour
(b) character that can be felt. eg. Texture of the hair
(c) character that can be tested serologically. eg. Blood group
(d) quantitative character that can be measured including
intelligence using IQ test.
5
Slide 5 of 10
6. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.1. Terminologies
Heterozygote: a person possessing two different forms of a
particular gene, one inherited from each parent. A heterozygote is
also called a carrier (Eg. Pp, Tt)
Homozygous: genotype of an individual that has any of a pair or
more of alleles considered are identical eg.
AA, aa, AABB, Aabb, aaBB or aabb
Homozygote: diploid individual with two identical alleles at a given
locus.
6
Slide 6 of 10
7. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2. Mendel’s experiment
Mendel’s Experiment
Crossed garden peas in his monastery garden & analysed
the offsprings of these mating
Reasons:
(a) could be grown easily in large numbers
(b) had a short life cycle
(c) their pollination could be controlled
(d) their reproduction could be manipulated
(e) had easily observable characteristics.
7
Slide 7 of 10
8. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.1 Garden pea plant
Pea plants
Have both male & female reproductive organs
Can either self pollinate / cross-pollinate with another plant
8
Slide 8 of 10
9. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
Monohydrid cross
Established pure-breed stock for tall plants & a pure-breed
stock for short plants
Studied the inheritance of one trait, eg. Plant’s height
9
Slide 9 of 10
10. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
Monohydrid cross
Gene – some DNA molecules that controls
Trait – Height (short @ tall)
Genotype
Homozygote (TT) Heterozygote (Tt) Homozygote (tt)
Phenotype – Tall Tall Short
10
Slide 10 of 10
11. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
Cross-pollinated tall pea plants (TT) with each other
Parental generation (Genotype) TT X TT
Gamete T T
F1 TT
Phenotype All tall
11
Slide 11 of 10
12. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
Cross-pollinated short pea plants (tt) with each other
Parental generation (genotype) tt x tt
Gamete t t
F1 tt
Phenotype All short
12
Slide 12 of 10
13. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
Crossed tall plants with short plants
Parental generation (phenotype) tall plant short plant
Parental generation (genotype) TT X tt
Gamete T t
F1 Tt
Phenotype All tall plants
13
Slide 13 of 10
14. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
Allowed plants in the F1 generation to self-pollinate (Self-
cross)
F1 Tt X Tt
Gamete T t T t
F2 TT Tt Tt tt
Phenotype Tall Tall Tall short
Ratio 3 : 1
14
Slide 14 of 10
15. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
Monohydrid cross
Height of plant must have been determined by certain
factors
Factors occur in pairs, because the offsprings of the F2
generation were both tall & short
F1 generation must contain both tall & shorts factors
Two types of factor
(a) dominant: tall hides the effect of short
(b) recessive: short is recessive to being tall; hidden
by the dominant factor
15
Slide 15 of 10
16. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
Mendel first law of inheritance (The law of segregation)
(a) states that from only one parent only one factor (allele) is
passes from the parent to the offspring through the gamete.
(b) This law can be explained by meiosis. In garden pea that is
diploid, a heterozygous yellow seed (Yy) can only transmit one of
the alleles to each of its offspring. (Y is a dominant allele for yellow
seed coat whereas y is a recessive allele for green seed coat)
Parent (P1): Yy (yellow)
Gametes: Y y
(c) Each gamete can only obtain one allele from the parent because
meiosis reduces a diploid gamete mother cell to haploid gamete
16
Slide 16 of 10
18. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
(d) Mendel used garden pea plants for his experiments. One of
the characters was seed colour. He started by crossing two pure
breeding strains; eg. One had yellow & the other had green
seeds. He then allowed the offsprings (F1 generation of first filial
generation) to self-fertilise (selfing) & the results are always the
same as follows:
P1: YY X yy
Phenotype: yellow green
Gametes: Y y
F1: Yy
Phenotypes: yellow
18
Slide 18 of 10
19. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.2 Monohybrid cross
(e) The F2 generation (second filial generation obtained by random
crossing or selfing of the F1 generation) has a ratio of ¾ of one character
and ¼ of the contrasting character, the classical Mendelian ration is 3:1
P2 (selfing): Yy X Yy
Phenotype: yellow yellow
Gamete: Y y Y y
F2: YY Yy Yy yy
Phenotype: yellow yellow yellow green
Genotypic ratio= ¼ YY : ½ Yy : ¼ yy
Phenotypic ratio= ¾ yellow : ¼ green
19
Slide 19 of 10
23. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.3.Dihybrid Cross
Dihybrid cross
(f) He repeated his experiment using several contrasting
characteristics, which include tall & dwarf plants, round
& wrinkled seeds, inflated & constricted pods, red &
white flower. Therefore, he concluded that each plant
carried two factors through only one factor was
exhibited in F1. When selfed, the F1 would segregate
the factors & produced the characteristic ratio.
23
Slide 23 of 10
24. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.3.Dihybrid Cross
Mendel second law of inheritance
(a) Dihybrid cross
(b) Mendel crossed pea plants that differed in 2
contrasting traits (pure breeding plants)
(c) He crossed a yellow plant (Y) with round seed (R) with
a green plant (y) with wrinkled seed (r)
24
Slide 24 of 10
25. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.3.Dihybrid Cross
Mendel’s Second Law
Law of Independent Assortment
During gamete formation, segregation of the alleles of
one allelic pair is independent of the segregation of the
alleles of another allelic pair.
25
Slide 25 of 10
28. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.3.Dihybrid Cross
Mendel confirmed the results of his second law by
performing a back cross where he crossed an F1 dihybrid
with a recessive parent.
28
Slide 28 of 10
29. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2.4 Result & conclusion from the experiment
Conclusion on his 2nd experiment
(a) During gamete formation, segregation of the alleles
of 1 allelic pair is independent of the segregation of the
alleles of another allelic pair
(b) Genes that are on different chromosomes assort
independently
29
Slide 29 of 10
31. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.3. Hybrid not in accordance to Mendel’s law
Hybrib not accordance to Mendel Law
Codominance: when both alleles are fully expressed in the
heterozygous form.
Eg. Human MN blood typing
2 antigens, M & N, which are determined by a gene with 2
alleles, LM & LN
Individual with genotype LM LM will have only M antigen in
their RBC
LN LN: N antigen only
LM LN: M & N antigens
31
Slide 31 of 10
32. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.3. Hybrid not in accordance to Mendel’s law
Cross between LM LM and LN LN
P LM LM X LN LN
Gametes LM LN
F1 LM LN
(individual produces both antigens)
P LM LN X LM LN
Gametes LM LN LM LN
F2 LM LM LM LN LM LN LN LN
1 : 2 : 1
32
Slide 32 of 10
33. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.3.2 Imcomplete dominance
Incomplete dominance: a blending of traits, condition
when neither allele is dominant over the other
Recognised by the heterozygote expressing an
intermediate phenotype relative to the parental
phenotypes
Eg. Red flowered plant is crossed with a white flowered
plant, all progeny will be pink.
33
Slide 33 of 10
35. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.3.3 Multiple alleles
Multiple allele: genes may exist in more than 2 allelic forms
Eg. ABO blood type
Three different alleles for blood type:
(a) IA (Type A)
(b) IB (Type B)
(c) IO (Type O)
35
Slide 35 of 10
36. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.3.3 Multiple alleles
Only two of these alleles are presented in an individual
They combine to form genotypes that result from codominance.
36
Slide 36 of 10
37. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.3.3 Multiple alleles
An individual with blood type O mates with an individual
with blood type A.
P: IO IO X IA IA
Gametes: IO IA
F1: IA IO (blood type A)
Individual with IA IO genotype mate
F2: IA IA IA IO IO IO
1 : 2 : 1
Phenotype3 blood group A : 1 blood group O
37
Slide 37 of 10
39. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.4. Genetic Mapping
Genetic Mapping
= chromosome mapping
Determination of the position of a gene on a chromosome by the
means of recombination frequencies
The percentage of recombinant phenotypes can be used to map the
chromosomes
Why? – Direct relationship btw frequency of crossing-over & the
percentage of recombinant phenotypes
39
Slide 39 of 10
40. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.4. Genetic Mapping
If we want to determine the order of any three genes on
a chromosome, we can perform crosses that will
provide us the map distance between the three pairs of
alleles
40
Slide 40 of 10
42. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.1. Hardy-Weinberg Law
Introduction
Population genetics is the study of genes in a
population
i.e. the study of Mendelian inheritance mathematically in a
population
The population in this context is a Mendelian
population, consisting of only one species of diploid
organisms, which reproduce sexually within a certain
geographical border
The study of population is important for the understanding
of evolution. Evolution is not the change of one individual
but that of a population over a long period of time
The study of population genetics reconciles the fact of
Darwin theory of evolution with that of Mendelian genetics 42 of 10
42
Slide
43. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.1. Hardy-Weinberg Law
Darwin theory of natural selection is based on
variation created by mutation in the form of different
genes / alleles. Individuals with certain combination
of alleles survive over the years bringing about
changes in a population
The change in allelic frequency caused by
environmental forces is evolution
43
Slide 43 of 10
44. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2. Principle
For easy calculation, a concept based on one gene locus is
treated at one time. So, gene pool is diagrammatically
represented as
A A a
A gene pool of A & a alleles
A a a a
A a A
a A a A
44
Slide 44 of 10
45. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2. Principle
1.1. Hardy-Weinberg Law
Darwin theory of natural selection is based on
variation created by mutation in the form of different
genes / alleles. Individuals with certain combination
of alleles survive over the years bringing about
changes in a population
The change in allelic frequency caused by
environmental forces is evolution
45
Slide 45 of 10
46. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2. Principle
Only one gene or locus is considered. That locus
consists of dominant & recessive alleles,
i.e. A & a alleles
The frequencies of alleles A & a depend on the
genotypic frequencies of AA, Aa & aa. Hence, if the
frequency of AA is very high, the frequency of A would
be high too.
From the frequencies of the alleles, the frequencies of
the genotypes of the next generation can be calculated
if we assumed that random fertilisation of the gametes
occurs.
46
Slide 46 of 10
47. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2. Principle
Concept of a Gene Pool
A gene pool is an aggregate of genes/gametes of a
Mendelian population from which the next generation is
produced
It can be considered as the total genetic information
possessed by reproductive members in a population
of sexually reproducing organisms.
Genes in the pool have dynamic relationships with one
another & with the environment around where the
organisms live
Environmental factors such as selection can alter
allelic frequencies & cause evolutionary changes in
the population
47
Slide 47 of 10
48. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2. Principle
Hardy-Weinberg Law
States that after one generation of random mating, a population
will become in equilibrium
i.e. the allelic & genotypic frequencies will not change from one
generation to the other
However, equilibrium is only achieved depending on conditions /
assumptions as follows:
(a) the population must be large
(b) the mating must be random or panmitic
(c) there must not be any selection
(d) there must not be any migration
(e) there must not be any mutation
(f) meiosis must be normal
48
Slide 48 of 10
49. GENETICS MENDELS LAW
1.2. Principle
Uses of the law / its formula
To study the changes of gene frequencies in a wild
population so that the direction & rate of evolution can
be determined.
To study the changes of gene frequencies in an
artificial population such as that of a herd of cattle / a
plantation of crop.
To plan for breeding programme so that a large
population of animals or plants can be manipulated to
produce more quantitatively and/or qualitatively
49
Slide 49 of 10