This document discusses three levels of analysis in political science: institutions, societies, and states. It describes how institutions level of analysis focuses on structures like legislatures, executives, and political parties. Societies level analyzes individual behaviors rather than institutions to explain outcomes. States level treats the state as an independent actor that shapes society and policymaking. Examples are given for types of questions asked at each level of institutions, societies, and states.

1. LEVELS OF ANALYSIS
PSCI 2210
SEM 1, 2014/2015
SECTION 1 AND 2
ROHANA ABDUL HAMID

2. LEVELS OF ANALYSIS / WHAT
TO COMPARE ?
Institutions
• Legislatures,
judiciaries,
executives
• Bureaucracy,
local
government
• Political
parties,
interest
groups
Societies
• Focus on
behaviour –
observable
reality than
official
discourse
• Individuals
than
institutions to
explain
scientific
explanation.
States
• State as a
whole, not
focusing to
institutions
only eg.
legislative

3. 1. Institutions
The study of governing institutions holds the
central post in the study of political science and
comparative politics - Answer : ARISTOTLE [
what did he do ? ]
- Popular between 1930-1940s
In institutional analysis, we emphasize on posts
within the organisations than the people who
occupy them.
Example : Presidencies NOT presidents
Legislatures NOT legislators
Judiciary NOT judges
Presidencies : The term during which a president
holds office.

4. …
Examples:
 1 ) How does the presidency interact
with other institutions such as Congress,
media or Judiciary ? How does the
presidency is organized? [ It studies
structure, process and functions of the
presidency]
 3) How and why elections vary
across nations?

5. More examples :-
INSTITUTIONS STUDY WHAT ?
A) LEGISLATUR
ES
1) Representation – whether or not
legislatures are truly
representative.
RQ : Is the distribution of population
groups in legislature reflect the
distribution in the general
population ?
Example : Is the distribution of women
in legislature reflect the distribution
in general population ?

6. ….
2. EXECUTIVES
1.Parliamentary executives :
Compare the selection process
of the chief executive in
Germany , United Kingdom
and India.
Findings :
1)UK = Head of states observes
election results and names the
chief executive
2)Germany and India =
Legislature confirms head of
state’s choice through vote of
confidence.

7. ….
 Institutions – bring forth activity which
takes place simply because it is
expected, not because it has political
motive. Therefore, much action is
understood by reference to logic of
appropriateness, not consequence.
 Hence, a president visits an area
devastated by flood because it is his
duty to show concern ; not to achieve
political goal (re-election).

8. …
 The study of institution- “ Institutions
shape the behavior”. How ?
 Example : Institutions give benefit to
the employees; employees defend
institutions against outsiders to ensure
progress pursued is within the
structure.

9. Example : Impact of electoral
institutions on behavior (s)
1) Electoral laws
2) Electoral system
3) Fairness in the
system
- Easier registration
boosts voter turnout
-Compulsory voting can
increase voter turnout –
13% ( yet, it is not
universally valid)
- If the voters have
confidence in the
process, they are likely
to turn out to vote.

10. 2. Society
 Behavioral tradition and political
system
 1960s – from institutions towards
behaviors, from electoral system to
voters, legislative to legislators,
presidencies to presidents.
WHY ? : Decolonisation – mushrooming of
new constitutions – need new approach
to understand the political system /
politics
Word BEHAVIOUR = express observable
reality than official discourse, individuals
than institutions.
The “root is man” rather than institutions.

11. Example:
- 1) Study of judiciary – scholars began
to take judges rather than courts as
the unit of analysis.
- 2)Why does President Barrack Obama
take a very cautious approach to war
?
Obama = war is the last resort.
3) Why did Saif Gaddafi support
authoritarian form of government?

12. …
 In behavioural tradition, institutions
were not ignored but the study moved
away from formal aspects .
 Example : Judiciary vs. judges :
Judges are the levels of analysis when
the study assess how social
background and political attitudes of
judges shaped their decision.

13. …
 Political system = Easton’s model of
political system. His model explains
politics as a task, function , thus moving
away from a focus on institutions on
government.
 What is the task of politics ?
 Making authoritative allocation of values.
 How ?
 Take demands from the society and
converting them to concrete laws and
policies or decisions. These allocations
then feeds back to society , influence the
next cycle of demands.

14. Easton’s model of political
systemENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT
I
N
P
U
T
POLITICAL
SYSTEM
O
U
T
P
U
T
DEMAND
SUPPORT
POLICIES
FEEDBACK

15. 3. State
 Key political institutions responsible
for making , implementing and
adjudicating important policies.
 Study of state : How in successful
revolutionaries such as in Russia and
Iranian religious leaders imposed their
control of the state to transform
society.
 Focus not on institutions but on the
state as active agent, shape and

16. ….
 Much of the state analysis focus on the
function of the state.
 State as the independent variable. It has
more autonomy than society in making
decision.
 Skocpol’ s analysis of revolutions uses
state as independent variable that
affected revolution.
 China : How domestic opposition with
the institutional arrangement of the state
cause the state to respond ineffectively
to its challenges.

17. …
 How? Leaders depended (Manchu
dynasty) depended on local leaders
for military support. Leaders
demanded greater autonomy . When
central government tried to establish
control, local landlord overthrew the
leader.
 Her study show relying on local
officials can undercut the ability of
central government to maintain
control.