This document provides an overview of art from the modern to postmodern eras in the later 20th century. It discusses how World War 2 shifted the center of western art from Paris to New York. Modernist styles like abstract expressionism, minimalism, and conceptual art are examined. The document also explores postmodern reactions like pop art, earthworks, and new organic architectures. Key artists and their representative works from each movement are illustrated to understand the theories and styles and critique of modernism in late 20th century art.

1. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages,
12e
Chapter 34
From the Modern
to the Post-Modern and Beyond:
Art of the Later 20th Century
1

2. Map of the World in 1945
2

3. Map of the World in 2000
3

4. Goals
• Understand the shift of the Western art center and the growing
interests in multiculturalism in art.
• Understand the theories of Modernist formalism and their
rejection in Postmodernism.
• Recognize the various Modernist and Postmodernist styles,
artists, and representative works of art.
• Recognize the development of Modernist and Postmodernist
styles in architecture.
• Understand the cultural and self-criticism inherent in Postmodern
art and architecture.
4

5. 34.1 World War II and Its Aftermath
• Understand the shift of the Western art center from Paris to
New York as a result of world events during the after World
War II.
• Recognize the interest in multiculturalism and
the acceptance of art forms beyond the Western canon.
• Examine the theories of Modernist formalism, post-
modernism, and abstract expressionism.
5

6. 34.2 Post-War Expressionism
• Examine the issues, themes, and forms of Post-War
Expressionist art.
6

7. Figure 34-1 FRANCIS BACON, Painting, 1946. Oil and
pastel on linen, 6’ 5 7/8‖ x 4’ 4‖. Museum of Modern
Art, New York (purchase).
7

8. Figure 34-2 JEAN DUBUFFET, Vie Inquiète (Uneasy Life), 1953. Oil on canvas, approx. 4’ 3‖ x 6’ 4‖. Tate Gallery,
London.
8

9. Figure 34-3 ALBERTO GIACOMETTI, Man Pointing, 1947.
Bronze no. 5 of 6, 5’ 10‖ x 3’ 1’ 5 5/8‖. Nathan Emory Coffin
Collection of the Des Moines Art Center, Des Moines. (Purchased
with funds from the Coffin Fine Arts Trust.)
9

10. 34.3 Modernist Formalism
• Understand the origins of modernist formalism and its
theoretical basis.
• Recognize the formal elements of the art styles known as
Abstract Expressionism, Post-Painterly Abstractionism, and
Minimalism.
• Identify individual artists and representative works of art.
10

11. Abstract Expressionism
• Understand Abstract Expressionism as the first major art
style to be developed in the United States.
• Examine the two main processes of Abstract Expressionism,
gestural abstraction and chromatic abstraction.
11

12. Figure 34-4 JACKSON POLLOCK, Number 1, 1950 (Lavender Mist), 1950. Oil, enamel, and aluminum paint on
canvas, 7’ 3‖ x 9’ 10‖. National Gallery of Art, Washington (Ailsa Mellon Bruce Fund). 12

13. Figure 34-5 Photo of Jackson Pollock painting.
13

14. Figure 34-6 WILLEM DE KOONING,
Woman I, 1950–1952. Oil on canvas, 6’ 3
7/8‖ x 4’ 10‖. Museum of Modern Art, New
York (purchase).
14

15. Chromatic Abstract Expressionist
• Examine the formal elements and quieter aesthetics of
chromatic abstraction in contrast to the gestural.
15

16. Figure 34-7 BARNETT NEWMAN, Vir Heroicus Sublimis, 1950–1951. Oil on canvas, 7’ 11 3/8‖ x 17’ 9 1/4‖. Museum
of Modern Art, New York (gift of Mr. and Mrs. Ben Heller).
16

17. Figure 34-8 MARK
ROTHKO, No. 14, 1961 Oil
on canvas, 9’ 6‖ x 8’ 9‖. San
Francisco Museum of Modern
Art, Helen Crocker Russell
Fund Purchase. 17

18. Figure 34-9 David Smith, Cubi XIX,
1964. Stainless steel.
18

19. Post-Painterly Abstraction
• Examine the formal elements of the style described by
Clement Greenberg as the cool and rational Post-Painterly
Abstraction.
19

20. Figure 34-10 ELLSWORTH KELLY, Red Blue Green, 1963. Oil on canvas, 6’ 11 5/8‖ x 11’ 3 7/8‖. Collection Museum
of Contemporary Art, San Diego (gift of Dr. and Mrs. Jack M. Farris).
20

21. Figure 34-11 FRANK STELLA, Nunca Pasa Nada, 1964. Metallic powder in polymer emulsion on canvas, 9’ 2‖ x 18’ 4
1/2‖. Collection of Lannan Foundation.
21

22. Figure 34-12 HELEN FRANKENTHALER, Bay Side, 1967. Acrylic on canvas, 6’ 2‖ x 6’ 9‖. Private Collection, New
York.
22

23. Figure 34-13 MORRIS LOUIS, Saraband, 1959. Acrylic resin on canvas, 8’ 5 1/8‖ x 12’ 5‖. Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum, New York.
23

24. Minimalist Abstraction
• Examine the formal elements of Minimalism, a
predominantly sculptural movement and its emphasis on
objecthood.
24

25. Figure 34-14 TONY SMITH, Die, 1962. Steel, 6’ x 6’ x 6’. Museum of Modern Art, New York (gift of Jane Smith in
honor of Agnes Gund).
25

26. Figure 34-15 DONALD JUDD, Untitled, 1969. Brass and colored fluorescent
plexiglass on steel brackets, ten units, 6 1/8‖ x 2’ x 2’ 3‖ each, with 60 intervals.
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington (gift of
Joseph H. Hirshhorn, 1972). Art copyright © Donald Judd Estate/Licensed by VAGA,
New York, NY.
26

27. Figure 34-16 MAYA YING LIN, Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Washington, D.C., 1981–1983. Black granite, each wing
246’ long.
27

28. 34.4 Alternatives to Modernist Formalism
• Examine the expressive qualities of directions in sculptural
forms outside of Minimalism.
• Examine the development of Performance Art and
Happenings, combining two- and three-dimensional art
forms along with other arts.
• Examine the development of Conceptual Art and the
elimination of the object.
28

29. Expressive Sculpture
• Understand the ideas, feelings, and forms of sculpture in
contrast to the Minimalist forms.
29

30. Figure 34-17 LOUISE NEVELSON, Tropical Garden II, 1957–1959. Wood painted black, 5’ 11 1/2‖ x 10’ 11 3/4‖ x 1’.
Musée National d’Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris.
30

31. Figure 34-18 LOUISE BOURGEOIS, Cumul I, 1969. Marble, 1’ 10 3/8‖ x 4’ 2‖ x 4’. Musée National d’Art Moderne,
Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris. Copyright © Louise Bourgeois/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
31

32. Figure 34-19 EVA HESSE, Hang-Up,
1965–1966. Acrylic on cloth over wood and
steel, 6’ x 7’ x 6’ 6‖. Art Institute of Chicago,
Chicago (gift of Arthur Keating and Mr. and
Mrs. Edward Morris by exchange).
32

33. Figure 34-20 GEORGE BRECHT, Event Scores.
33

34. Performance Art and Happenings
• Examine the innovative forms of Performance Art and
Happenings which combined two- and three-dimensional art
along with other arts.
34

35. Figure 34-21 KAZUO SHIRAGA, Making a Work with His Own Body, 1955. Mud.
35

36. Figure 34-22 CAROLEE SCHNEEMAN, Meat Joy,
1964. Photograph of performance at Judson Church,
New York.
36

37. Figure 34-23 JOSEPH BEUYS, How to Explain Pictures to a
Dead Hare, 1965. Photograph of Performance art. Schmela
Gallery, Düsseldorf.
37

38. Figure 34-24 JEAN TINGUELY, Homage to
New York, 1960, just prior to its self-destruction in
the garden of the Museum of Modern Art, New
York.
38

39. Conceptual Art
• Examine the development of Conceptual Art and the
elimination of the object and the idea itself as a work of art.
39

40. Figure 34-25 JOSEPH KOSUTH, One and Three Chairs, 1965. Wooden folding chair, photographic copy of a chair, and
photographic enlargement of a dictionary definition of a chair; chair, 2’ 8 3/8‖ x 1’ 2 7/8‖ x 1’ 8 7/8‖; photo panel, 3’ x 2’
1/8‖; text panel, 2’ 2’ 1/8‖. Museum of Modern Art, New York (Larry Aldrich Foundation Fund).
40

41. Figure 34-26 BRUCE
NAUMAN, The True Artist
Helps the World by Revealing
Mystic Truths (Window or Wall
Sign), 1967. Neon with glass
tubing suspension frame, 4’ 11‖ x
4’ 7‖ x 2‖. Private collection.
41

42. 34.5 Art for the Public
• Understand the growing interest in the communicative
power of art in reaction to art that had alienated the public.
• Understand Pop Art’s interest in traditional artistic devices
and consumerism.
• Examine Superrealism and its fidelity to optical fact.
• Understand the development of site specific art forms
known as Environmental Art or earth works.
42

43. Pop Art
• Understand the popular trends of traditional artistic devices
and consumerism in Pop Art.
43

44. Figure 34-27 RICHARD
HAMILTON, Just What Is It
That Makes Today’s Homes
So Different, So Appealing?,
1956. Collage, 10 1/4‖ x 9
3/4‖. Kunsthalle Tübingen,
Tübingen, Germany.
44

45. Figure 34-28 JASPER JOHNS, Flag, 1954–1955, dated on reverse 1954. Encaustic, oil, and collage on fabric mounted on
plywood, 3’ 6 1/4‖ x 5’ 5/8‖. Museum of Modern Art, New York (gift of Philip Johnson in honor of Alfred H. Barr, Jr.).
Copyright © Jasper Johns/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.
45

46. Figure 34-29 ROBERT
RAUSCHENBERG, Canyon, 1959. Oil,
pencil, paper, fabric, metal, cardboard
box, printed paper, printed
reproductions, photograph, wood, paint
tube, and mirror on canvas, with oil on
bald eagle, string, and pillow, 6’ 9 3/4‖ x
5’ 10‖ x 2’. Sonnabend Collection.
Copyright © Untitled Press,
Inc./Licensed by VAGA, New York.
46

47. Figure 34-30 ROY
LICHTENSTEIN,
Hopeless, 1963. Oil on
canvas, 3’ 8‖ x 3’ 8‖.
Kunstmuseum, Basel
(permanent loan from
the Ludwig Foundation
Collection).
47

48. Figure 34-31 ANDY WARHOL, Green Coca-Cola
Bottles, 1962. Oil on canvas, 6’ 10 1/2‖ x 4’ 9‖.
Collection of Whitney Museum of American Art, New
York (purchase, with funds from the Friends of the
Whitney Museum of American Art).
48

49. Figure 34-32 ANDY WARHOL, Marilyn Diptych, 1962. Oil, acrylic, and silk-screen enamel on canvas. Tate Gallery,
London.
49

50. Figure 34-33 CLAES OLDENBURG, photo of one-person show at the Green Gallery, New York, 1962.
50

51. Superrealism
• Examine Superrealism, its fidelity to optical fact and
attention to minute detail and commonplace objects.
51

52. Figure 34-34 AUDREY FLACK, Marilyn, 1977. Oil over acrylic on canvas, 8’ x 8’. Collection of the University of Arizona
Museum, Tucson (museum purchase with funds provided by the Edward J. Gallagher, Jr. Memorial Fund).
52

53. Figure 34-35 CHUCK CLOSE, Big Self-
Portrait, 1967–1968. Acrylic on canvas, 8’ 11‖ x
6’ 11‖ x 2‖. Collection Walker Art Center,
Minneapolis (Art Center Acquisition Fund,
1969).
53

54. Figure 34-36 DUANE
HANSON, Supermarket
Shopper, 1970. Polyester
resin and fiberglass
polychromed in oil, with
clothing, steel cart, and
groceries, life-size.
Nachfolgeinstitut, Neue
Galerie, Sammlung
Ludwig, Aachen.
54

55. Site Specific Art
• Understand the development of Environmental and Site
Specific Art as an outgrowth of ecological and environmental
concerns.
55

56. Figure 34-37 ROBERT SMITHSON, Spiral Jetty, 1970. Black rock, salt crystals, earth, red water (algae) at Great Salt
Lake, Utah. 1,500’ x 15’ x 3 1/2’. Estate of Robert Smithson; courtesy James Cohan Gallery, New York; collection of DIA
Center for the Arts, New York.
56

57. Figure 34-39 RICHARD SERRA, Tilted Arc, 1981.
Cor-Ten steel, 12’ x 120’ x 2 1/2‖. Installed Federal
Plaza, New York City by the General Services
Administration, Washington D.C. Removed by the U.S.
Government 1989.
57

58. 34.6 New Models for Architecture
• Examine the organic and fluid forms developed as new
models for modernist architecture.
• Recognize the distinctions between the works of Modernist
and Postmodern architects.
58

59. Figure 34-40 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (exterior view from the northwest), New
York, 1943–1959 (photo 1962).
59

60. Figure 34-41 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, Interior of
the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York,
1943–1959.
60

61. Figure 34-42 LE CORBUSIER, Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France, 1950–1955.
61

62. Figure 34-43 LE CORBUSIER, Interior of Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France, 1950–1955.
62

63. Figure 34-44 JOERN UTZON, Sydney Opera House, Sydney, Australia, 1959–1972. Reinforced concrete; height of
highest shell, 200’. 63

64. Figure 34-45 EERO SAARINEN, Trans World Airlines terminal, Kennedy Airport, New York, 1956–1962.
64

65. Figure 34-46 LUDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE and
PHILIP JOHNSON, Seagram Building, New York, 1956–
1958.
65

66. Figure 34-47 SKIDMORE, OWINGS AND MERRILL, Sears Tower, Chicago, 1974.
66

67. Figure 34-48 CHARLES MOORE, Piazza
d’Italia, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1976–1980.
67

68. Figure 34-49 PHILIP JOHNSON and JOHN
BURGEE with Simmons Architects, associated
architects, a model of the AT&T Building, New York,
1978–1984.
68

69. Postmodern Architecture
• Examine the elements and issues of Postmodern architecture
in its use of classical and colonial forms as well as later
deconstructivist forms.
69

70. Figure 34-50 MICHAEL GRAVES, The Portland Building, Portland, Oregon, 1980.
70

71. Figure 34-51 ROBERT VENTURI, JOHN RAUCH and DENISE SCOTT BROWN, house in Delaware (west elevation),
1978–1983.
71

72. Figure 34-52 RICHARD ROGERS and RENZO PIANO, Georges Pompidou National Center of Art and Culture (the
―Beaubourg‖), Paris, 1977.
72

73. Figure 34-53 GÜNTER BEHNISCH, Hysolar Institute Building, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany, 1987.
73

74. Figure 34-54 FRANK GEHRY, Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain, 1997.
74

75. 34.7 Postmodernism in Painting, Sculpture,
and New Media
• Understand the inclusion of traditional elements, historical
references, and artistic self-consciousness in Postmodern art.
• Examine Neo-expressionist interest in intense emotions and
in the physicality of paint and media combinations.
• Understand the contemporary political content of feminist
and cultural heritage art.
• Examine the use of new video and digital technologies
available in the making of art.
• Understand cultural criticism as inherent to Postmodernism.
75

76. Postmodern Painting
and Other Media
• Understand the traditional elements, historical references,
and artistic self-consciousness.
• Examine Neo-expressionist intense emotions and the
physicality of media combinations.
76

77. Figure 34-55 JULIAN SCHNABEL, The Walk Home, 1984–1985. Oil, plates, copper, bronze, fiberglass, and bondo on
wood, 9’ 3‖ x 19’ 4‖. Broad Art Foundation and the Pace Gallery, New York.
77

78. Figure 34-56 SUSAN ROTHENBERG, Tattoo, 1979. Acrylic, flashe on canvas, 5’ 7‖ x 8’ 7 1/8‖ x 1 1/4‖. Collection
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis (purchased with the aid of funds from Mr. and Mrs. Edmond R. Ruben, Mr. and Mrs. Julius
E. Davis, the Art Center Acquisition Fund and the National Endowment for the Arts, 1979).
78

79. Figure 34-57 ANSELM KIEFER, Nigredo, 1984. Oil paint on photosensitized fabric, acrylic emulsion, straw, shellac,
relief paint on paper pulled from painted wood, 11’ x 18’. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia (gift of Friends of the
Philadelphia Museum of Art).
79

80. Figure 34-58 CHRIS OFILI, The Holy Virgin
Mary, 1996. Paper collage, oil paint, glitter,
polyester resin, map pins, elephant dung on linen,
7’ 11‖ x 5’ 11 5/16‖. The Saatchi Collection,
London.
80

81. Postmodern Art as Political Weapon
• Understand the social content and political statements of
feminist art along with innovative and expressive use of
materials.
• Understand the use of art to express gender and cultural
heritage issues, as well as the experimental forms and
innovative use of materials.
81

82. Figure 34-59 JUDY CHICAGO, The Dinner Party, 1979. Multimedia, including ceramics and stitchery, 48’ x 48’ x 48’
installed.
82

83. Figure 34-60 MIRIAM SCHAPIRO, Anatomy of a Kimono (section), 1976. Fabric and acrylic on canvas, 6’ 8‖ x 8’ 6‖.
Collection of Bruno Bishofberger, Zurich.
83

84. Figure 34-61 CINDY SHERMAN, Untitled Film Still
#35, 1979. Black-and-white photograph, 10‖ x 8‖.
Metro Pictures, New York.
84

85. Figure 34-62 BARBARA KRUGER, Untitled
(Your Gaze Hits the Side of My Face), 1983.
Photostat, red painted frame, 6’ 1‖ x 4’ 1‖.
Courtesy of Mary Boone Gallery, New York.
85

86. Figure 34-63 ANA MENDIETA, Flowers on Body,
1973. Color photograph of earth/body work with flowers,
executed at El Yaagul, Oaxaca, Mexico . Courtesy of the
Estate of Ana Medieta and Galerie Lelong, New York.
86

87. Figure 34-64 HANNAH WILKE, S.O.S.—Starification Object Series, 1974-82. 10 Black-and-white photographs with 15
chewing-gum sculptures in Plexiglas cases mounted on ragboard, from a series originally made for S.O.S. Mastication Box
and used in an exhibition-performance at The Clocktower, January 1, 1975, 3’ 5‖ x 5’ 8‖.
87

88. Figure 34-65 KIKI SMITH, Untitled, 1990. Beeswax
and microcrystalline wax figures on metal stands, female
figure installed height 6’ 1 1/2‖ and male figure installed
height 6’ 4 15/16‖. Collection Whitney Museum of
American Art, New York (purchase, with funds from the
Painting and Sculpture Committee).
88

89. Figure 34-66 FAITH
RINGGOLD, Who’s Afraid of
Aunt Jemima?, 1983. Acrylic on
canvas with fabric borders, quilted,
7’ 6‖ x 6’ 8‖. Private collection.
89

90. Figure 34-67 ADRIAN PIPER, Cornered, 1988. Mixed-media installation of variable size; video monitor, table, and birth
certificates. Collection of Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago.
90

91. Figure 34-68 LORNA SIMPSON, Stereo Styles, 1988. 10 black-and-white Polaroid prints and 10 engraved plastic plaques,
5’ 4‖ x 9’ 8‖ overall. Collection of Raymond J. Learsy, Sharon, Connecticut.
91

92. Figure 34-69 MELVIN EDWARDS, Tambo,
1993.Welded steel, 2' 4 1/8" x 2' 1 1/4" . Smithsonian
American Art Museum,Washington, D.C.
92

93. Figure 34-70 DAVID HAMMONS, Public Enemy, installation at Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1991. Photographs,
balloons, sandbags, guns, and other mixed media.
93

94. Figure 34-71 JAUNE QUICK-TO-SEE SMITH, Trade (Gifts for Trading Land with White People), 1992. Oil and mixed
media on canvas, 5’ x 14’ 2‖. Chrysler Museum of Art, Norfolk, Virginia (museum purchase 93.2).
94

95. Figure 34-72 LEON GOLUB, Mercenaries (IV), 1980. Acrylic on linen, 10’ x 19’ 2‖. Collection Mr. and Mrs. Ulrich
Meyer, Chicago.
95

96. Figure 34-73 MAGDALENA
ABAKANOWICZ, artist with Backs, at
the Musée d’Art Moderne de la Ville de
Paris, Paris, France, 1982. Copyright ©
Magdalena Abakanowicz/Licensed by
VAGA, New York, NY/Marlborough
Gallery, NY. 96

97. Figure 34-74 DAVID WOJNAROWICZ, "When I Put My Hands On Your Body", 1990. Gelatin-silver print and silk-
screened text on museum board, 2’ 2‖ x 3’ 2‖. Collection of Tom Rauffenbart.
97

98. Figure 34-75 KRZYSZTOF WODICZKO, The
Homeless Projection, 1986–1987. Outdoor slide
projection at the Soldiers and Sailors Civil War Memorial,
Boston, organized by First Night, Boston.
98

99. Figure 34-76 NAM JUNE PAIK, Video still from Global Groove, 1973. 3/4 videotape, color, sound, 30 minutes.
Collection of the artist.
99

100. Figure 34-77 DAVID EM, Nora, 1979. Computer-generated color photograph, 1’ 5‖ x 1’ 11‖. Private collection.
100

101. Figure 34-78 JENNY HOLZER, Untitled (Selections from Truisms, Inflammatory Essays, The Living Series, The
Survival Series, Under a Rock, Laments, and Child Text), 1989. Extended helical tricolor LED electronic display signboard,
16‖ x 162’ x 6‖. Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, December 1989–February 1990 (partial gift of the artist,
1989). 101

102. New Technologies for Art
• Examine the expressive use of video and digital technologies
by Postmodern artists.
102

103. Figure 34-79 BILL VIOLA, The Crossing, 1996.
Installation with two channels of color video
projection onto screens 16’-high.
103

104. Figure 34-86 MATTHEW BARNEY,
Cremaster cycle, installation at the
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 2003.
104

105. Criticism of Commodity Culture, Art
History, and Art Institutions
• Understand Postmodernist criticism of contemporary
commodity culture, and criticism of galleries and museums.
• Examine Postmodern art that draws attention to global social
injustice and world problems.
105

106. Figure 34-80 TONY OURSLER, Mansheshe, 1997.Ceramic, glass, video player, videocassette, CPJ-200 video projector,
sound, 11‖ x 7‖ x 8‖ each. Courtesy the artist and Metro Pictures, New York.
106

107. Figure 34-81 JEFF KOONS, Pink Panther, 1988. Porcelain, 3’
5‖ x 1’ 8 1/2‖ x 1’ 7‖. Collection Museum of Contemporary Art,
Chicago (Gerald S. Elliot Collection).
107

108. Figure 34-82 MARK TANSEY, A Short History of Modernist Painting, 1982. Oil on canvas, three panels, each 4’ 10‖ x
3’ 4‖.
108

109. Figure 34-83 ROBERT ARNESON, California Artist, 1982. Glazed stoneware, 5’
8 1/4‖ x 2’ 3 1/2‖ x 1’ 8 1/4‖. San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (gift of the
Modern Art Council). Copyright © Estate of Robert Arneson/Licensed by VAGA,
New York, NY.
109

110. Figure 34-84 HANS HAACKE, MetroMobiltan, 1985. Fiberglass construction, three banners, and photomural, 11’ 8‖ x
20’ x 5’. Collection Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris.
110

111. Figure 34-85 GUERRILLA GIRLS, The Advantages of Being A Woman Artist, 1988. Poster.
111

112. Discussion Questions
 How are the two main processes of Abstract
Expressionism different? Name and processes and one
artist for each.
 What do Minimalist sculptors mean by the concept of
objecthood?
 What is meant by Conceptual Art and the elimination of the
object?
 Why do you think Modernist art and architecture alienated
the public? Do you agree that Postmodern art and
architecture are more in tune to the public’s interests?
 In what ways has new technology already changed our
perception of what art is?
112