The Bartel and Szostak experiment aimed to show that chemical selection could occur in an RNA world. They synthesized a pool of random RNA molecules and tested their ability to catalyze the ligation of short RNA tags. Molecules that showed catalytic activity were selected and amplified to produce successive pools. Testing showed that the catalytic activity increased over 10 generations, supporting the hypothesis that chemical selection could drive the evolution of RNA enzymes and supporting the idea of an early RNA world.
Gene mapping / Genetic map vs Physical Map | determination of map distance a...NARC, Islamabad
Mapping- determining the location of elements with in a genome, with respect to identifiable land marks.
Gene mapping describes the methods used to identify the locus of a gene and the distances between genes.
In simple mapping of genes to specific locations on chromosomes.
Two types
Genetic map
Physical Map
Construction of a Linkage Map or Genetic Mapping
Construction of a Linkage Map or Genetic Mapping
1. DNA MARKERS FOR GENETIC MAPPING
– Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
– Simple Sequence Length Polymorphism (SSLP)
– Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)
2. Determination of Linkage Groups(No. of Chromosomes)
Dihybrid cross
Trihybrid cross
3. Determination of Map Distance
Recombination fraction
4. Determination of Gene Order
5. Combining Map Segments
A complementation test (sometimes called a "cis-trans" test) can be used to test whether the mutations in two strains are in different genes. By taking an example of Benzer's work, complementation has been explained.
Gene mapping / Genetic map vs Physical Map | determination of map distance a...NARC, Islamabad
Mapping- determining the location of elements with in a genome, with respect to identifiable land marks.
Gene mapping describes the methods used to identify the locus of a gene and the distances between genes.
In simple mapping of genes to specific locations on chromosomes.
Two types
Genetic map
Physical Map
Construction of a Linkage Map or Genetic Mapping
Construction of a Linkage Map or Genetic Mapping
1. DNA MARKERS FOR GENETIC MAPPING
– Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
– Simple Sequence Length Polymorphism (SSLP)
– Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)
2. Determination of Linkage Groups(No. of Chromosomes)
Dihybrid cross
Trihybrid cross
3. Determination of Map Distance
Recombination fraction
4. Determination of Gene Order
5. Combining Map Segments
A complementation test (sometimes called a "cis-trans" test) can be used to test whether the mutations in two strains are in different genes. By taking an example of Benzer's work, complementation has been explained.
Probes are used for hybridization purposes. different types of probes can be used on the basis of what we want to hybridize. May be Radioactive or Non-Radioactive.
Concept of gene & ultra structure of geneJigar Patel
This presentation includes introduction of gene, gene concept, chemical composition and ultra structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene for B.Sc students.
In this presentation, we will delve into the principles of QTL mapping and explore various strategies for mapping QTLs in plants. We will also discuss the advantages and limitations, and provide insights into how QTL mapping is advancing our understanding of genetics.
Chromosome walking
A technique with which an unknown region of a chromosome can be explored. It is generally used to isolate a locus of interest for which no probe is available but that is known to be linked to a gene which has been identified and cloned. A fragment containing a known gene is selected and used as a probe to identify other overlapping fragments which contain the same gene. The nucleotide sequences of these fragments can then be characterized. This process continues for the length of the chromosome
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promotepolymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA genetranscription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE ANDMECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OFTRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL ANDENERGETIC DETAILS
Probes are used for hybridization purposes. different types of probes can be used on the basis of what we want to hybridize. May be Radioactive or Non-Radioactive.
Concept of gene & ultra structure of geneJigar Patel
This presentation includes introduction of gene, gene concept, chemical composition and ultra structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene for B.Sc students.
In this presentation, we will delve into the principles of QTL mapping and explore various strategies for mapping QTLs in plants. We will also discuss the advantages and limitations, and provide insights into how QTL mapping is advancing our understanding of genetics.
Chromosome walking
A technique with which an unknown region of a chromosome can be explored. It is generally used to isolate a locus of interest for which no probe is available but that is known to be linked to a gene which has been identified and cloned. A fragment containing a known gene is selected and used as a probe to identify other overlapping fragments which contain the same gene. The nucleotide sequences of these fragments can then be characterized. This process continues for the length of the chromosome
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promotepolymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA genetranscription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE ANDMECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OFTRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL ANDENERGETIC DETAILS
Resources of DNA synthesis and Protein synthesis are here: I got them from youtube,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNKWgcFPHqw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BwWavExcFI
The article at those photos groups 20 amino acids into 6 groups acco.pdfsuhshbhosale
The article at those photos groups 20 amino acids into 6 groups according to 8 amino acid
properties (size, partial volume, hydrophobicity, etc.). Perform the PCA analysis and show the
2D plot of 20 AAs according to the largest two principal components. the original strands and
one newly synthesized n RNA replication merely lead to mistakes in a sin strand that is
complementary t it. Clearly, both gle short-lived mRNA. Hence accurate DNA replica strands of
DNA contain the ful nformation n tion is very important. sary to recreate the other strand. The
key processes called this section \"closing the loop\" because of DNA replication occur at a
replication fork (Fi in the order that we presented things here, DNA 2.7(d)). At this point, the
two old strands are separ- replication is the last link in the cycle of mechan ated from one another
and the new strands are syn sms for synthesis of the major biological macro- thesized. The main
enzyme that does this job is DNA molecules. There is, however, a more fund lymerase III. This
enzyme catalyzesthe addition of sense in which this whole process is a loop. Clearly nucleotides
to the 3\'ends of the growing strands (at proteins cannot be synthesized without DN the heads of
the arrows in Fig 2.7(d)). The new cause proteins do not store genetic information DNA can
store this information, but it cannot carry strand is therefore synthesized in the 5\' to 3\' direc-
tion (as with mRNA synthesis during transcription) out the catalytic roles necessary for
metabolism in On one strand, called the leading strand, synthesis and it cann ot replicate itself
without the aid a cel is possible in a continuous unbroken fashion. How of proteins. There is thus
a chicken and egg situ ever, on the lagging strand on the opposite side, con ation: \"Which came
first, DNA or proteins Many tinuous synthesis is not possible and it is necessary peopl e now
believe that RNA preceded both DNA to initiate synthesis independently many times The and
proteins, and that there was a period in the new strand is therefore formed in pieces, which are
Earth\'s history when RNA played both the genetic known as Okazaki fragments and catalytic
roles. This is a tempting hypothesis DNA polymerase III is able to carry out theaddition because
several types of catalytic RNA are known of new nucleotides to a strand but it cannot initiate a
(both naturally occurring and artificially synthes- new strand. This is in contrast to RNA
polymerase ized sequences and because many viruses use which is able to perform both initiation
and addition RNA as their genetic materialtoday As with all con DNA polymerase therefore
needs a short sequence jectures related to the origin of life and very early called a primer, from
which to begin. Prime evolution, however, it is difficult to prove that an short sequences of RNA
ndicated by dotted lines in RNA world once existed. Fig. 2.7(d) that are synthesized by a form of
RNA polymerase called primase The processes of DNA s.
DNA- Transcription and Tranlation, RNA, Ribosomes and membrane proteins.pptxLaibaSaher
Detailed presentation on the topic of DNA, transcription and translation, RNA, Ribosomes and Membrane proteins. Along with their structure and functions. Detailed Diagram and complete description of the processes. Along with references and Gifs that makes the presentation look more creative.
3. Four Overlapping Stages Scientists used four stages to understand the origin of life Stage 1 Nucleotides and amino acids were produced prior to the existence of cells Stage 2 Nucleotides became polymerized to form RNA and/or DNA and amino acids become polymerized to form proteins Stage 3 Polymers became enclosed in membranes Stage 4 Polymers enclosed in membranes acquired cellular properties
4. Chemical Selection What is chemical selection? Chemical within a mixture has special advantageous properties Properties allow it to increase in amount Hypothesis The cellular characteristics that exist today evolved from an “RNA world”
5. RNA World Scientists believe that the world used to consist of RNA based organisms Studied the building blocks Amino acids and nucleotides
6. Key Functions of RNA RNA has three key functions that encourage scientists to favor it as the first macromolecule found in protobionts Ability to store information in its nucleotides Nucleotide sequence has the capacity for self-replication RNA has many enzymatic functions Act as ribozymes
7. ADDITIONAL ADVANTAGES OF RNA DNA and proteins are not as versatile as RNA DNA has limited catalytic activity Proteins do not undergo self-replication However: RNA can perform functions that are characteristics of proteins while simultaneously serving as genetic material with replicative and informational functions
8. Bartel and Szostak Experiment David Bartel and Jack Szostak First study that used RNA molecules with a particular function (1993) Synthesized a mixture of 10^15 RNA molecules also known as “long RNA” First region (5’ end) constant region among all “long RNAs” (identical) Second region, variable region (220 nucleotides) Hypothesized that the variable region could possibly result in long RNA with the enzymatic ability to catalyze a covalent bond between two adjacent nucleotides
9. Materials Many copies of short RNA Had a tag sequence that binds tightly to “beads” (column packing material) Had a complementary sequence to a site in the constant region of the long RNA No variable region, all the same Long RNAs with the constant and variable regions Variable regions were made using a PCR step (caused mutations in the region)
11. Step 1 The long RNAs and short RNAs were incubated together Promote hydrogen bonding Time was given for the molecules to form covalent connections (only if the RNA had the enzymatic ability to form covalent bonds) The long RNA molecule variable regions may rarely have enzymatic ability to connect the 3’end of short RNA to 5’end of long RNA
12.
13. Step 2 The mixture passed through a column of beads The beads would bind to the tag sequence of the short RNA only! Tag sequence promoted the binding of the short RNA to the beads IF the long RNA had the ability to bind to the short RNA, it would also be attached to the beads Additional liquid was added to filter out the long RNAs that did not covalently bond to the short RNAs
14. Step 3 The main purpose of this step was to get rid of the beads Low pH solution was added in order to prevent the tag sequence from binding to the beads The tightly bound RNAs are flushed out of the column They were flushed into a flask and labeled “Pool #1” Beads were left behind
15. Step 4 Pool #1 was used to make a second batch of long RNA molecules Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used Variable regions were derived from the variable regions of pool #1 RNA molecules, expected to have enzymatic activity Reverse transcriptase was used to make cDNA PCR primers recognized beginning and end of the long RNA sequence and copied only this region cDNA used as a template to make long RNA via RNA polymerase
16. Steps 5 & 6 The procedure was repeated in order to generate 10 consecutive pools of RNA molecules A sample of the original population (Pool #1) and each of the following 10 pools were collected in order to test for the enzymatic ability to catalyze a covalent bond between adjacent nucleotides
17.
18. Conclusion Data: Chemical selection is possible Scientists knew this because the experiment showed that there was an increase in covalent bond formation from pool 1 to pool 10 In each generation, the catalytic enzyme activity increased Pool #10’s enzymatic activity was approximately 3 million times higher than the original random pool of molecules