CE121- ERROR.pptx
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Errors in surveying arise from the difference between true and measured values. There are two main types of errors - systematic errors which always have the same sign and magnitude, and accidental errors which can be positive or negative and may average out. Sources of error include imperfect instruments, natural variations, and human limitations. Methods for measuring horizontal distance include pacing, taping, tachymetry, graphical methods, and using devices like odometers, measuring wheels, rangefinders, and photogrammetry.
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Part 2, Principles of Surveying.pdf
Given:
Sloped distance (S) = 156.77 m
Slope angle (α) = 15°
To find:
Horizontal distance (H)
Solution:
cos 15° = Horizontal distance/ Sloped distance
cos 15° = H/156.77
H = 156.77 * cos 15°
H = 156.77 * 0.9659
H = 151.5 m
Therefore, the horizontal distance is 151.5 m.
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1) There are multiple methods for measuring distance in surveying, each with their own advantages and limitations depending on the environment, intended use of the data, and available equipment.
2) Common distance measuring methods include pacing, using an odometer wheel, chaining, stadia, and electronic distance measurement.
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Part 2, Principles of Surveying.pdf
Given:
Sloped distance (S) = 156.77 m
Slope angle (α) = 15°
To find:
Horizontal distance (H)
Solution:
cos 15° = Horizontal distance/ Sloped distance
cos 15° = H/156.77
H = 156.77 * cos 15°
H = 156.77 * 0.9659
H = 151.5 m
Therefore, the horizontal distance is 151.5 m.
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- 2. WHAT IS ERROR IN SURVEYING? •difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity.
- 4. EXAMPLE: • An engineer measured a distance using steel tape. He laid out his steel tape from point A to point B and measured 101.5 cm, but he knew that the distance from point A to point B was 100 cm. Determine the error in percentage.
- 5. TYPES OF ERRORS •1. SYSTEMATIC ERRORS •2. ACCIDENTAL ERRORS
- 6. SYSTEMATIC ERRORS One which will always have the same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged.
- 7. ACCIDENTAL ERRORS - The occurrence of such errors are matters of chance as they are likely to be positive or negative, and may tend in part to compensate or average out according to laws of probability.
- 8. SOURCES OF ERRORS 1. Instrumental Erros 2. Natural Errors 3. Personal Errors
- 9. INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS - Due to imperfections of the instrument used, either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments between the different parts prior to their use.
- 10. NATURAL ERRORS - Caused by variations in the phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction, gravity, and curvature of the earth.
- 11. PERSONAL ERRORS - Arise from the limitations of the senses of sight, touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous or inaccurate.
- 12. MISTAKES - Inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor judgment, and improper execution.
- 14. 1. BY PACING •Pacing – counting the number of steps or paces in a required distance. •Pace – length of a step in walking
- 15. FACTORS AFFECTING LENGTH OF PACE: • o Speed of pacing • o Roughness of the ground • o Weight of clothing and shoes used • o Fatigue on part of the pacer • o Slope of the terrain • o Age and sex of the individual
- 16. 2. BY TAPING - the use of a tape is the most common method of measuring horizontal distances
- 17. 3. BY TACHYMETRY - also called Tacheometry. - based on the optical geometry of the instruments employed (indirect method of measurement)
- 18. 4. BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS - Unknown distances may be determined through their relationship with known distances geometrically.
- 19. 5. BY MECHANICAL DEVICES a. Odometer - a device attached to a wheel for measuring surface distances - - precision: 1/200 (on fairly level terrain).
- 21. b. Measuring Wheel - a more portable and self-contained measuring device than the odometer
- 23. c. Optical Rangefinder - usually handheld or mounted on a small tripod - determines distances by focusing - precision: 1/50 (for distances less than 500 meters)
- 25. 6. BY PHOTOGRAMMETRY - measurement of images on a photograph. - precision: 1/3000 to 1/5000.