Ch 12
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Hemiplegia is paralysis of one side of the body caused by damage to the motor areas on the opposite side of the brain. Paraplegia is complete paralysis of both legs caused by damage to the spinal cord. Hemiparesis is weakness or loss of motion on one side of the body similar to hemiplegia but less severe.
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The document discusses the nervous system and different types of paralysis. It explains that the nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. It then defines several medical terms related to paralysis, including hemiplegia as partial or total paralysis on one side of the body. Hemiplegia can be present at birth or occur later in life, and is often caused by a brain lesion or stroke disrupting blood flow to the brain.
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This document discusses medical suffixes related to weakness and coordination. It defines -paresis as meaning weakness and explains that hemiparesis refers to weakness on one side of the body, such as from a stroke, while monoparesis is muscle weakness in a single limb. -taxia is defined as meaning muscle coordination, and ataxia refers to a lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements that can indicate issues with parts of the nervous system that control movement, such as the cerebellum.
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The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. General anesthesia affects the central nervous system by shutting down the brain's pain centers so the body does not feel pain. Paralysis can originate from damage to the central nervous system, with injuries or diseases destroying brain cells that can paralyze parts of the body on one side. Paralysis may be spastic if muscles are stiff from brain damage or flaccid if spinal cord nerve cells controlling movement are damaged.
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Paraplegia is an impairment of motor or sensory function in the lower extremities, usually caused by spinal cord injury or a congenital condition like spina bifida. It affects the thoracic, lumbar, or sacral regions of the spinal canal. Paraplegia can result from traumatic spinal cord injury, inflammation/swelling, or non-traumatic factors like tumors, scoliosis, or spina bifida. Spinal cord injuries causing paraplegia are classified as complete or incomplete based on the retention of feeling or function below the injury point.
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This document discusses medical suffixes related to weakness and coordination. It defines -paresis as meaning weakness and explains that hemiparesis refers to weakness on one side of the body, such as from a stroke, while monoparesis is muscle weakness in a single limb. -taxia is defined as meaning muscle coordination, and ataxia refers to a lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements that can indicate issues with parts of the nervous system that control movement, such as the cerebellum.
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The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. General anesthesia affects the central nervous system by shutting down the brain's pain centers so the body does not feel pain. Paralysis can originate from damage to the central nervous system, with injuries or diseases destroying brain cells that can paralyze parts of the body on one side. Paralysis may be spastic if muscles are stiff from brain damage or flaccid if spinal cord nerve cells controlling movement are damaged.
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Paraplegia is an impairment of motor or sensory function in the lower extremities, usually caused by spinal cord injury or a congenital condition like spina bifida. It affects the thoracic, lumbar, or sacral regions of the spinal canal. Paraplegia can result from traumatic spinal cord injury, inflammation/swelling, or non-traumatic factors like tumors, scoliosis, or spina bifida. Spinal cord injuries causing paraplegia are classified as complete or incomplete based on the retention of feeling or function below the injury point.
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The document summarizes information about the spinal accessory nerve (XI nerve). It supplies two muscles - the sternocleidomastoid and upper portion of the trapezius. The sternocleidomastoid turns the head and brings it forward, while the trapezius retracts the head and rotates the scapula. Lesions can occur at supranuclear, nuclear, or infranuclear levels and cause weakness of these muscles. Torticollis is an abnormal function of the inhibitory network between the trigeminal and accessory nerves that causes twisting of the neck. It can be congenital or acquired through trauma, infection, or drugs.
Accessory nerve
This document discusses the spinal accessory nerve (cranial nerve XI), which has both spinal and cranial parts. The spinal part arises from the cervical spinal cord and innervates the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles. The cranial part arises from the medulla and joins with the vagus nerve. Damage to the spinal accessory nerve can cause weakness of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles and difficulty rotating the head.
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The document discusses the structure and function of the brain ventricles and surrounding areas. It describes how cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the choroid plexus and circulates through the four ventricles before being reabsorbed into blood vessels. It also outlines the major structures surrounding each ventricle, such as the hypothalamus around the third ventricle and the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata surrounding the fourth ventricle. Finally, it reviews the structures and functions of areas surrounding the ventricles, including the basal ganglia and internal capsule.
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The accessory nerve has both a spinal and cranial component. The spinal component originates from spinal nerve roots C1-C6 and innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. The cranial component originates in the medulla and joins with the vagus nerve. The accessory nerve is vulnerable to damage due to its superficial extracranial course.
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The accessory nerve (XI) has both a cranial and spinal root. The cranial root arises from the nucleus ambiguous and joins the vagus nerve, innervating pharyngeal muscles. The spinal root arises from cervical spinal cord segments C1-C5 and exits the skull through the jugular foramen. It innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. Lesions or injuries to the accessory nerve can cause paralysis of these muscles and result in issues like drooping shoulders, inability to turn the head, or torticollis.
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The cerebrum is the largest part of the forebrain and is divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere has four lobes - frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital - which are involved in different cognitive functions like motor control, sensory processing, memory, and vision. The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer and consists of grey matter, while the deeper white matter contains axons connecting different areas. Key structures include the lateral ventricles and basal ganglia. Brodmann's areas map the histological regions of the cortex.
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This document provides an overview of key topics in neuroscience as an introduction to a PsyD program. It covers the central and peripheral nervous systems, including their relative sizes in different animals. It also discusses the general relationships between the central, peripheral, and visceral nervous systems. Additionally, it outlines the basic divisions of the central nervous system and provides labeling for important neuroanatomy terms and directions. Diagrams are included to illustrate representative neurons and synapses, as well as the anatomy of specific brain structures such as the cerebral cortex, ventricles, hippocampus, thalamus, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord.
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nervous system
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1.2 Vagus nerve
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2.3 Sexual activity
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2.4.1 Types of muscarinic receptors
2.4.2 Types of nicotinic receptors
2.5 Relationship to sympathetic nervous system
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The skin
The skin is the largest organ of the human body, covering 1.5-2m2 and representing 16% of body weight. It has several important functions including protection, temperature regulation, secretion, sensation, insulation, and vitamin D synthesis.
The skin is composed of three layers - the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is the top layer made of epithelial cells and provides protection. The dermis is the middle layer made of connective tissue that offers elasticity and contains structures like hair follicles and sweat glands. The lowest subcutaneous layer contains fat and connects tissue and functions to insulate and store energy.
Accessory organs of the skin like sweat g
The skin
The skin is the largest organ of the human body, covering 1.5-2m2 and representing 16% of body weight. It has several important functions including protection, temperature regulation, secretion, sensation, insulation, and vitamin D synthesis.
The skin is composed of three layers - the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is the top layer made of epithelial cells. The dermis is the middle layer made of connective tissue. The subcutaneous layer is the innermost layer containing fatty tissue.
Accessory organs of the skin like sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair, and nails are located within or on the surface of the skin.
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Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
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Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
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GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
Gastritis and Gastric Health
Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
Among gastric problems, we have GASTRITIS AND GASTRIC ULCERS as the main public health problems. Gastritis and gastric ulcers normally result from inflammation and corrosion of the walls of the stomach (gastric mucosa) and are generally associated (caused) by the bacterium Helicobacter pylor, which, according to the literature, this bacterium settles on these walls (of the stomach) and starts to release urease that ends up altering the normal pH of the stomach (acid), which leads to inflammation and corrosion of the mucous membranes and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
In addition to bacterial infections, gastritis and gastric ulcers are associated with several factors, with emphasis on prolonged fasting, chemical substances including drugs, alcohol, foods with strong seasonings including chilli, which ends up causing inflammation of the stomach walls and/or corrosion. of the same, resulting in the appearance of wounds and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
Among patients with gastritis and/or ulcers, one of the dilemmas is associated with the foods to consume in order to minimize the sensation of pain and discomfort. Dr. Tan's Balance Method.pdf (From Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin)
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Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
About AOMA: The Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin offers a masters-level graduate program in acupuncture and Oriental medicine, preparing its students for careers as skilled, professional practitioners. AOMA is known for its internationally recognized faculty, award-winning student clinical internship program, and herbal medicine program. Since its founding in 1993, AOMA has grown rapidly in size and reputation, drawing students from around the nation and faculty from around the world. AOMA also conducts more than 20,000 patient visits annually in its student and professional clinics. AOMA collaborates with Western healthcare institutions including the Seton Family of Hospitals, and gives back to the community through partnerships with nonprofit organizations and by providing free and reduced price treatments to people who cannot afford them. The Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin is located at 2700 West Anderson Lane. AOMA also serves patients and retail customers at its south Austin location, 4701 West Gate Blvd. For more information see www.aoma.edu or call 512-492-303434.
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Ch 12
- 1. By Stefana Sas Chapter 12
- 2. - plegia = paralysis
- 3. - paresis = weakness
- 4. Hemiplegia Hemiplegia is the damage to the motor areas on one side of the brain can lead to paralysis of the opposite side of the body. Paralysis of various body areas results from damage to motor areas of the brain or neural pathways of the spinal cord. Voluntary muscle activity, including functions such as breathing, may be affected, and there may be a loss of sensation. Neither consciousness nor intellectual function is affected by paralysis.
- 6. paraplegia Complete paralysis of the lower half of the body including both legs, usually caused by damage to the spinal cord.
- 7. Hemiparesis Hemiparesis is described like a weakness or loss of motion on one side of the body