This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It begins by describing random access methods like ALOHA and CSMA, where stations randomly access the channel without coordination. It then covers controlled access methods that require stations to request permission before transmitting, including polling, reservation, and token passing. Finally, it discusses channelization methods that divide the channel by frequency, time, or code, such as FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like throughput calculations for different access loads.
This document summarizes different multiple access protocols used at the data link layer. It discusses random access protocols like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, controlled access protocols using reservation, polling and token passing, and channelization protocols using frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code division multiple access (CDMA). It provides examples and figures to illustrate the concepts and calculations for various protocols.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It describes random access methods like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, controlled access methods using reservation, polling, and token passing, and channelization methods including FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. Examples are provided to illustrate the calculation of throughput for various access loads in ALOHA and slotted ALOHA networks.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It describes random access methods like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, controlled access methods using reservation, polling, and token passing, and channelization methods including FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. Examples are provided to illustrate the calculation of throughput for various access loads in ALOHA and slotted ALOHA networks.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It begins by describing random access protocols like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA. It then covers controlled access protocols using reservation, polling, and token passing. Finally, it discusses channelization protocols using frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code division multiple access (CDMA). Throughout are examples calculating throughput for different access loads and determining minimum frame sizes.
The document discusses multiple access protocols used at the data link layer. It describes several random access protocols including ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, and CSMA. It also covers controlled access methods like reservation, polling, and token passing. Finally, it discusses channelization protocols including FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA used to divide available bandwidth between stations. CDMA allows simultaneous transmissions by assigning each station a unique code and decoding signals using the appropriate code.
This document provides an overview of multiple access protocols for shared wireless media. It discusses random access protocols like ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD, and CSMA/CA. ALOHA protocols allow stations to transmit whenever they have data, which can cause collisions. Slotted ALOHA and CSMA protocols reduce collisions by coordinating transmissions. The document also covers controlled access protocols like reservation, polling, and token passing that establish transmission rights to avoid collisions. It includes frame formats, throughput calculations, and flow diagrams to illustrate how each protocol manages access to the shared channel.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It begins by introducing random access methods like ALOHA and carrier sense multiple access (CSMA). It then describes the pure and slotted ALOHA protocols and provides examples to calculate throughput under different loads. The document also covers CSMA and variations like CSMA with collision detection and avoidance. It provides examples of calculating minimum frame sizes and throughput for these protocols. Finally, it discusses CSMA/CA and notes that interframe spacing can define station/frame priority while timers are restarted, not restarted, when the channel is busy.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It begins by describing random access methods like ALOHA and CSMA, where stations randomly access the channel without coordination. It then covers controlled access methods that require stations to request permission before transmitting, including polling, reservation, and token passing. Finally, it discusses channelization methods that divide the channel by frequency, time, or code, such as FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like throughput calculations for different access loads.
This document summarizes different multiple access protocols used at the data link layer. It discusses random access protocols like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, controlled access protocols using reservation, polling and token passing, and channelization protocols using frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code division multiple access (CDMA). It provides examples and figures to illustrate the concepts and calculations for various protocols.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It describes random access methods like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, controlled access methods using reservation, polling, and token passing, and channelization methods including FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. Examples are provided to illustrate the calculation of throughput for various access loads in ALOHA and slotted ALOHA networks.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It describes random access methods like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, controlled access methods using reservation, polling, and token passing, and channelization methods including FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. Examples are provided to illustrate the calculation of throughput for various access loads in ALOHA and slotted ALOHA networks.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It begins by describing random access protocols like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA. It then covers controlled access protocols using reservation, polling, and token passing. Finally, it discusses channelization protocols using frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code division multiple access (CDMA). Throughout are examples calculating throughput for different access loads and determining minimum frame sizes.
The document discusses multiple access protocols used at the data link layer. It describes several random access protocols including ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, and CSMA. It also covers controlled access methods like reservation, polling, and token passing. Finally, it discusses channelization protocols including FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA used to divide available bandwidth between stations. CDMA allows simultaneous transmissions by assigning each station a unique code and decoding signals using the appropriate code.
This document provides an overview of multiple access protocols for shared wireless media. It discusses random access protocols like ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD, and CSMA/CA. ALOHA protocols allow stations to transmit whenever they have data, which can cause collisions. Slotted ALOHA and CSMA protocols reduce collisions by coordinating transmissions. The document also covers controlled access protocols like reservation, polling, and token passing that establish transmission rights to avoid collisions. It includes frame formats, throughput calculations, and flow diagrams to illustrate how each protocol manages access to the shared channel.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It begins by introducing random access methods like ALOHA and carrier sense multiple access (CSMA). It then describes the pure and slotted ALOHA protocols and provides examples to calculate throughput under different loads. The document also covers CSMA and variations like CSMA with collision detection and avoidance. It provides examples of calculating minimum frame sizes and throughput for these protocols. Finally, it discusses CSMA/CA and notes that interframe spacing can define station/frame priority while timers are restarted, not restarted, when the channel is busy.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for shared communication channels. It begins by explaining how data is framed and transmitted over shared links at the data link layer. It then covers three main categories of multiple access protocols: random access, controlled access, and channelization. Random access protocols like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA are described, as well as controlled access methods using reservation, polling, and token passing. Finally, channelization protocols for dividing access using frequency, time, or code (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA) are introduced. Examples are provided to illustrate load calculations and sequencing.
ALOHA multiple access data communication and networking.pdfnqck82120b
This document provides an overview of multiple access protocols and channelization methods for wireless networks. It discusses random access methods like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, controlled access methods using reservation, polling, and token passing, and channelization methods including frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), time-division multiple access (TDMA), and code-division multiple access (CDMA). Examples are provided to illustrate how to calculate throughput for different frame arrival rates in ALOHA and slotted ALOHA networks. Figures and notes explain carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) variants and how the different channelization methods divide access to the channel.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for shared wireless channels. It begins by describing random access protocols like ALOHA and carrier sense multiple access (CSMA). It provides examples of calculating throughput for these protocols. The document then covers controlled access protocols, including reservation, polling, and token passing. It describes how each protocol works and provides illustrations. Finally, it states that channelization is a multiple access technique for dividing a channel into several sub-channels.
The document discusses three channelization protocols - Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA). It provides examples and figures to illustrate how each protocol divides and shares the available bandwidth between different stations, whether through frequency bands, timesharing, or code sequences. Examples are given to show how Walsh codes can be used to create chip sequences for CDMA networks of different sizes.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for sharing a communication channel between multiple stations. It covers both random access protocols like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, and controlled access protocols like polling, token passing, and reservation. It also discusses channelization protocols for sharing bandwidth, including Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA). FDMA divides the channel into frequency bands, TDMA divides it into time slots, and CDMA allows all stations to transmit simultaneously using unique coding. The document provides detailed explanations, examples, diagrams and equations for each protocol.
This document discusses multiple access protocols used at the data link layer. It describes random access protocols like ALOHA and CSMA, controlled access protocols using reservation, polling and token passing, and channelization protocols including FDMA, TDMA and CDMA. Random access allows stations to transmit without coordination when they have data, while controlled access requires stations to get authorization before transmitting. Channelization divides the available bandwidth using techniques like frequency, time, or code to allow multiple simultaneous transmissions. Diagrams and examples are provided to illustrate how each protocol works.
This document discusses multiple access mechanisms for shared communication channels, including random access methods like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, and controlled access methods like polling, token passing, and channelization techniques like FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. It provides examples and explanations of how each technique works, key parameters that impact performance, and calculations related to throughput and other metrics.
This document discusses multiple access protocols at the data link layer. It covers random access protocols like ALOHA and CSMA, as well as controlled access protocols including polling, reservation, and token passing. Random access allows any station to transmit at any time by using carrier sensing, collision detection, and random backoff times to avoid collisions. Controlled access requires stations to get permission before transmitting via polling, reservations, or a circulating token.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It covers random access methods like ALOHA, CSMA, and variations that use carrier sensing and collision detection/avoidance. Controlled access methods like reservation, polling, and token passing that coordinate transmission are also discussed. Finally, the document outlines channelization methods including Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) that divide available bandwidth for simultaneous transmission.
This document discusses different types of switched networks including circuit-switched networks, datagram networks, and virtual-circuit networks. It provides details on the key aspects of each type:
- Circuit-switched networks use dedicated channels for each connection and resources are allocated for the full duration of a call. Datagram networks divide messages into packets that are routed independently without resource reservation. Virtual-circuit networks have characteristics of both, allocating resources for the duration of a connection like circuit-switching but allowing packets to take different paths.
- The structure of switches is also discussed, including crossbar switches for circuit switching and packet switches that use techniques like time-slot interchange and time-space-time switching to
Bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading can improve efficiency and security of communications. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by techniques such as frequency-division, wavelength-division, and time-division multiplexing. Spreading techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum add redundancy to prevent eavesdropping and jamming while fitting signals into a larger bandwidth. Efficiency is achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming are achieved through spreading techniques.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining multiplexing as techniques that allow simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. Specific multiplexing techniques discussed include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. Spread spectrum techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum are also covered as ways to combine signals from different sources to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. Examples are provided to illustrate how these different bandwidth utilization techniques work.
A network switch (sometimes known as a switching hub) is a computer networking device that is used to connect devices together on a computer network by performing a form of packet switching. A switch is considered more advanced than a hub because a switch will only send a message to the device that needs or requests it, rather than broadcasting the same message out of each of its ports
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for bandwidth utilization including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples of combining multiple analog or digital signals into a single transmission medium and discusses frame rates, bit rates, and slot durations. Synchronization and data rate management techniques are also covered to efficiently allocate bandwidth when input link speeds are mismatched.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for bandwidth utilization including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples of combining multiple analog or digital signals into a single transmission medium and discusses frame rates, bit rates, and slot durations. Diagrams illustrate concepts like FDM configuration, TDM frame structure, and the digital telephone hierarchy using T1 and E1 lines. The document also covers data rate management, synchronization, and potential bandwidth inefficiency when input links are unused.
Multiplexing combines information streams from multiple sources for transmission over a shared medium. It allows for the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link when the bandwidth of the medium is greater than the bandwidth needs of the individual devices. Multiplexing techniques include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, time-division multiplexing, and space-division multiplexing. The main purpose of multiplexing in networks is efficient sharing of the available bandwidth between multiple users.
This document discusses different types of switched networks including circuit-switched networks, datagram networks, and virtual-circuit networks. It describes the key characteristics of each type, such as how resources are reserved and allocated, addressing schemes, routing approaches, and delay considerations. The document also covers the structure of switches used in different networks, comparing crossbar, multistage, and space-division switches. Examples are provided to illustrate three-stage switch design and routing in banyan switches.
There are several challenges associated with the trade cycle in e-commerce, which can affect the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the process. Some of these challenges include:
Security: One of the main challenges in e-commerce is ensuring the security of the transaction. This includes protecting sensitive data such as credit card information and personal details from theft, fraud, and other cyber threats.
Logistics: Shipping and delivery can be a significant challenge in e-commerce, particularly for products that require special handling or transportation. This includes ensuring timely delivery, tracking shipments, and dealing with returns and exchanges.
Payment processing: Payment processing can be complex, particularly for cross-border transactions involving different currencies and payment systems. It is essential to ensure that payment methods are secure, reliable, and convenient for customers.
Customer service: Providing high-quality customer service can be challenging in e-commerce, particularly for online-only businesses. It is essential to respond promptly to customer inquiries and complaints, provide accu
Which one is not a machine learning method?
= Hill climbing method
= Breadth first search
= Binary search
3. Self driving AI agent represent
= Continious
4. Which is our Current AI
= General AI
5. Type of component in AI agent
= 3 type
6. Which kind of agent have problem generator agent
= learning Agent
7. key task Problem solving Agent
= Solve the given problem and reach to goal & To find out which sequence of action will get it to the goal state both.
8. What will be the another name of blind search?
= Uninformed search
9. State space are the combination of
= both decission making and learning
10. which can be consider as initial state and goal state
= Problem instance
11. which concept we are hiding the details representation
= Abstraction
12. How many types of AI agents are avilable?
= 5 types
2 number question
1. difference between two different type of agent in AI.
There are several types of agents in artificial intelligence (AI), and each type of agent
has different characteristics and capabilities. Here are some of the main differences
between different types of agents:
Reactive agents vs. deliberative agents: Reactive agents are designed to respond directly
to their environment, without any internal model of the world or the ability to plan ahead.
Deliberative agents have an internal model of the world, which they use to reason about their
environment and plan their actions accordingly.
Simple reflex agents vs. model-based reflex agents: Simple reflex agents operate based on a
set of stimulus-response rules, which are pre-programmed to respond to certain environmental
inputs with specific actions. Model-based reflex agents have an internal model of the world,
which they use to update their rules and respond to changes in the environment.
Goal-based agents vs. utility-based agents: Goal-based agents are designed to achieve
specific goals, and they select actions that are likely to achieve those goals.
Utility-based agents are designed to maximize a numerical utility function, which assigns values
to different outcomes based on their desirability.
Learning agents vs. rule-based agents: Learning agents are designed to learn from their
experiences and update their behavior accordingly. Rule-based agents operate based on a set of
pre-defined rules, and they do not adapt their behavior based on experience.
Hybrid agents: Some agents combine different approaches to achieve more complex behavior.
For example, a hybrid agent might use a reactive component for fast responses to changes in
the environment, and a deliberative component for long-term planning.
2. universal connective
In logic and artificial intelligence (AI), the universal connective is a logical operator
that is used to express the universal quantification of a statement. The universal
quantification expresses that a statement is true for all values of a variable in a given domain.
In symbolic logic, the univers
This document discusses multiple access protocols for shared communication channels. It begins by explaining how data is framed and transmitted over shared links at the data link layer. It then covers three main categories of multiple access protocols: random access, controlled access, and channelization. Random access protocols like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA are described, as well as controlled access methods using reservation, polling, and token passing. Finally, channelization protocols for dividing access using frequency, time, or code (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA) are introduced. Examples are provided to illustrate load calculations and sequencing.
ALOHA multiple access data communication and networking.pdfnqck82120b
This document provides an overview of multiple access protocols and channelization methods for wireless networks. It discusses random access methods like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, controlled access methods using reservation, polling, and token passing, and channelization methods including frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), time-division multiple access (TDMA), and code-division multiple access (CDMA). Examples are provided to illustrate how to calculate throughput for different frame arrival rates in ALOHA and slotted ALOHA networks. Figures and notes explain carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) variants and how the different channelization methods divide access to the channel.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for shared wireless channels. It begins by describing random access protocols like ALOHA and carrier sense multiple access (CSMA). It provides examples of calculating throughput for these protocols. The document then covers controlled access protocols, including reservation, polling, and token passing. It describes how each protocol works and provides illustrations. Finally, it states that channelization is a multiple access technique for dividing a channel into several sub-channels.
The document discusses three channelization protocols - Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA). It provides examples and figures to illustrate how each protocol divides and shares the available bandwidth between different stations, whether through frequency bands, timesharing, or code sequences. Examples are given to show how Walsh codes can be used to create chip sequences for CDMA networks of different sizes.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for sharing a communication channel between multiple stations. It covers both random access protocols like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, and controlled access protocols like polling, token passing, and reservation. It also discusses channelization protocols for sharing bandwidth, including Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA). FDMA divides the channel into frequency bands, TDMA divides it into time slots, and CDMA allows all stations to transmit simultaneously using unique coding. The document provides detailed explanations, examples, diagrams and equations for each protocol.
This document discusses multiple access protocols used at the data link layer. It describes random access protocols like ALOHA and CSMA, controlled access protocols using reservation, polling and token passing, and channelization protocols including FDMA, TDMA and CDMA. Random access allows stations to transmit without coordination when they have data, while controlled access requires stations to get authorization before transmitting. Channelization divides the available bandwidth using techniques like frequency, time, or code to allow multiple simultaneous transmissions. Diagrams and examples are provided to illustrate how each protocol works.
This document discusses multiple access mechanisms for shared communication channels, including random access methods like ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, and controlled access methods like polling, token passing, and channelization techniques like FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. It provides examples and explanations of how each technique works, key parameters that impact performance, and calculations related to throughput and other metrics.
This document discusses multiple access protocols at the data link layer. It covers random access protocols like ALOHA and CSMA, as well as controlled access protocols including polling, reservation, and token passing. Random access allows any station to transmit at any time by using carrier sensing, collision detection, and random backoff times to avoid collisions. Controlled access requires stations to get permission before transmitting via polling, reservations, or a circulating token.
This document discusses multiple access protocols for wireless networks. It covers random access methods like ALOHA, CSMA, and variations that use carrier sensing and collision detection/avoidance. Controlled access methods like reservation, polling, and token passing that coordinate transmission are also discussed. Finally, the document outlines channelization methods including Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) that divide available bandwidth for simultaneous transmission.
This document discusses different types of switched networks including circuit-switched networks, datagram networks, and virtual-circuit networks. It provides details on the key aspects of each type:
- Circuit-switched networks use dedicated channels for each connection and resources are allocated for the full duration of a call. Datagram networks divide messages into packets that are routed independently without resource reservation. Virtual-circuit networks have characteristics of both, allocating resources for the duration of a connection like circuit-switching but allowing packets to take different paths.
- The structure of switches is also discussed, including crossbar switches for circuit switching and packet switches that use techniques like time-slot interchange and time-space-time switching to
Bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading can improve efficiency and security of communications. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by techniques such as frequency-division, wavelength-division, and time-division multiplexing. Spreading techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum add redundancy to prevent eavesdropping and jamming while fitting signals into a larger bandwidth. Efficiency is achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming are achieved through spreading techniques.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining multiplexing as techniques that allow simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. Specific multiplexing techniques discussed include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. Spread spectrum techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum are also covered as ways to combine signals from different sources to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. Examples are provided to illustrate how these different bandwidth utilization techniques work.
A network switch (sometimes known as a switching hub) is a computer networking device that is used to connect devices together on a computer network by performing a form of packet switching. A switch is considered more advanced than a hub because a switch will only send a message to the device that needs or requests it, rather than broadcasting the same message out of each of its ports
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for bandwidth utilization including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples of combining multiple analog or digital signals into a single transmission medium and discusses frame rates, bit rates, and slot durations. Synchronization and data rate management techniques are also covered to efficiently allocate bandwidth when input link speeds are mismatched.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for bandwidth utilization including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples of combining multiple analog or digital signals into a single transmission medium and discusses frame rates, bit rates, and slot durations. Diagrams illustrate concepts like FDM configuration, TDM frame structure, and the digital telephone hierarchy using T1 and E1 lines. The document also covers data rate management, synchronization, and potential bandwidth inefficiency when input links are unused.
Multiplexing combines information streams from multiple sources for transmission over a shared medium. It allows for the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link when the bandwidth of the medium is greater than the bandwidth needs of the individual devices. Multiplexing techniques include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, time-division multiplexing, and space-division multiplexing. The main purpose of multiplexing in networks is efficient sharing of the available bandwidth between multiple users.
This document discusses different types of switched networks including circuit-switched networks, datagram networks, and virtual-circuit networks. It describes the key characteristics of each type, such as how resources are reserved and allocated, addressing schemes, routing approaches, and delay considerations. The document also covers the structure of switches used in different networks, comparing crossbar, multistage, and space-division switches. Examples are provided to illustrate three-stage switch design and routing in banyan switches.
There are several challenges associated with the trade cycle in e-commerce, which can affect the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the process. Some of these challenges include:
Security: One of the main challenges in e-commerce is ensuring the security of the transaction. This includes protecting sensitive data such as credit card information and personal details from theft, fraud, and other cyber threats.
Logistics: Shipping and delivery can be a significant challenge in e-commerce, particularly for products that require special handling or transportation. This includes ensuring timely delivery, tracking shipments, and dealing with returns and exchanges.
Payment processing: Payment processing can be complex, particularly for cross-border transactions involving different currencies and payment systems. It is essential to ensure that payment methods are secure, reliable, and convenient for customers.
Customer service: Providing high-quality customer service can be challenging in e-commerce, particularly for online-only businesses. It is essential to respond promptly to customer inquiries and complaints, provide accu
Which one is not a machine learning method?
= Hill climbing method
= Breadth first search
= Binary search
3. Self driving AI agent represent
= Continious
4. Which is our Current AI
= General AI
5. Type of component in AI agent
= 3 type
6. Which kind of agent have problem generator agent
= learning Agent
7. key task Problem solving Agent
= Solve the given problem and reach to goal & To find out which sequence of action will get it to the goal state both.
8. What will be the another name of blind search?
= Uninformed search
9. State space are the combination of
= both decission making and learning
10. which can be consider as initial state and goal state
= Problem instance
11. which concept we are hiding the details representation
= Abstraction
12. How many types of AI agents are avilable?
= 5 types
2 number question
1. difference between two different type of agent in AI.
There are several types of agents in artificial intelligence (AI), and each type of agent
has different characteristics and capabilities. Here are some of the main differences
between different types of agents:
Reactive agents vs. deliberative agents: Reactive agents are designed to respond directly
to their environment, without any internal model of the world or the ability to plan ahead.
Deliberative agents have an internal model of the world, which they use to reason about their
environment and plan their actions accordingly.
Simple reflex agents vs. model-based reflex agents: Simple reflex agents operate based on a
set of stimulus-response rules, which are pre-programmed to respond to certain environmental
inputs with specific actions. Model-based reflex agents have an internal model of the world,
which they use to update their rules and respond to changes in the environment.
Goal-based agents vs. utility-based agents: Goal-based agents are designed to achieve
specific goals, and they select actions that are likely to achieve those goals.
Utility-based agents are designed to maximize a numerical utility function, which assigns values
to different outcomes based on their desirability.
Learning agents vs. rule-based agents: Learning agents are designed to learn from their
experiences and update their behavior accordingly. Rule-based agents operate based on a set of
pre-defined rules, and they do not adapt their behavior based on experience.
Hybrid agents: Some agents combine different approaches to achieve more complex behavior.
For example, a hybrid agent might use a reactive component for fast responses to changes in
the environment, and a deliberative component for long-term planning.
2. universal connective
In logic and artificial intelligence (AI), the universal connective is a logical operator
that is used to express the universal quantification of a statement. The universal
quantification expresses that a statement is true for all values of a variable in a given domain.
In symbolic logic, the univers
Thank you for the presentation on the blood supply and nerve supply of the conjunctiva. I appreciate you taking the time to educate me on this topic. Please let me know if you have any other questions.
The trade cycle in e-commerce refers to the various stages involved in a typical online transaction between a buyer and a seller. The trade cycle typically includes the following stages:
Product search and selection: The buyer searches for a product or service online and selects the desired item from the e-commerce website. This may involve browsing product categories, using search filters, and reading product descriptions and reviews.
Shopping cart and checkout: Once the buyer has selected the desired item, they add it to their shopping cart and proceed to checkout. At this stage, they may be required to enter their personal and payment information, such as name, address, and credit card details.
Order processing: After the buyer has completed the checkout process, the seller receives the order and processes it. This may involve verifying the availability of the product, preparing it for shipment, and generating a shipping label.
Payment processing: Once the order has been processed, the payment is processed by the payment gateway. This involves verifying the payment information and authorizing the transaction.
Shipping and delivery: The seller ships the product to the buyer's address using a third-party logistics provider or their own delivery service. The buyer is provided with tracking information to monitor the status of the shipment.
Returns and refunds: If the buyer is not satisfied with the product, they may initiate a return or exchange. The seller handles the return or exchange process and ensures that the buyer is satisfied with their purchase.
Customer service: The seller provides customer service to address any issues or concerns that the buyer may have regarding the product or service.
The trade cycle in e-commerce refers to the various stages involved in a typical online transaction between a buyer and a seller. The trade cycle typically includes the following stages:
Product search and selection: The buyer searches for a product or service online and selects the desired item from the e-commerce website. This may involve browsing product categories, using search filters, and reading product descriptions and reviews.
Shopping cart and checkout: Once the buyer has selected the desired item, they add it to their shopping cart and proceed to checkout. At this stage, they may be required to enter their personal and payment information, such as name, address, and credit card details.
Order processing: After the buyer has completed the checkout process, the seller receives the order and processes it. This may involve verifying the availability of the product, preparing it for shipment, and generating a shipping label.
Payment processing: Once the order has been processed, the payment is processed by the payment gateway. This involves verifying the payment information and authorizing the transaction.
Shipping and delivery: The seller ships the product to the buyer's address using a third-party logistics provider or their own delivery service. The buyer is provided with tracking information to monitor the status of the shipment.
Returns and refunds: If the buyer is not satisfied with the product, they may initiate a return or exchange. The seller handles the return or exchange process and ensures that the buyer is satisfied with their purchase.
Customer service: The seller provides customer service to address any issues or concerns that the buyer may have regarding the product or service.
The trade cycle in e-commerce refers to the various stages involved in a typical online transaction between a buyer and a seller. The trade cycle typically includes the following stages:
Product search and selection: The buyer searches for a product or service online and selects the desired item from the e-commerce website. This may involve browsing product categories, using search filters, and reading product descriptions and reviews.
Shopping cart and checkout: Once the buyer has selected the desired item, they add it to their shopping cart and proceed to checkout. At this stage, they may be required to enter their personal and payment information, such as name, address, and credit card details.
Order processing: After the buyer has completed the checkout process, the seller receives the order and processes it. This may involve verifying the availability of the product, preparing it for shipment, and generating a shipping label.
Payment processing: Once the order has been processed, the payment is processed by the payment gateway. This involves verifying the payment information and authorizing the transaction.
Shipping and delivery: The seller ships the product to the buyer's address using a third-party logistics provider or their own delivery service. The buyer is provided with tracking information to monitor the status of the shipment.
Returns and refunds: If the buyer is not satisfied with the product, they may initiate a return or exchange. The seller handles the return or exchange process and ensures that the buyer is satisfied with their purchase.
Customer service: The seller provides customer service to address any issues or concerns that the buyer may have regarding the product or service.
There are several challenges associated with the trade cycle in e-commerce, which can affect the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the process. Some of these challenges include:
Security: One of the main challenges in e-commerce is ensuring the security of the transaction. This includes protecting sensitive data such as credit card information and personal details from theft, fraud, and other cyber threats.
Logistics: Shipping and delivery can be a significant challenge in e-commerce, particularly for products that require special handling or transportation. This includes ensuring timely delivery, tracking shipments, and dealing with returns and exchanges.
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4. 12.4
12-1 RANDOM ACCESS
In random access or contention methods, no station is
superior to another station and none is assigned the
control over another. No station permits, or does not
permit, another station to send. At each instance, a
station that has data to send uses a procedure defined
by the protocol to make a decision on whether or not to
send.
ALOHA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
Topics discussed in this section:
7. 12.7
The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a
maximum of 600 km apart. If we assume that signals
propagate at 3 × 108 m/s, we find
Tp = (600 × 105 ) / (3 × 108 ) = 2 ms.
Now we can find the value of TB for different values of
K .
a. For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to|
generate a random number with a value of 0 or 1. This
means that TB is either 0 ms (0 × 2) or 2 ms (1 × 2),
based on the outcome of the random variable.
Example 12.1
8. 12.8
b. For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB
can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on the outcome of the
random variable.
c. For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This
means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, . . . , 14 ms, based on the
outcome of the random variable.
d. We need to mention that if K > 10, it is normally set to
10.
Example 12.1 (continued)
10. 12.10
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a
shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the requirement to
make this frame collision-free?
Example 12.2
Solution
Average frame transmission time Tfr is 200 bits/200 kbps or
1 ms. The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms = 2 ms. This means
no station should send later than 1 ms before this station
starts transmission and no station should start sending
during the one 1-ms period that this station is sending.
11. 12.11
The throughput for pure ALOHA is
S = G × e −2G .
The maximum throughput
Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).
Note
12. 12.12
A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a
shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the
system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.
Example 12.3
Solution
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1
frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case
S = G× e−2 G or S = 0.135 (13.5 percent). This means
that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 = 135 frames. Only
135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.
13. 12.13
Example 12.3 (continued)
b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is
(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this
case S = G × e −2G or S = 0.184 (18.4 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that
only 92 frames out of 500 will probably survive. Note
that this is the maximum throughput case,
percentagewise.
c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)
frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case
S = G × e −2G or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent). This means
that the throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38. Only 38
frames out of 250 will probably survive.
17. 12.17
A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a
shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the throughput if the
system (all stations together) produces
a. 1000 frames per second b. 500 frames per second
c. 250 frames per second.
Example 12.4
Solution
The frame transmission time is 200/200 kbps or 1 ms.
a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1
frame per millisecond. The load is 1. In this case
S = G× e−G or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent). This means
that the throughput is 1000 × 0.0368 = 368 frames.
Only 386 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.
18. 12.18
Example 12.4 (continued)
b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is
(1/2) frame per millisecond. The load is (1/2). In this
case S = G × e−G or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent). This
means that the throughput is 500 × 0.0303 = 151.
Only 151 frames out of 500 will probably survive.
c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)
frame per millisecond. The load is (1/4). In this case
S = G × e −G or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent). This means
that the throughput is 250 × 0.195 = 49. Only 49
frames out of 250 will probably survive.
25. 12.25
A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps.
If the maximum propagation time (including the delays in
the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a
jamming signal, as we see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the
minimum size of the frame?
Example 12.5
Solution
The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs.
This means, in the worst case, a station needs to transmit
for a period of 51.2 μs to detect the collision. The
minimum size of the frame is 10 Mbps × 51.2 μs = 512
bits or 64 bytes. This is actually the minimum size of the
frame for Standard Ethernet.
29. 12.29
In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to
define the priority of a station or a frame.
Note
30. 12.30
In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the
channel busy, it does not restart the
timer of the contention window;
it stops the timer and restarts it when
the channel becomes idle.
Note
32. 12.32
12-2 CONTROLLED ACCESS
In controlled access, the stations consult one another
to find which station has the right to send. A station
cannot send unless it has been authorized by other
stations. We discuss three popular controlled-access
methods.
Reservation
Polling
Token Passing
Topics discussed in this section:
36. 12.36
12-3 CHANNELIZATION
Channelization is a multiple-access method in which
the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, between different stations.
In this section, we discuss three channelization
protocols.
Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Topics discussed in this section:
37. 12.37
We see the application of all these
methods in Chapter 16 when
we discuss cellular phone systems.
Note
51. 12.51
Find the chips for a network with
a. Two stations b. Four stations
Example 12.6
Solution
We can use the rows of W2 and W4 in Figure 12.29:
a. For a two-station network, we have
[+1 +1] and [+1 −1].
b. For a four-station network we have
[+1 +1 +1 +1], [+1 −1 +1 −1],
[+1 +1 −1 −1], and [+1 −1 −1 +1].
52. 12.52
What is the number of sequences if we have 90 stations in
our network?
Example 12.7
Solution
The number of sequences needs to be 2m. We need to
choose m = 7 and N = 27 or 128. We can then use 90
of the sequences as the chips.
53. 12.53
Prove that a receiving station can get the data sent by a
specific sender if it multiplies the entire data on the
channel by the sender’s chip code and then divides it by
the number of stations.
Example 12.8
Solution
Let us prove this for the first station, using our previous
four-station example. We can say that the data on the
channel
D = (d1 ⋅ c1 + d2 ⋅ c2 + d3 ⋅ c3 + d4 ⋅ c4).
The receiver which wants to get the data sent by station 1
multiplies these data by c1.