The document discusses different types of biofuels including bioethanol, biodiesel, biobutanol, and biogas. It provides information on the raw materials, production processes, advantages, and challenges for each type of biofuel. For bioethanol, the document outlines that it can be produced from sugar, starch, or cellulosic crops through fermentation processes. For biogas, it states that the fuel is produced through anaerobic digestion of organic waste and can be used as a renewable energy source.
International Journal of Engineering Inventions (IJEI) provides a multidisciplinary passage for researchers, managers, professionals, practitioners and students around the globe to publish high quality, peer-reviewed articles on all theoretical and empirical aspects of Engineering and Science.
it covers various types of bioenergy and also contains various energy yielding technologies. it shows the bioenergy scenerio in India.it also shows various activities and programmes related with bioenergy
Alcoholic fermentation, also referred to as, Ethanol fermentation, is a biological process in which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted into cellular energy and thereby produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen ethanol fermentation is classified as anaerobic.
Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel derived from plants or animals and consisting of long-chain fatty acid esters. It is typically made by chemically reacting lipids such as animal fat (tallow), soybean oil, or some other vegetable oil with alcohol, producing a methyl, ethyl, or propyl ester.
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International Journal of Engineering Inventions (IJEI) provides a multidisciplinary passage for researchers, managers, professionals, practitioners and students around the globe to publish high quality, peer-reviewed articles on all theoretical and empirical aspects of Engineering and Science.
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An Approach to Detecting Writing Styles Based on Clustering Techniques
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-Devkinandan Jagtap
-Shweta Ambekar
-Harshit Singh
-Nakul Sharma (Assistant Professor)
Institution:
VIIT Pune, India
Abstract:
This paper proposes a system to differentiate between human-generated and AI-generated texts using stylometric analysis. The system analyzes text files and classifies writing styles by employing various clustering algorithms, such as k-means, k-means++, hierarchical, and DBSCAN. The effectiveness of these algorithms is measured using silhouette scores. The system successfully identifies distinct writing styles within documents, demonstrating its potential for plagiarism detection.
Introduction:
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Methodology:
The system includes data collection, preprocessing, feature extraction, dimensional reduction, machine learning models for clustering, and performance comparison using silhouette scores. Feature extraction focuses on lexical features, vocabulary richness, and readability scores. The study uses a small dataset of texts from various authors and employs algorithms like k-means, k-means++, hierarchical clustering, and DBSCAN for clustering.
Results:
Experiments show that the system effectively identifies writing styles, with silhouette scores indicating reasonable to strong clustering when k=2. As the number of clusters increases, the silhouette scores decrease, indicating a drop in accuracy. K-means and k-means++ perform similarly, while hierarchical clustering is less optimized.
Conclusion and Future Work:
The system works well for distinguishing writing styles with two clusters but becomes less accurate as the number of clusters increases. Future research could focus on adding more parameters and optimizing the methodology to improve accuracy with higher cluster values. This system can enhance existing plagiarism detection tools, especially in academic settings.
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3. BIO ETHANOL
INTRODUCTION
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from
carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn or
sugarcane. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources such
as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for
ethanol production
3
4. RAW
MATERIAL
RAW MATERIAL
Wheat/Grains/Corn/Sugar-cane can be used to produce ethanol.
(Basically, any plants that composed largely of sugars)
Bioethanol is mainly produced in three ways.
oSugar ethanol
ostarch sugar ethanol
ocellulose and hemicellulose ethanol
4
5. CONTD.
Ethanol can be produced from a variety of feedstock's such as sugar
cane, bagasse, sugar beet, switch grass, potatoes, fruit, molasses
corn, Stover, wheat, straw, other biomass, as well as many types of
cellulose waste and harvestings
Agricultural feedstock's are considered renewable because they get
energy from the sun using photosynthesis
5
7. REACTIONS
Chemical reaction 1
The fructose and glucose sugars react with zymase to produce
ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Chemical reaction 2
Fermentation process requires 3 days to complete and is carried out
at a temperature of between 250°C and 300°C
7
8. Top Five
Countries
Countries
The top five ethanol producers in 2010
Brazil – 16500 billion liters
The United States -16270 billion liters
China - 2000 billion liters
The European Union - 950 billion liters
India - 300 billion liters
8
9. Bioethanol
Properties
Bioethanol Properties
Colorless and clear liquid
Used to substitute petrol fuel for road transport vehicles
One of the widely used alternative automotive fuel in the world
(Brazil & U.S.A are the largest ethanol producers)
Much more environmentally friendly
Lower toxicity level
9
10. Application
Application
transport fuel to replace gasoline
fuel for power generation by thermal combustion
fuel for fuel cells by thermochemical reaction
fuel in cogeneration systems
feedstock in the chemicals industry
Blending of ethanol with a small proportion of a volatile fuel
such as gasoline > more cost effective
Various mixture of bioethanol with gasoline or diesel fuels
– E5G to E26G (5-26% ethanol, 95-74% gasoline)
– E85G (85% ethanol, 15% gasoline)
– E15D (15% ethanol, 85% diesel)
– E95D (95% ethanol, 5% water, with ignition improver)
10
11. Advantages
Advantages
Exhaust gases of ethanol are much cleaner
Greenhouse gases reduce Positive energy balance, depending on the
type of raw stock – output of energy during the production is more
than the input
Any plant can be use for production of bioethanol
Carbon neutral
Decrease in ozone formation
Renewable energy resource
Reduces the amount of high-octane additives
11
12. Disadvantages
andConcerns
Disadvantages and Concerns
Biodiversity – A large amount of arable land is required to grow
crops, natural habitats would be destroyed
Food vs. Fuel debate
Carbon emissions (controversial)
Not as efficient as petroleum
Engines made for working on Bioethanol cannot be used for petrol
or diesel
Used of phosphorous and nitrogen in the production – negative
effect on the environment
Cold start difficulties – pure ethanol is difficult to vaporize
12
13. Future
development
Future development
For bioethanol to become more sustainable to replace petrol,
production process has to be more efficient
– Reducing cost of conversion
– Increasing yields
– Increase the diversity of crop used
13
15. Introduction
Introduction
Increasing uncertainty about global energy production and supply,
environmental concerns due to the use of fossil fuels, and the high
price of petroleum products are the major reasons to search for
alternatives to petro diesel.
Biodiesel has a higher Cetane number than diesel fuel.
Rudolf Diesel firstly tested the PEANUT OIL in compression
ignition in 1912
15
20. SEPARATION
OF BY
PRODUCT
Biodiesel and Glycerol are two major products that exists once
transesterification reaction is completed.
The Glycerol phase is much denser than biodiesel phase.
The Glycerol layer is drained out from separating funnel.
20
24. Advantages
Advantages
Less polluting than petroleum diesel.
Can use in existing diesel engine without any modification.
Lack of Sulphur extends the life of catalytic convertors
Improved lubricity.
Reduce global warming.
Contribute to rural development, allowing additional income and
job creation for developing countries.
Diversifying the world’s fuel need
24
25. Dis-
Advantages
Dis-Advantages
1&1/2 times more expensive than petroleum based fuel.
Can harm rubber hoses in some engines.
Due to no. Of processes cost of production is high.
25
27. INTRODUCT-
ION
INTRODUCTION
Bio-butanol is a 4-carbon alcohol (butyl alcohol, butanol) produced
from the same feedstock source as bioethanol which include corn
grain and other biomass.
When we talk of the term 'bio-butanol', means it has been produced
by microbial source using any substrate or from biomass feed
stocks.
It can be used as a solvent, in cosmetics, hydraulic fluids, detergent
formulations, drugs, antibiotics, hormones and vitamins
Except the use of solvent, chemical intermediate and extract agent,
butanol also can be used as fuel
27
28. PRODUCTION
METHOD
PRODUCTION METHODS OF BUTANOL
Butanol can be obtained using chemical technologies, such as Oxo-
synthesis and aldol condensation. It is also possible to produce
butanol in the process of fermentation by bacteria and butanol as
one of the products called bio-butanol. The most popular bacteria
species used for fermentation is Clostridium acetobutyli-cum.
Because the main products of this process containing acetone,
butanol and ethanol, the fermentation is called ABE fermentation.
28
29. Chemical
Process
Chemical Process
Butanol can be produced by chemical synthesis.
One process is Oxo-synthesis, which involves the reaction of
propylene with carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the presence of
cobalt or rhodium as the catalyst.
The mixture of n-butyraldehyde and isobutyraldehyde are obtained
and then the mixture can be hydrogenated to the corresponding n-
butanol and isobutyl alcohols.
The reactions are as following:
CH3CH-CH2 + CO + H2 → CH3CH2CH2CHO + (CH3)2CHCHO
CH3CH2CH2CHO + H2 → CH3CH2CH2OH
(CH3)2CHCHO + H2 → (CH3)2CHCH2OH
29
30. Chemical
Process
Contd.
Another route is aldol condensation, which involves the reaction of
condensation and dehydration from two molecules of acetic
aldehyde. And then, the product croton aldehyde is transformed into
n-butanol by hydrogenation at 180 0C and 0.2 MPa.
The reaction is as following:
CH3CH=CHCHO + 2H2─→ CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
Comparing the two processes, Oxo-synthesis route has the
advantages of materials easily obtained, comparable moderate
reaction conditions, enhanced ratio of n-butanol to isobutyl alcohol.
30
31. Biological
Process
Biological Process
The production of butanol by fermentation using lignocellulose
feedstock's is also known as ABE fermentation, i.e. acetone-
butanol-ethanol fermentation.
Compared with the chemical method, biological route has the
distinct advantages.
For example, it can utilize the renewable resources such as wheat
straw, corn core, switch grass, etc. as feedstock's
31
32. Pretreatment
FERMENTATIVE BUTANOL PRODUCTION FROM
LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS
Pretreatment
The opening of the lignocellulose biomass structure and the release
of sugar content from hemicellulose and cellulose with other cross-
linked units and the residual non hydrolyzed raw feedstock is called
pretreatment.
Milling/grinding, extrusion, microwave and ultra sonication are
common physical pretreatment methods that open up the physical
structure of lignocellulose biomass.
Physic-chemical methods such as steam explosion, steam treatment,
hydrothermolysis, ammonium fiber expansion, and hot water
treatment cause both the structure to unravel and a release of sugar
monomers and dimers.
32
33. Detoxification
Detoxification
Severity of some pretreatment conditions converts those sugars into
furfural, 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF), formic acid, acetic acid,
levulinic acid and salts, which can be inhibitory
Several detoxification methods such as electrodialysis,
liming/overliming, activated carbon/charcoal, dilution, and resin
treatments are applied.
Even though it is not specifically mentioned as a detoxification
method, solid/sediment removal by filtration or centrifugation is
also commonly applied to alleviate the inhibitory effects of the
solids and undissolved lignin in the lignocellulosic hydrolysates.
33
34. Fermentation
Fermentation
ABE fermentation is biphasic; first, acetic acid and butyric acid are
produced in the abiogenesis phase, then the acids are re-assimilated
to yield the solvents acetone, butanol and ethanol.
Batch fermentation is the most widely used method due to simple
operation and low risk of contamination.
Continuous fermentation (hemostat) has advantages over batch and
fed-batch modes such as improved productivity.
Multi-stage, immobilized cell, cell recycling and bleeding
techniques have been applied to improve hemostat performance.
34
36. ADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES OF BUTANOLAS FUEL
Except the use of solvent, chemical intermediate and extract agent,
butanol also can be used as fuel, which attracted people’s attention
in recent years. Because of the good properties of high heating
value, high viscosity, low volatility, high hydrophobicity, less
corrosive, butanol has the potential of a good fuel.
When ethanol is mixed with gasoline (less than 10%), there exists
some disadvantages.
Firstly, the heating value of ethanol is much less than gasoline.
The fuel consumption increases if the engine is not retrofitted.
Secondly, acetic acid is produced during the burning process of
ethanol, which is corrosive to the engine.
36
37. CHALLENGES
CHALLENGES
There are several challenges such as high substrate cost, solvent
toxicity, low cell density and by-product formation that need to be
addressed for sustainable and economical fermentative butanol
production.
These issues cause low butanol yield, titer, productivity and
selectivity.
Great efforts have been made to find cheap/free feedstock and cost
efficient processing methods to overcome the high substrate cost
problem, and several review papers address this issue in detail.
Low solvent tolerance limits the butanol titer to maximum 2%
dependent of the strain used, causing high downstream processing
cost; therefore some reviews collected and discuss information on
this specific challenge.
37
40. INTRODUCT-
ION
INTRODUCTION
Biogas is a mixture of gases, primarily consisting of methane,
carbon dioxide and hydrogen supplied, produced from raw
materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant
material, sewage, green waste and food waste. It is a renewable
energy source.
40
41. Raw Materials
Raw Materials
The used raw materials are biogenic materials, such as the
following
Fermentable, biomass-containing residues (sewage sludge,
biodegradable waste, food residues
Residues from livestock farming (manure)
Previously unused plants/plant parts (intermediate fruits, plant
residues)Energy crops (corn, sugar beet)
Animal wastes: Cattle dung, urine, poultry droppings, fish wastes,
house waste, piggery waste etc. Human waste: Faeces, unin.
Agricultural waste: Sugarcane trash, bagasse, tobacco waste, oil
cake, fruit vegetable waste Industrial waste: Sugar factory,
tannery papers etc.
41
42. PROCESS
PROCESS
Biogas is produced when bacteria digest organic matter (biomass)
in the absence of oxygen. This process is called anaerobic
digestion. It occurs naturally anywhere from the within the
digestive system to the depth of effluent ponds and can be
reproduced artificially in engineered containers called digesters.
Production of biogas by anaerobic process involves 4 steps.
Hydrolysis
Acidogenesis
Acetogenesis
Methanogenesis
42
44. Biogas
Advantages
Biogas Advantages
It’s an eco-friendly, renewable source of energy that has a smaller
impact on the environment than fossil fuels. Biogas combustion is
carbon-neutral and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Using biogas
can reduce the dependence on oil imports in many countries. Biogas
production is a cost-effective waste management solution that
improves environmental quality by keeping waste away from landfills
and water sources. The biogas production process also generates
organic fertilizer for plants. Biogas plants benefit local economies by
creating new jobs.
44
45. Biogas dis-
advantages
Biogas dis-advantages
Producing and purifying biogas still needs to be improved
significantly to make it effective at scale. The biogas production
process is suited for specific climates and geographical areas, as it
requires consistent supplies of raw materials and constant
temperature inside the digester. Treated biogas is still not 100%
pure, so more research is necessary before we can use biogas as
vehicle fuel on a scale. Biogas is an eco-friendly energy source only
as long as it comes from existing waste. If people start producing
raw materials only to transform them into biogas, the process no
longer positively impacts the environment. Biogas is easy to
produce in rural areas where organic materials are easy to procure,
but biogas plants are less effective in dense urban areas.
45
46. Future
development
Future development
Energy experts claim that compressed biogas could become the fuel
of the future due to its virtue of being a clean and renewable source
of energy, which is also indigenous. It is also expected to reduce the
cost of imports of natural gas. In 2020, combined biogas and bio
methane production was 191 TWh with this figure predicted to
quadruple by 2030. By 2050, production can be at least fivefold
reaching over 1,000 TWh, with some estimates going up to 1,700
TWh.
46
47. Properties
Properties
Even at very low temperature the biogas readily mixes with air.
It does not need to provide rich mixture at starting time.
It has very good antiknock properties.
It is a safe fuel.
47