Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are three-terminal semiconductor devices consisting of two pn junctions. There are two common types, NPN and PNP, distinguished by the order of semiconductor layers. BJTs can operate as amplifiers or switches by controlling the base current to modulate the collector current. Proper biasing is required to operate the transistor in its active region between cutoff and saturation. The common-base, common-emitter, and common-collector configurations determine how the transistor is used in a circuit and its input/output characteristics.
Electrical current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance are a few of the basic elements of electronics and radio. Apart from current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance, there are many other interesting elements to electronic technology. ... Use Electronics Notes to learn electronics online.
Boost Converter and analysis its characteristicsADARSH KUMAR
ABSTRACT
The switching mode power supply market is flourishing quickly in today’s world. Design engineers aren’t always supplied with the desired amount of voltage they need in order to make their design function properly. Adding an extra voltage supply to a design is not always cost efficient. This project is proposed to provide a method of boosting DC voltage from 5 Volts to 15 Volts, by using a boost converter designed specifically for this task. All aim, calculations, tests, data and conclusions have been documented within this project. Results of simulation show that the switching converter will boost voltage from 5 volts to 15 volts with power conversion efficiency of 94.16 percent.
The study of the basics of electronics can be studied through the link http://bit.ly/2PPv0mv
The transistor is a semiconductor device with three connections, capable of amplification in addition to rectification
A Kelvin bridge, also called a Kelvin double bridge and in some countries a Thomson bridge, is a measuring instrument used to measure unknown electrical resistors below 1 ohm. It is specifically designed to measure resistors that are constructed as four terminal resistors.
A Maxwell bridge is a modification to a Wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown inductance (usually of low Q value) in terms of calibrated resistance and inductance or resistance and capacitance. When the calibrated components are a parallel resistor and capacitor, the bridge is known as a Maxwell-Wien bridge. It is named for James C. Maxwell, who first described it in 1873.
It uses the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive impedance can be compensated by the negative phase angle of a capacitive impedance when put in the opposite arm and the circuit is at resonance; i.e., no potential difference across the detector (an AC voltmeter or ammeter)) and hence no current flowing through it. The unknown inductance then becomes known in terms of this capacitance.
Dc bridge types ,derivation and its applicationkaroline Enoch
The DC Bridge is used for measuring the unknown electrical resistance. This can be done by balancing the two legs of the bridge circuit. The value of one of the arm is known while the other of them is unknown
Electrical current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance are a few of the basic elements of electronics and radio. Apart from current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance, there are many other interesting elements to electronic technology. ... Use Electronics Notes to learn electronics online.
Boost Converter and analysis its characteristicsADARSH KUMAR
ABSTRACT
The switching mode power supply market is flourishing quickly in today’s world. Design engineers aren’t always supplied with the desired amount of voltage they need in order to make their design function properly. Adding an extra voltage supply to a design is not always cost efficient. This project is proposed to provide a method of boosting DC voltage from 5 Volts to 15 Volts, by using a boost converter designed specifically for this task. All aim, calculations, tests, data and conclusions have been documented within this project. Results of simulation show that the switching converter will boost voltage from 5 volts to 15 volts with power conversion efficiency of 94.16 percent.
The study of the basics of electronics can be studied through the link http://bit.ly/2PPv0mv
The transistor is a semiconductor device with three connections, capable of amplification in addition to rectification
A Kelvin bridge, also called a Kelvin double bridge and in some countries a Thomson bridge, is a measuring instrument used to measure unknown electrical resistors below 1 ohm. It is specifically designed to measure resistors that are constructed as four terminal resistors.
A Maxwell bridge is a modification to a Wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown inductance (usually of low Q value) in terms of calibrated resistance and inductance or resistance and capacitance. When the calibrated components are a parallel resistor and capacitor, the bridge is known as a Maxwell-Wien bridge. It is named for James C. Maxwell, who first described it in 1873.
It uses the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive impedance can be compensated by the negative phase angle of a capacitive impedance when put in the opposite arm and the circuit is at resonance; i.e., no potential difference across the detector (an AC voltmeter or ammeter)) and hence no current flowing through it. The unknown inductance then becomes known in terms of this capacitance.
Dc bridge types ,derivation and its applicationkaroline Enoch
The DC Bridge is used for measuring the unknown electrical resistance. This can be done by balancing the two legs of the bridge circuit. The value of one of the arm is known while the other of them is unknown
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
2. Introduction
Introduction
• The basic of electronic system nowadays is
semiconductor device.
• The famous and commonly use of this device
is BJTs
(Bipolar Junction Transistors).
• It can be use as amplifier and logic switches.
• BJT consists of three terminal:
collector : C
base : B
emitter : E
• Two types of BJT : pnp and npn
3. Transistor Construction
Transistor Construction
• 3 layer semiconductor device consisting:
• 2 n- and 1 p-type layers of material npn transistor
• 2 p- and 1 n-type layers of material pnp transistor
• The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and
electrons participate in the injection process into the
oppositely polarized material
• A single pn junction has two different types of bias:
• forward bias
• reverse bias
• Thus, a two-pn-junction device has four types of bias.
4. Position of the terminals and symbol
of BJT.
• Base is located at the middle
and more thin from the level
of collector and emitter
• The emitter and collector
terminals are made of the
same type of semiconductor
material, while the base of the
other type of material
• Base is located at the middle
and more thin from the level
of collector and emitter
• The emitter and collector
terminals are made of the
same type of semiconductor
material, while the base of the
other type of material
5. Transistor currents
-The arrow is always drawn
on the emitter
-The arrow always point
toward the n-type
-The arrow indicates the
direction of the emitter
current:
pnp:E B
npn: B E
IC=the collector current
IB= the base current
IE= the emitter current
6. • By imaging the analogy of diode, transistor can be
construct like two diodes that connetecd together.
• It can be conclude that the work of transistor is base on
work of diode.
7. Transistor Operation
Transistor Operation
• The basic operation will be described using the pnp
transistor. The operation of the pnp transistor is
exactly the same if the roles played by the electron
and hole are interchanged.
• One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased,
whereas the other is forward-biased.
Forward-biased junction
of a pnp transistor
Reverse-biased junction
of a pnp transistor
8. • Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp
transistor and resulting majority and minority carrier
flows indicated.
• Majority carriers (+) will diffuse across the forward-
biased p-n junction into the n-type material.
• A very small number of carriers (+) will through n-type
material to the base terminal. Resulting IB is typically in
order of microamperes.
• The large number of majority carriers will diffuse across
the reverse-biased junction into the p-type material
connected to the collector terminal.
9. • Majority carriers can cross the reverse-biased
junction because the injected majority carriers will
appear as minority carriers in the n-type material.
• Applying KCL to the transistor :
IE = IC + IB
• The comprises of two components – the majority
and minority carriers
IC = ICmajority + ICOminority
• ICO – IC current with emitter terminal open and is
called leakage current.
10. Common-Base Configuration
Common-Base Configuration
• Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that
the :
- base is common to both input and output of the
configuration.
- base is usually the terminal closest to or at
ground potential.
• All current directions will refer to conventional (hole)
flow and the arrows in all electronic symbols have a
direction defined by this convention.
• Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such
as to establish current in the direction indicated for
each branch.
11.
12. • To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers
requires two set of characteristics:
- Input or driving point characteristics.
- Output or collector characteristics
• The output characteristics has 3 basic regions:
- Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements
- Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
- Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left
of VCB = 0V
13.
14. • The curves (output characteristics) clearly indicate
that a first approximation to the relationship between
IE and IC in the active region is given by
IC ≈IE
• Once a transistor is in the ‘on’ state, the base-emitter
voltage will be assumed to be
VBE = 0.7V
15. • In the dc mode the level of IC and IE due to the
majority carriers are related by a quantity called
alpha
α=
IC = αIE + ICBO
• It can then be summarize to IC = αIE (ignore ICBO due
to small value)
• For ac situations where the point of operation moves
on the characteristics curve, an ac alpha defined by
• Alpha a common base current gain factor
common base current gain factor that shows
the efficiency by calculating the current percent from
current flow from emitter to collector.The value of α is
typical from 0.9 ~ 0.998.
E
C
I
I
E
C
I
I
∆
∆
=
α
19. Common-Emitter Configuration
Common-Emitter Configuration
• It is called common-emitter configuration since :
- emitter is common or reference to both input and
output terminals.
- emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at
ground
potential.
• Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due
due
to the high gain for current and voltage
to the high gain for current and voltage.
• Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe
the behavior for CE ;input (base terminal) and output
(collector terminal) parameters.
21. Input characteristics for a
common-emitter NPN transistor
common-emitter NPN transistor
• IB is microamperes compared
to miliamperes of IC.
• IB will flow when VBE > 0.7V
for silicon and 0.3V for
germanium
• Before this value IB is very
small and no IB.
• Base-emitter junction is
forward bias
• Increasing VCE will reduce IB
for different values.
22. Output characteristics for a
common-emitter npn
transistor
• For small VCE (VCE < VCESAT, IC increase linearly with increasing of
VCE
• VCE > VCESAT IC not totally depends on VCE constant IC
• IB(uA) is very small compare to IC (mA). Small increase in IB
cause big increase in IC
• IB=0 A ICEO occur.
• Noticing the value when IC=0A. There is still some value of
23.
24. Beta (β) or amplification factor
amplification factor
• The ratio of dc collector current (IC) to the dc base
current (IB) is dc beta (βdc ) which is dc current gain
where IC and IB are determined at a particular operating
point, Q-point (quiescent point).
• It’s define by the following equation:
30 < βdc < 300 2N3904
• On data sheet, β
βdc
dc=
=h
hFE
FE with h
h is derived from ac hybrid
equivalent cct. FE are derived from forward-current
amplification and common-emitter configuration
respectively.
25. • For ac conditions an ac beta has been defined as the
changes of collector current (IC) compared to the
changes of base current (IB) where IC and IB are
determined at operating point.
• On data sheet, βac=hfe
• It can defined by the following equation:
30. Common – Collector Configuration
Common – Collector Configuration
• Also called emitter-follower (EF).
• It is called common-emitter configuration since both the
signal source and the load share the collector terminal
as a common connection point.
• The output voltage is obtained at emitter terminal.
• The input characteristic of common-collector
configuration is similar with common-emitter.
configuration.
• Common-collector circuit configuration is provided with
the load resistor connected from emitter to ground.
• It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose
since it has high input impedance and low output
impedance.
31. Notation and symbols used with the common-collector configuration:
(a) pnp transistor ; (b) npn transistor.
32. • For the common-collector configuration, the output
characteristics are a plot of IE vs VCE for a range of values of IB.
33. Limits of Operation
Limits of Operation
• Many BJT transistor used as an amplifier. Thus it is
important to notice the limits of operations.
• At least 3 maximum values is mentioned in data sheet.
• There are:
a) Maximum power dissipation at collector: PCmax
or PD
b) Maximum collector-emitter voltage: VCEmax
sometimes named as VBR(CEO) or VCEO.
c) Maximum collector current: ICmax
• There are few rules that need to be followed for BJT
transistor used as an amplifier. The rules are:
i) transistor need to be operate in active region!
ii) IC < ICmax
ii) PC < PCmax
34. Note: VCE is at maximum and IC is at minimum (ICmax=ICEO) in the
cutoff region. IC is at maximum and VCE is at minimum
(VCE max = VCEsat = VCEO) in the saturation region. The transistor
operates in the active region between saturation and cutoff.
35. Refer to the fig.
Step1:
The maximum collector
power dissipation,
PD=ICmax x VCEmax (1)
= 18m x 20 = 360 mW
Step 2:
At any point on the
characteristics the product of
and must be equal to 360 mW.
Ex. 1. If choose ICmax= 5 mA,
subtitute into the (1), we get
VCEmaxICmax= 360 mW
VCEmax(5 m)=360/5=7.2 V
Ex.2. If choose VCEmax=18 V,
subtitute into (1), we get
VCEmaxICmax= 360 mW
(10) ICmax=360m/18=20 mA
36. Derating P
Derating PDmax
Dmax
• PDmax is usually specified at 25°C.
• The higher temperature goes, the less is PDmax
• Example;
• A derating factor of 2mW/°C indicates the power
dissipation is reduced 2mW each degree centigrade
increase of temperature.
37. Example
Example
Transistor 2N3904 used in the circuit with
VCE=20 V. This circuit used at temperature
1250
C. Calculate the new maximum IC.
Transistor 2N3904 have maximum power
dissipation is 625 mW. Derating factor is
5mW/0C.
38. Solution
Solution
• Step 1:
Temperature increase : 1250C
– 250
C = 1000
C
• Step 2:
Derate transistor : 5 mW/0
C x 1000
C = 500 mW
• Step 3:
Maximum power dissipation at 1250
C = 625 mW–500
mW=125 mW.
• Step 4:
Thus ICmax = PCmax / VCE=125m/20 = 6.25 mA.
• Step 5:
Draw the new line of power dissipation at 1250
C .
39. Example
Example
The parameters of transistor 2N3055 as follows:
- Maximum power dissipation @ 250C=115 W
- Derate factor=0.66 mW/0
C.
This transistor used at temperature 780
C.
Find the new maximum value of power dissipation.
Find the set of new maximum of IC if VCE=10V,
20V and 40 V.
40. Solution
Solution
• Step 1:
Temperature increase : 780
C – 250
C = 530
C
• Step 2:
Derate transistor : 0.66mW/0
C x 530
C = 35 mW
• Step 3:
Maximum power dissipation at 780
C = 115W– 35W=80
mW.
• Step 4:
ICmax = PCmax / VCE=80m/10 = 8 mA (point C)
ICmax = PCmax / VCE=80m/20 = 4 mA. (point B)
ICmax = PCmax / VCE=80m/40 = 2 mA (point A)