_ch_01_lecture_presentation.pptx

Chapter 1
The Human Body:
An Orientation
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anatomy
 Anatomy
 Study of the structure and shape of the body and its
parts
 Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of
parts

Anatomy
 Gross anatomy
 Large structures
 Easily observable

Anatomy
 Let’s look at an example of gross anatomy using
the digestive system organs

Figure 1.2i The body’s organ systems.
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
(i) Digestive System
Breaks food down into absorbable
nutrients that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

Anatomy
 Microscopic anatomy
 Structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye
 Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a
microscope

Anatomy
 Let’s look at an example of microscopic anatomy
using a digestive system organ, the stomach

Figure 14.4c Anatomy of the stomach.
Gastric pits
Pyloric
sphincter
Gastric
pit
Surface
epithelium
Mucous
neck cells
Gastric
gland
Parietal cells
Gastric
glands
Chief cells
(c)

Figure 14.4d Anatomy of the stomach.
Pepsinogen
HCl
Pepsin
Parietal cells
Chief cells
Enteroendocrine
cell
(d)

Physiology
 Physiology
 Study of how the body and its parts work or function

Physiology
 Structure determines what functions can occur
 For example, the air sacs of the lungs have very
thin walls, a feature that enables them to
exchange gases and provide oxygen to the body

Levels of Structural Organization
 Six levels of structural organization
1. Atoms
2. Cells
3. Tissues
4. Organs
5. Organ systems
6. Organisms

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.
1
2
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
3
4
5
6
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Cardio–
vascular
system
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues.
Organ level
Organ systems consist of
different organs that work
together closely.
Organ system level
Human organisms are
made up of many organ
systems.
Organismal level
Slide 1

Atoms
Molecules
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
Slide 2
1

Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
2
Slide 3
2
1

Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Slide 4
1
2
3

Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Slide 5
1
2
3
4
Organ level

Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Cardio–
vascular
system
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Slide 6
1
2
3
4
Organ level
5
together closely.
Organ system level

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 7
Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
1
2
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
3
4
5
6
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Cardio–
vascular
system
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Organ level
together closely.
Organ system level
Human organisms are
made up of many organ
systems.
Organismal level

Organ System Overview
 Integumentary system
 Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes
hair and fingernails
 Waterproofs the body
 Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury
 Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight
 Excretes salts in perspiration
 Helps regulate body temperature
 Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

Figure 1.2a The body’s organ systems.
Hair
Skin
Fingernails
Forms the external body covering;
protects deeper tissue from injury;
synthesizes vitamin D; location of
sensory receptors (pain, pressure,
etc.) and sweat and oil glands.
(a) Integumentary System

 Skeletal system
 Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints
 Provides muscle attachment for movement
 Protects vital organs
 Site of blood cell formation
 Stores minerals

Figure 1.2b The body’s organ systems.
Cartilages
Joint
Bones
Protects and supports body
organs; provides a framework the
muscles use to cause movement;
blood cells are formed within
bones; stores minerals.
(b) Skeletal System

 Muscular system
 Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten)
 Produces movement of bones

Figure 1.2c The body’s organ systems.
Skeletal
muscles
(c) Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and
facial expression; maintains
posture; produces heat.

 Nervous system
 Fast-acting control system
 Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory
receptors
 Responds to internal and external stimuli
 Sensory receptors detect changes
 Messages are sent to the central nervous system
 Central nervous system assesses information and
activates effectors (muscles and glands)

Figure 1.2d The body’s organ systems.
Brain
Sensory
receptor
Spinal
cord
Nerves
(d) Nervous System
Fast-acting control system of the
body; responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.

 Endocrine system
 Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into
the blood
 Body functions controlled by hormones include:
 Growth
 Reproduction
 Use of nutrients

 Endocrine system (continued)
 Endocrine glands include:
 Pituitary gland
 Thyroid and parathyroids
 Adrenal glands
 Thymus
 Pancreas
 Pineal gland
 Ovaries (females) and testes (males)

Figure 1.2e The body’s organ systems.
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
(parathyroid glands
on posterior aspect)
Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Testis (male)
Ovary (female)
Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
(e) Endocrine System

 Cardiovascular system
 Includes heart and blood vessels
 Heart pumps blood
 Vessels transport blood to tissues
 Blood transports:
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Nutrients
 Hormones
 Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals
that provide protection from foreign invaders

Figure 1.2f The body’s organ systems.
Heart
Blood
vessels
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes,
etc.; the heart pumps blood.
(f) Cardiovascular System

 Lymphatic system
 Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and
lymphoid organs
 Complements the cardiovascular system by returning
leaked fluids back to bloodstream
 Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the
blood
 Houses white blood cells, which are involved in
immunity

Figure 1.2g The body’s organ systems.
Lymph
nodes
Lymphatic
vessels
Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream; houses white
blood cells involved in immunity.
(g) Lymphatic System

 Respiratory system
 Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs
 Gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs
in the lungs
 Supplies the body with oxygen
 Removes carbon dioxide

Figure 1.2h The body’s organ systems.
Keeps blood constantly supplied
with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide; the gaseous exchanges
occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs
(h) Respiratory System

 Digestive system
 Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach,
small and large intestines, rectum, and accessory
organs
 Breaks down food
 Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
 Eliminates indigestible material as feces

 Urinary system
 Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
 Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
 Maintains acid-base balance
 Regulates water and electrolyte balance
 Helps regulate normal blood pressure

Figure 1.2j The body’s organ systems.
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
Eliminates nitrogen-containing
wastes from the body; regulates
water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.
(j) Urinary System

 Reproductive system
 For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis,
accessory glands, and duct system
 Testes produce sperm
 Duct system carries sperm to exterior
 For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus, and vagina
 Ovaries produce eggs
 Uterus provides site of development for fetus

Figure 1.2k-l The body’s organ systems.
(k) Male Reproductive System
Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes
produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable
sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of
the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Seminal
vesicles
Prostate
gland
Penis
Testis
Scrotum
Mammary
glands
(in breasts)
Uterine
tube
Ovary
Uterus
Vagina
(l) Female Reproductive System

Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions
 Maintaining boundaries
 Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
 Movement
 Locomotion
 Movement of substances
 Responsiveness (irritability)
 Ability to sense changes and react
 Digestion
 Breakdown and absorption of nutrients

Necessary Life Functions
 Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body
 Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
 Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
 Produces energy (ATP)
 Regulated by hormones
 Excretion
 Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
 Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat

Necessary Life Functions
 Reproduction
 Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
 On cellular level—new cells are used for growth and
repair
 On organismal level—the reproductive system handles
the task
 Growth
 Increases cell size or body size (through increasing
the number of cells)
 Hormones play a major role

Survival Needs
 Nutrients
 Chemicals used for energy and cell building
 Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and
minerals
 Oxygen
 Required for chemical reactions
 Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory
and cardiovascular systems

Survival Needs
 Water
 60 to 80 percent of body weight
 Most abundant chemical in the human body
 Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
 Normal body temperature
 37ºC (98.6ºF)
 Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and
stop
 Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed
too rapidly

Survival Needs
 Atmospheric pressure
 Must be appropriate for gas exchange

Figure 1.3 Examples of interrelationships among organ systems that illustrate life functions.
Digestive system
Takes in nutrients, digests them
(part of metabolism), and excretes
unabsorbed matter (feces)
Respiratory system
Takes in oxygen, which is
required for metabolism, and
excretes carbon dioxide
Food O2 CO2
Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon dioxide
to disposal organs
Blood
Heart
CO2
O2
Nutrients
Interstitial fluid
Urinary system
Excretes nitrogen-
containing wastes
and excess ions
Nutrients and wastes pass
between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid
Feces are
excreted
Urine is
excreted
Integumentary system
Protects the body as a whole
from the external environment
by maintaining boundaries

The Language of Anatomy
 Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding
 Exact terms are used for:
 Position
 Direction
 Regions
 Structures

The Language of Anatomy
 Anatomical position
 Standard body position used to avoid confusion
 Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual
body position
 Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides
with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away
from the body

Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.

Directional Terms
 Directional terms
 Explain location of one body structure in relation to
another

Directional Terms
 Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or
upper part of a structure or the body; above
 Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward
the lower part of a structure or the body; below

Directional Terms
 Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the
body; in front of
 Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of
the body; behind

Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (1 of 3)

Directional Terms
 Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on
the inner side of
 Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the
outer side of
 Intermediate: between a more medial and a more
lateral structure

Directional Terms
 Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or
point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk
 Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the
point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Directional Terms
 Superficial (external): toward or at the body
surface
 Deep (internal): away from the body surface;
more internal

Regional Terms
 Anterior (ventral) body landmarks

Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Cephalic
Cervical
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic
Upper limb
Manus (hand)
Lower limb
Pedal (foot)
KEY:
Thorax
Abdomen
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Buccal
Oral
Mental
Sternal
Axillary
Pectoral
Umbilical
Inguinal
(groin)
Pubic (genital)
Acromial
Deltoid
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Olecranal
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Digital
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Crural (leg)
Fibular
Tarsal (ankle)
Digital

Regional Terms
 Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks

Figure 1.4b The anatomical position and regional terms.
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Upper limb
Manus (hand)
Lower limb
Pedal (foot)
Cephalic
Cervical
Back (dorsal)
Scapular
Occipital (back
of head)
Vertebral
Lumbar
Sacral
Gluteal
Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Digital
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular
Calcaneal
Plantar
KEY:
Back (Dorsum)

Body Planes and Sections
 Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as
planes
 Three types of planes or sections exist as right
angles to one another

Body Planes and Sections
 A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into
left and right parts
 A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body
(or organ) into equal left and right parts
 A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or
organ) into anterior and posterior parts
 A transverse, or cross, section divides the body
(or organ) into superior and inferior parts

Figure 1.5 The planes of the body—median, frontal, and transverse—with corresponding MRI scans.
(a) Median (midsagittal) (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane
Vertebral
column
Right
lung Heart
Left
lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen
Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous
fat layer
Spinal
cord

Body Cavities
 Two internal body cavities
 Dorsal
 Ventral
 Body cavities provide varying degrees of
protection to organs within them

Figure 1.6 Body cavities.
Cranial
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Diaphragm
Spinal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity
KEY:
Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity

Body Cavities
 Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions
1. Cranial cavity
 Houses the brain
 Protected by the skull
2. Spinal cavity
 Houses the spinal cord
 Protected by the vertebrae

Body Cavities
 Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions
separated by the diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Abdominopelvic cavity

Body Cavities
 Thoracic cavity
 Cavity superior to the diaphragm
 Houses heart, lungs, and other organs
 Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart,
trachea, and other organs
 Protected by the rib cage

Body Cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity
 Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
 Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver,
and other organs
 Protected only by trunk muscles
 Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs,
bladder, and rectum
 Protected somewhat by bony pelvis
 No physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic
cavities

Body Cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions
 Four quadrants
 Nine regions

Figure 1.7 The four abdominopelvic quadrants.
Right upper
quadrant
(RUQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
Right lower
quadrant
(RLQ)
Left upper
quadrant
(LUQ)

Figure 1.8 The nine abdominopelvic regions.
Right
hypochondriac
region
Epigastric
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Right
lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Left
lumbar
region
Right iliac
(inguinal)
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left iliac
(inguinal)
region
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions
showing the superficial organs
Liver
Large
intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary
bladder
Large
intestine
Diaphragm
Stomach

Body Cavities
 Other body cavities include:
 Oral and digestive cavities
 Nasal cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities

Homeostasis
 Homeostasis—maintenance of relatively stable
internal conditions
 A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
 Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain
life
 Main controlling systems
 Nervous system
 Endocrine system
 Homeostatic imbalance
 A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease

Maintaining Homeostasis
 All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least
three components: receptor, control center, and
effector
 Receptor
 Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
 Sends information to control center along an afferent
pathway

Maintaining Homeostasis
 Control center
 Determines set point
 Analyzes information
 Determines appropriate response
 Effector
 Provides a means for response to the stimulus
 Information flows from control center to effector along
efferent pathway

Feedback Mechanisms
 Negative feedback
 Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
 Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
 Works like a household thermostat

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system.
3 4
5
2
Control
Center
Receptor Effector
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Slide 1
Response
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Input: Information
is sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
Output: Information
is sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Slide 2
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Receptor
Slide 3
2 Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Control
Center
Receptor
Afferent
pathway
Slide 4
2 Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
3 Input: Information
pathway to control
center.
1

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 5
3 4
2
Control
Center
Receptor Effector
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Input: Information
pathway to control
center.
Output: Information
Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 6
3 4
5
2
Control
Center
Receptor Effector
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Response
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Input: Information
pathway to control
center.
Output: Information
Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Feedback Mechanisms
 Positive feedback
 Rare in the human body
 Increases the original stimulus to push the variable
farther
 Reaction occurs at a faster rate
 In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby

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