The document provides an overview of key topics in biochemistry including energy from food, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. Specifically, it discusses how calorimetry can be used to determine the energy content of foods, the structures and functions of amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates like glucose and starch, and lipid molecules like triglycerides. It also briefly outlines analysis techniques for proteins like chromatography and electrophoresis. The document serves as an introductory guide to understanding the basic building blocks and energy sources in living organisms.
This document provides an overview of acid-base theories and properties. It covers the Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis theories of acids and bases. It defines strong and weak acids and bases, and how their strength affects properties like conductivity and reaction rate. It also introduces the pH scale and explains how pH is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.
This document provides an overview of acids and bases for a high school chemistry rapid learning series. It defines acids and bases based on Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories. It discusses strong versus weak acids and bases, and how concentrated or dilute solutions affect strength. Conjugate acids and bases are defined. Common strong acids and bases are listed. Properties of acids and bases like taste and effect on litmus are covered. The pH scale is introduced and calculating pH of strong acids and bases is demonstrated. How salts can have acidic, basic, or neutral properties is explained. Finally, buffers and how they resist pH change are described.
This document provides an overview of acid-base theories and key concepts such as:
[1] Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases. Acids donate protons while bases accept protons.
[2] Water can act as both an acid and a base in different reactions due to its amphiprotic nature.
[3] Equilibria involving proton transfers favor the reaction where the proton moves to the stronger base. The position of equilibrium is determined by relative acid and base strengths.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to acids and bases in chemistry. It defines different types of acids and bases according to several theories. It also discusses properties of acids and bases such as tastes and colors of litmus paper. Strong and weak acids and bases are compared. Buffers are described as mixtures of weak acids and bases that resist pH change. The pH scale is introduced and methods for solving pH problems are outlined, including using Ka, Kb, and Kw values and ICE charts. Acid-base properties of salts and the principles of titrations are also summarized.
The document discusses key concepts regarding acids and bases including: Bronsted-Lowery acids and bases, conjugate acid-base pairs, the pH scale, strong and weak acids and bases, acid-base properties of salts, and Lewis acids and bases. Key equations discussed include the ionization of water and the autoionization constant Kw. Sample problems are provided for calculating pH, percentage of ionization, and acid and base dissociation constants.
B sc_I_General chemistry U-II Ionic equilibria in aqueous solution Rai University
This document provides an overview of acids, bases, and pH. It defines acids and bases according to Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories. Acids are substances that produce H+ ions in water or donate protons in reactions, while bases produce OH- ions or accept protons. The document also discusses acid and base strength, pH, self-ionization of water, and using pH to calculate hydrogen or hydroxide ion concentrations. Common examples like acids in orange juice and blood pH are provided.
This document discusses acids and bases. It begins by defining the objectives of understanding acid and base definitions and theories. It then provides examples of common household and laboratory acids and bases. Next, it explains the Arrhenius theory that acids dissociate in water to form H+ ions and bases dissociate to form OH- ions. It also discusses the Brønsted-Lowry theory that acids donate protons and bases accept protons. Neutralization reactions between acids and bases to form salts and water are then explained. The document concludes by discussing acid-base conjugate pairs and examples.
This document provides an overview of acid-base theories and properties. It covers the Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis theories of acids and bases. It defines strong and weak acids and bases, and how their strength affects properties like conductivity and reaction rate. It also introduces the pH scale and explains how pH is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.
This document provides an overview of acids and bases for a high school chemistry rapid learning series. It defines acids and bases based on Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories. It discusses strong versus weak acids and bases, and how concentrated or dilute solutions affect strength. Conjugate acids and bases are defined. Common strong acids and bases are listed. Properties of acids and bases like taste and effect on litmus are covered. The pH scale is introduced and calculating pH of strong acids and bases is demonstrated. How salts can have acidic, basic, or neutral properties is explained. Finally, buffers and how they resist pH change are described.
This document provides an overview of acid-base theories and key concepts such as:
[1] Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases. Acids donate protons while bases accept protons.
[2] Water can act as both an acid and a base in different reactions due to its amphiprotic nature.
[3] Equilibria involving proton transfers favor the reaction where the proton moves to the stronger base. The position of equilibrium is determined by relative acid and base strengths.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to acids and bases in chemistry. It defines different types of acids and bases according to several theories. It also discusses properties of acids and bases such as tastes and colors of litmus paper. Strong and weak acids and bases are compared. Buffers are described as mixtures of weak acids and bases that resist pH change. The pH scale is introduced and methods for solving pH problems are outlined, including using Ka, Kb, and Kw values and ICE charts. Acid-base properties of salts and the principles of titrations are also summarized.
The document discusses key concepts regarding acids and bases including: Bronsted-Lowery acids and bases, conjugate acid-base pairs, the pH scale, strong and weak acids and bases, acid-base properties of salts, and Lewis acids and bases. Key equations discussed include the ionization of water and the autoionization constant Kw. Sample problems are provided for calculating pH, percentage of ionization, and acid and base dissociation constants.
B sc_I_General chemistry U-II Ionic equilibria in aqueous solution Rai University
This document provides an overview of acids, bases, and pH. It defines acids and bases according to Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories. Acids are substances that produce H+ ions in water or donate protons in reactions, while bases produce OH- ions or accept protons. The document also discusses acid and base strength, pH, self-ionization of water, and using pH to calculate hydrogen or hydroxide ion concentrations. Common examples like acids in orange juice and blood pH are provided.
This document discusses acids and bases. It begins by defining the objectives of understanding acid and base definitions and theories. It then provides examples of common household and laboratory acids and bases. Next, it explains the Arrhenius theory that acids dissociate in water to form H+ ions and bases dissociate to form OH- ions. It also discusses the Brønsted-Lowry theory that acids donate protons and bases accept protons. Neutralization reactions between acids and bases to form salts and water are then explained. The document concludes by discussing acid-base conjugate pairs and examples.
Bronsted and Lowery proposed an acid-base theory in 1923 to overcome limitations of Arrhenius' theory. According to Bronsted-Lowery theory, an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor. Examples of acids given are CH3COOH and H2SO4, which donate protons. NH3 acts as a base by accepting protons. Water can also act as both an acid and base, making it an amphoteric species.
Ionic equilibrium chapter 3(12th HSC Maharashtra state board)Freya Cardozo
The document discusses ionic equilibrium and acid-base theories. It provides examples of different types of salts based on the strength of acids and bases involved:
1) Salts of strong acids and bases, like NaCl, are neutral as they do not undergo hydrolysis.
2) Salts of strong acids and weak bases, like CuSO4, are acidic due to hydrolysis of the metal cation.
3) Salts of weak acids and strong bases, like CH3COONa, are basic due to hydrolysis of the anion.
4) Salts of weak acids and weak bases can be acidic, basic or neutral depending on whether the Ka or Kb is greater and the extent of hydro
This document discusses weak acid-base equilibria according to Bronsted-Lowry theory. It defines acids and bases as proton donors and acceptors, respectively. Conjugate acid-base pairs are introduced. Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in water, while weak acids and bases only partially dissociate. The ionic product of water, Kw, relates the concentrations of H+ and OH- ions in solution. Equations are provided to calculate the pH of solutions containing weak acids or bases using their respective acid or base dissociation constants, Ka or Kb.
This document discusses acid-base theories and equilibria in water. It describes the Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories of acids and bases. The autoionization of water and definitions of pH and pOH are explained. Calculations of pH for strong/weak acids and bases, salts, and buffer solutions using the ionization constant and Henderson-Hasselbalch equation are presented with examples. The role of buffers in resisting pH change upon addition of acids or bases is also summarized.
This document discusses the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases. It defines acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors. An acid-base pair consists of a conjugate acid and conjugate base, where the acid donates a proton to form the conjugate base, or the base accepts a proton to form the conjugate acid. Water is described as amphiprotic because it can act as both an acid and a base. Examples of acid-base reactions and identification of conjugate species are provided.
- An organic acid is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group (-COOH) which gives it acidic properties. The strength of an organic acid depends on the stability of its conjugate base.
- Organic bases usually contain nitrogen atoms that can accept protons. Common organic bases include amines, which have a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen that can accept protons.
- Acid strength is determined by the amount of hydronium (H3O+) ions produced when the acid dissociates in water. Base strength is determined by the amount of hydroxide (OH-) ions produced upon dissolution in water. Factors like bond strength, stability of the conjugate base, and inductive effects influence
Acids and bases buffers ARRHENIUS CONCEPT
THE LEWIS CONCEPT-THE ELECTRON DONOR ACCEPTOR SYSTEM
BRONSTED-LOWRY CONCEPT (PROTON TRANSFER
THEORY
buffer action
ph scale
buffer capacity
acid base balance
isotonicity method
isotonic soltions
buffer solutions in pharmaceutical preparations
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts related to acids and bases:
- Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases are introduced. Acids donate protons while bases accept protons.
- When an acid dissolves in water, it donates a proton to form the conjugate base and hydronium ion. Strong acids fully dissociate while weak acids only partially dissociate.
- pH is defined as the negative log of the hydronium ion concentration. A solution's pH depends on whether it has a higher or lower hydronium ion concentration than pure water.
- Dissociation constants (Ka for acids and Kb for bases) describe the
1. The document discusses ionic equilibria, including acids and bases, and how to identify strong and weak acids/bases. It also discusses calculating pH and pOH values.
2. It explains how to determine if a salt is neutral, acidic, or basic based on whether the cation or anion comes from a strong or weak acid/base.
3. For sparingly soluble salts, it discusses using Ksp expressions and concentrations to determine if a precipitate will form from mixing solutions of ions.
IB Chemistry on Arrhenius, Bronsted Lowry Conjugate acid base pair and Lewis ...Lawrence kok
The document provides a tutorial on different types of acids and bases including Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis acids and bases. It defines each type and provides examples of conjugate acid-base pairs. Key points covered include:
- Brønsted-Lowry acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors. Conjugate acid-base pairs differ by one proton.
- Strong acids form weak conjugate bases, while weak acids form strong conjugate bases. Strong bases form weak conjugate acids, while weak bases form strong conjugate acids.
- Water, ammonia, and hydrogencarbonate can act as both acids and bases depending on conditions.
Here are the key points about measuring pH:
- pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution on a scale from 0-14.
- A pH below 7 is acidic, above 7 is basic, and 7 is neutral.
- The pH scale is logarithmic, so each unit change in pH represents a 10-fold change in [H+].
- Common indicators like litmus paper, phenolphthalein, and universal indicator can be used to estimate pH based on their color changes.
- pH meters provide a precise numerical measurement of pH by measuring voltage.
So in summary, pH is a quantitative measure of acidity or basicity that can be estimated qualitatively with indicators
The document discusses naming acids. It divides acids into binary and oxyacids. Binary acids contain two elements, while oxyacids contain three elements including oxygen. Oxyacids are named based on their "-ate" ion, with variations indicating one more, one less, or two less oxygen atoms than the reference "-ic" acid. Common "-ate" ions include sulfate, nitrate, chlorate, and phosphate.
This document discusses weak bases and how they react with water to form the conjugate acid and hydroxide ions. It defines the base dissociation constant Kb and explains how it refers to the equilibrium of a base reacting with water. It provides examples of calculating the concentration of hydroxide ions produced from a weak base solution and calculating Kb or Ka values for conjugate acid-base pairs using known constants. The document also discusses how the properties of salt solutions are determined by the constituent ions and how buffers resist changes in pH upon addition of acids or bases.
The document discusses various concepts related to aqueous equilibria including:
1) The common ion effect where adding a strong electrolyte containing a common ion with a weak electrolyte decreases the ionization of the weak electrolyte.
2) Buffers and how they resist pH changes through reactions of the weak acid/base with added strong acid or base.
3) Solubility products (Ksp) and how solubility is affected by factors like common ions, pH, and complex ion formation.
This document summarizes acids and bases according to two theories - Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry. According to Arrhenius, an acid is a substance that ionizes in water to produce hydrogen ions, while a base produces hydroxide ions. Bronsted-Lowry defined acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors, with no requirement for aqueous solutions. Conjugate acid-base pairs are also discussed, where a conjugate acid is a base that accepts a proton, and a conjugate base is an acid that donates a proton.
Acids are substances that donate protons (H+) in aqueous solutions, increasing the concentration of H+ ions. Common acids include HCl, HNO3, and HC2H3O2. Bases are substances that accept H+ ions, producing hydroxide (OH-) ions when dissolved in water. Common bases include NaOH, KOH, and Ca(OH)2. Strong acids and bases are completely ionized in solution, while weak acids and bases are only partially ionized. The strength of an acid or base determines how reactive it is.
Biochemistry 304 2014 student edition acids, bases and p hmartyynyyte
- The document provides an overview of acids, bases and pH, including the ionization of water, calculation of pH, and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. It discusses weak acids and buffers, and how pH affects protein solubility and enzyme function. Sample calculations are provided for determining pH, titration curves, and ionic strength. The key goals are to understand concepts related to acid-base chemistry and calculations involving pH, pKa, and buffering capacity.
This document discusses various concepts related to ionic equilibrium in solution including strong and weak electrolytes, acid-base theories of Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis. It defines strong electrolytes as completely dissociating in water and weak electrolytes as achieving an equilibrium between dissociated and undissociated molecules. Acids are defined as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors under the Bronsted-Lowry theory. The Lewis theory further defines acids as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair donors. Dissociation constants and factors affecting acid strength are also covered.
Chemistry - Chp 19 - Acids, Bases, and Salt - PowerPointsMr. Walajtys
This document provides an overview of acids and bases according to different theories:
1. Arrhenius theory defines acids as producing hydrogen ions in water and bases as producing hydroxide ions.
2. Brønsted-Lowry theory defines acids as hydrogen ion donors and bases as hydrogen ion acceptors.
3. Lewis theory focuses on electron pair donation and acceptance between reactants.
It also discusses the pH scale, ion product constant of water, and using indicators to determine if a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral.
The document provides an overview of biochemistry topics including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and enzymes. It discusses the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of proteins and gives examples. It also describes the structures of important carbohydrates like glucose, fructose, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Additionally, it outlines the main types of lipids and their functions. Key concepts around protein analysis techniques like chromatography and electrophoresis are summarized.
The document discusses carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. It provides details on:
- The basic structures and components of carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- The four levels of protein structure - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. Secondary structure includes alpha helices and beta sheets.
- The main types and functions of lipids like triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. Triglycerides are the main form of lipids and dietary fats.
Bronsted and Lowery proposed an acid-base theory in 1923 to overcome limitations of Arrhenius' theory. According to Bronsted-Lowery theory, an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor. Examples of acids given are CH3COOH and H2SO4, which donate protons. NH3 acts as a base by accepting protons. Water can also act as both an acid and base, making it an amphoteric species.
Ionic equilibrium chapter 3(12th HSC Maharashtra state board)Freya Cardozo
The document discusses ionic equilibrium and acid-base theories. It provides examples of different types of salts based on the strength of acids and bases involved:
1) Salts of strong acids and bases, like NaCl, are neutral as they do not undergo hydrolysis.
2) Salts of strong acids and weak bases, like CuSO4, are acidic due to hydrolysis of the metal cation.
3) Salts of weak acids and strong bases, like CH3COONa, are basic due to hydrolysis of the anion.
4) Salts of weak acids and weak bases can be acidic, basic or neutral depending on whether the Ka or Kb is greater and the extent of hydro
This document discusses weak acid-base equilibria according to Bronsted-Lowry theory. It defines acids and bases as proton donors and acceptors, respectively. Conjugate acid-base pairs are introduced. Strong acids and bases completely dissociate in water, while weak acids and bases only partially dissociate. The ionic product of water, Kw, relates the concentrations of H+ and OH- ions in solution. Equations are provided to calculate the pH of solutions containing weak acids or bases using their respective acid or base dissociation constants, Ka or Kb.
This document discusses acid-base theories and equilibria in water. It describes the Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories of acids and bases. The autoionization of water and definitions of pH and pOH are explained. Calculations of pH for strong/weak acids and bases, salts, and buffer solutions using the ionization constant and Henderson-Hasselbalch equation are presented with examples. The role of buffers in resisting pH change upon addition of acids or bases is also summarized.
This document discusses the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases. It defines acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors. An acid-base pair consists of a conjugate acid and conjugate base, where the acid donates a proton to form the conjugate base, or the base accepts a proton to form the conjugate acid. Water is described as amphiprotic because it can act as both an acid and a base. Examples of acid-base reactions and identification of conjugate species are provided.
- An organic acid is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group (-COOH) which gives it acidic properties. The strength of an organic acid depends on the stability of its conjugate base.
- Organic bases usually contain nitrogen atoms that can accept protons. Common organic bases include amines, which have a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen that can accept protons.
- Acid strength is determined by the amount of hydronium (H3O+) ions produced when the acid dissociates in water. Base strength is determined by the amount of hydroxide (OH-) ions produced upon dissolution in water. Factors like bond strength, stability of the conjugate base, and inductive effects influence
Acids and bases buffers ARRHENIUS CONCEPT
THE LEWIS CONCEPT-THE ELECTRON DONOR ACCEPTOR SYSTEM
BRONSTED-LOWRY CONCEPT (PROTON TRANSFER
THEORY
buffer action
ph scale
buffer capacity
acid base balance
isotonicity method
isotonic soltions
buffer solutions in pharmaceutical preparations
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts related to acids and bases:
- Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases are introduced. Acids donate protons while bases accept protons.
- When an acid dissolves in water, it donates a proton to form the conjugate base and hydronium ion. Strong acids fully dissociate while weak acids only partially dissociate.
- pH is defined as the negative log of the hydronium ion concentration. A solution's pH depends on whether it has a higher or lower hydronium ion concentration than pure water.
- Dissociation constants (Ka for acids and Kb for bases) describe the
1. The document discusses ionic equilibria, including acids and bases, and how to identify strong and weak acids/bases. It also discusses calculating pH and pOH values.
2. It explains how to determine if a salt is neutral, acidic, or basic based on whether the cation or anion comes from a strong or weak acid/base.
3. For sparingly soluble salts, it discusses using Ksp expressions and concentrations to determine if a precipitate will form from mixing solutions of ions.
IB Chemistry on Arrhenius, Bronsted Lowry Conjugate acid base pair and Lewis ...Lawrence kok
The document provides a tutorial on different types of acids and bases including Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis acids and bases. It defines each type and provides examples of conjugate acid-base pairs. Key points covered include:
- Brønsted-Lowry acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors. Conjugate acid-base pairs differ by one proton.
- Strong acids form weak conjugate bases, while weak acids form strong conjugate bases. Strong bases form weak conjugate acids, while weak bases form strong conjugate acids.
- Water, ammonia, and hydrogencarbonate can act as both acids and bases depending on conditions.
Here are the key points about measuring pH:
- pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution on a scale from 0-14.
- A pH below 7 is acidic, above 7 is basic, and 7 is neutral.
- The pH scale is logarithmic, so each unit change in pH represents a 10-fold change in [H+].
- Common indicators like litmus paper, phenolphthalein, and universal indicator can be used to estimate pH based on their color changes.
- pH meters provide a precise numerical measurement of pH by measuring voltage.
So in summary, pH is a quantitative measure of acidity or basicity that can be estimated qualitatively with indicators
The document discusses naming acids. It divides acids into binary and oxyacids. Binary acids contain two elements, while oxyacids contain three elements including oxygen. Oxyacids are named based on their "-ate" ion, with variations indicating one more, one less, or two less oxygen atoms than the reference "-ic" acid. Common "-ate" ions include sulfate, nitrate, chlorate, and phosphate.
This document discusses weak bases and how they react with water to form the conjugate acid and hydroxide ions. It defines the base dissociation constant Kb and explains how it refers to the equilibrium of a base reacting with water. It provides examples of calculating the concentration of hydroxide ions produced from a weak base solution and calculating Kb or Ka values for conjugate acid-base pairs using known constants. The document also discusses how the properties of salt solutions are determined by the constituent ions and how buffers resist changes in pH upon addition of acids or bases.
The document discusses various concepts related to aqueous equilibria including:
1) The common ion effect where adding a strong electrolyte containing a common ion with a weak electrolyte decreases the ionization of the weak electrolyte.
2) Buffers and how they resist pH changes through reactions of the weak acid/base with added strong acid or base.
3) Solubility products (Ksp) and how solubility is affected by factors like common ions, pH, and complex ion formation.
This document summarizes acids and bases according to two theories - Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry. According to Arrhenius, an acid is a substance that ionizes in water to produce hydrogen ions, while a base produces hydroxide ions. Bronsted-Lowry defined acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors, with no requirement for aqueous solutions. Conjugate acid-base pairs are also discussed, where a conjugate acid is a base that accepts a proton, and a conjugate base is an acid that donates a proton.
Acids are substances that donate protons (H+) in aqueous solutions, increasing the concentration of H+ ions. Common acids include HCl, HNO3, and HC2H3O2. Bases are substances that accept H+ ions, producing hydroxide (OH-) ions when dissolved in water. Common bases include NaOH, KOH, and Ca(OH)2. Strong acids and bases are completely ionized in solution, while weak acids and bases are only partially ionized. The strength of an acid or base determines how reactive it is.
Biochemistry 304 2014 student edition acids, bases and p hmartyynyyte
- The document provides an overview of acids, bases and pH, including the ionization of water, calculation of pH, and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. It discusses weak acids and buffers, and how pH affects protein solubility and enzyme function. Sample calculations are provided for determining pH, titration curves, and ionic strength. The key goals are to understand concepts related to acid-base chemistry and calculations involving pH, pKa, and buffering capacity.
This document discusses various concepts related to ionic equilibrium in solution including strong and weak electrolytes, acid-base theories of Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis. It defines strong electrolytes as completely dissociating in water and weak electrolytes as achieving an equilibrium between dissociated and undissociated molecules. Acids are defined as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors under the Bronsted-Lowry theory. The Lewis theory further defines acids as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair donors. Dissociation constants and factors affecting acid strength are also covered.
Chemistry - Chp 19 - Acids, Bases, and Salt - PowerPointsMr. Walajtys
This document provides an overview of acids and bases according to different theories:
1. Arrhenius theory defines acids as producing hydrogen ions in water and bases as producing hydroxide ions.
2. Brønsted-Lowry theory defines acids as hydrogen ion donors and bases as hydrogen ion acceptors.
3. Lewis theory focuses on electron pair donation and acceptance between reactants.
It also discusses the pH scale, ion product constant of water, and using indicators to determine if a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral.
The document provides an overview of biochemistry topics including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and enzymes. It discusses the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of proteins and gives examples. It also describes the structures of important carbohydrates like glucose, fructose, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Additionally, it outlines the main types of lipids and their functions. Key concepts around protein analysis techniques like chromatography and electrophoresis are summarized.
The document discusses carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. It provides details on:
- The basic structures and components of carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- The four levels of protein structure - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. Secondary structure includes alpha helices and beta sheets.
- The main types and functions of lipids like triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. Triglycerides are the main form of lipids and dietary fats.
This document outlines the key topics covered in a biology chapter on the chemistry of life, including the nature of matter, properties of water, carbon compounds, and chemical reactions. It discusses the basic units that make up biological molecules like carbohydrates (sugars), lipids (fats), proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are formed from monosaccharides and polysaccharides. Lipids store the most energy and include fats, oils, and phospholipids. Proteins are made of amino acids linked through peptide bonds, and can have primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides and carry genetic information.
The document provides an overview of biochemistry and chemistry concepts. It discusses the basic units of matter like elements and atoms. It then explains chemical bonds, compounds, and mixtures. Key biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are introduced along with their structures and functions. Finally, it briefly covers chemical reactions, enzymes, and pH.
This document discusses proteins and amino acids. It begins by describing the general structure of amino acids, including that they contain a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atoms, and a side chain. It then discusses the condensation reaction of amino acids to form polypeptides, and describes the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of proteins. Methods for analyzing proteins using chromatography and electrophoresis are also summarized. The document concludes by listing the major functions of proteins in the body, such as providing structure, acting as enzymes and hormones, transporting molecules, and serving as an energy source.
Chemistry Notes on Amino acids class 12.pdfHello406957
1. Amino acids are organic compounds that contain amino and carboxyl groups and form proteins through peptide bonds. There are essential and non-essential amino acids.
2. In aqueous solutions, amino acids exist as zwitterions with both positive and negative charges which allows them to react as both acids and bases.
The document discusses acid-base balance in the human body. It states that acid-base balance is important for homeostasis and physiological functions. Acids are constantly produced during metabolism but are balanced by base production to maintain pH. The body regulates acid-base status through buffer systems, respiration, and the kidneys. Disturbances can cause acidosis or alkalosis, which are classified as respiratory or metabolic based on their underlying causes.
The document discusses acid-base balance in the human body. It states that acid-base balance is important for homeostasis and physiological functions. Acids are constantly produced during metabolism but are balanced by base production to maintain pH. The body regulates acid-base status through buffer systems, respiration, and the kidneys. Disturbances can cause acidosis or alkalosis, which are classified as respiratory or metabolic based on their underlying causes.
The document discusses acid-base balance in the human body. It states that acid-base balance is important for homeostasis and physiological functions. Acids are constantly produced in the body through metabolism but are balanced by base production to maintain pH. The body regulates acid-base balance through buffer systems, respiration, and the kidneys. Disturbances can cause acidosis or alkalosis, which are classified as respiratory or metabolic based on their underlying causes. The anion gap is also discussed as a clinical measure for evaluating acid-base imbalances.
1) Carbohydrates are an essential class of biomolecules that serve as the primary energy source for many organisms. They are classified into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on their size.
2) Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Oligosaccharides consist of 2-9 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
3) Carbohydrates play important biological roles like energy storage, structure, transport, and prevention of diseases. Glucose is a key energy source, while
The document discusses the key chemical constituents of cells, including inorganic and organic substances. Inorganic substances that are important to cells include water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts. Organic substances discussed include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates provide energy and building materials to cells. Lipids are used primarily for energy storage and as structural components of cell membranes. Proteins serve as structural materials, enzymes, and hormones. Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA carry genetic information and encode protein sequences.
1.5 proteins UEC Senior 1 Biology 独中高一生物 Yee Sing Ong
The document summarizes key concepts about protein structure and types of proteins. It contains the following key points:
1. Protein structure is organized into four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the amino acid sequence, secondary structure involves coiling and folding into shapes like alpha helices and beta sheets. Tertiary structure involves further compact folding, and quaternary structure involves multiple polypeptide chains combining.
2. Proteins can be simple, only containing amino acids, or conjugated, containing non-polypeptide groups. Simple proteins include fibrous (insoluble) and globular (soluble) types. Conjugated proteins include nucleopro
This document discusses carbohydrate chemistry, specifically monosaccharides. It begins by explaining the importance of carbohydrates as a major source of energy and as structural components of cells. It then classifies carbohydrates and describes the various types of monosaccharides based on their carbon atom count, functional groups, and ring structures. Key monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and ribose and their roles in the body are highlighted. The document also covers optical isomerism, anomeric carbons, and other structural properties of monosaccharides.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrates and their classification. It begins by defining carbohydrates and their importance in biochemistry. It then discusses the classification of carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The majority of the document focuses on monosaccharides, including their stereochemistry, classification based on carbon atoms, physical and chemical properties, and examples of common monosaccharides.
This document provides information about amino acids, protein structure, and hemoglobin. It discusses:
1. The primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of protein structure. The alpha helix and beta pleated sheet are described as examples of secondary structure.
2. Specific amino acids like glycine and tryptophan, as well as collagen structure which contains high amounts of glycine.
3. The roles of vitamins like vitamin C in collagen formation and diseases like scurvy that can result from deficiencies.
4. Additional biomolecules like glutathione and albumin, describing their structures, functions, and relationship to diseases.
5. The structure of hemoglobin including
Biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are organic compounds that form the basis of life. Carbohydrates can be monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on whether they break down into 1, 2-10, or more than 10 monosaccharide units. Common monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. Proteins are made of amino acid monomers linked through peptide bonds. There are 20 common amino acids that make up proteins. Carbohydrates and proteins are essential for building and maintaining living organisms.
This document provides information on arterial blood gas (ABG) sampling and acid-base equilibrium (ABE). It discusses the appropriate heparin dilution for syringes, the procedure for arterial puncture and ensuring a valid sample, and differences between arterial and venous blood samples. It also covers definitions related to acids and bases, the three main mechanisms that regulate ABE - the buffer systems, respiration, and the kidneys. Finally, it describes the four types of acid-base disorders and the liver's role in ABE regulation through lactic acid metabolism, albumin homeostasis, ketogenesis, and urea production.
The document provides information about various biological molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, water, DNA, glucose, amino acids, glycerol and triglycerides. It defines each molecule, describes their monomers and polymers where relevant, lists some of their functions and provides examples of common types. It also describes tests that can be used to identify each molecule and gives their structures.
- Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen throughout the body. It is an iron-containing metalloprotein made up of four subunits - two alpha and two beta chains.
- Hemoglobin binds oxygen reversibly at its heme groups. The binding of oxygen to one subunit causes a conformational change that makes the other subunits more likely to bind oxygen as well, allowing for cooperative binding.
- This allosteric behavior allows hemoglobin to efficiently load oxygen in the lungs and release it in tissues, facilitating oxygen transport throughout the body. The Monod-Wyman-Changeux model is commonly used to explain the cooperative binding of oxygen to hemoglobin.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
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How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
2. What we look at
• B1.Energy
• B2. Proteins
• B3. Carbohydrates
• B4. Lipids
• B5. Micronutrients and Macronutrients
• B6. Hormones
• B7. Enzymes (AHL)
• B8. Nucleic Acids (AHL)
• B9. Respiration (AHL)
3. • The chemistry of living organisms is called biochemistry.
• Biochemical molecules tend to be very large and difficult
to synthesize.
• Living organisms are highly ordered. Therefore, living
organisms have very low entropy.
• Most biologically important molecules are polymers,
called biopolymers.
• Biopolymers fall into three classes: proteins,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
Introduction to BiochemistryIntroduction to Biochemistry
5. • Energy content of food can be determined by calorimetry.
• The food is burned in a calorimeter, and the increase in
temperature of surrounding water is measured:
q = mCΔT
q = heat (in joules)
m = mass of water (in grams)
C = specific heat of water (4.184 J g-1
ºC-1
)
T = temperature change of water (in ºC)
B1. CalorimetryB1. Calorimetry
6. • Example: 1.13 g of rice raises the temperature of 525 g of
water by 3.31ºC. Determine the energy content in kJ per
100 g of rice.
CalorimetryCalorimetry
Q = mC∆T = (525 g) (4.184 J g-1
ºC-1
) (3.31ºC)
= 7260 kJ
Energy content is 7260 kJ / 1.13 g rice = 6.42 kJ per gram of
rice
Multiply by 100 g to get 642 kJ per 100 g of rice.
9. Amino Acids
• Proteins are large molecules present in all cells.
• They are made up of 2-amino acids. (this means that the amine
group is on carbon number 2, while the carboxylic acid group is on
carbon number 1)
• There are two forms of an amino acid: one that is neutral (with
-NH2 and -COOH groups) and one that is zwitterionic (with
-NH3
+
and -COO-
groups).
• A zwitterion has both positive and negative charge in one
molecule.
B2. ProteinsB2. Proteins
10. Structure of 2-Amino Acids ProteinsProteins
H2N C C
R
OH
OH Carbon 1: carboxyl group
Carbon 2:
contains amine
group
Functional group – where one
amino acid differs from the
others
12. • There are about 20 amino acids found in most
proteins.
• Each amino acid is assigned a three-letter
abbreviation.
• Amino acids are listed in the IB data booklet
• Our bodies can synthesize about 10 amino acids.
• Essential amino acids are the other 10 amino acids,
which have to be ingested (part of our diet).
• The α-carbon (carbon 2) in all amino acids except
glycine is chiral (has 4 different groups attached to it).
14. Jan 3, 2010 Human Biochemistry 14
Properties of amino acids
(amphoteric)
H+
+ H2
N-CHR-COO-
← H3
N+
-CHR-COO-
→ H3
N+
-CHR-COOH + OH-
>At low pH
>Extra H+
reacts with OH-
>[OH-
] drops
>Equilibrium shifts to the right
>H3
N+
-CHR-COOH form
>positive charge
>At high pH
>Extra OH-
reacts with H+
>[H+
] drops
>Equilibrium shifts to the left
>H2
N-CHR-COO-
form
>negative charge
>At isoelectric point
>identical ionizations
>only zwitterion
>H3
N+
-CHR-COO-
form
>no net charge
15. Jan 3, 2010 Human Biochemistry 15
Properties of amino acids
(buffer)
H3
N+
-CHR-COO-
+ H+
→ H3
N+
-CHR-COOH + H2
O>when H+
is added
>equilibrium shifts to right
>[H+
] drops
>pH remains the same
>buffer action
>when OH-
is added
>equilibrium shifts to left
>[OH-
] drops
>pH remains the same
>buffer action
H2
O + H2
N-CHR-COO-
← OH-
+ H3
N+
-CHR-COO-
16. Polypeptides and Proteins
• Proteins are polyamides.
• When formed by amino acids, each amide group is called
a peptide bond.
• Peptides are formed by condensation of the -COOH
group of one amino acid and the NH group of another
amino acid. Water is also produced in the reaction
N C
R
H
C
O
OH
H
H N C
R'
H
C
O
OH
H
H+ N C
R
H
C
O
N
H
H C
H
C OH
R'
H
O
17. • The acid forming the peptide bond is named first.
Example: if a dipeptide is formed from alanine and
glycine so that the COOH group of glycine reacts with
the NH group of alanine, then the dipeptide is called
glycylalanine.
• Glycylalanine is abbreviated gly-ala.
• Polypeptides are formed with a large number of amino
acids (usually result in proteins with molecular weights
between 6000 and 50 million amu).
18. Jan 3, 2010 Human Biochemistry 18
Primary structure
>sequence of amino acids
>characteristic of protein function
Secondary structure
>folding of polypeptide chain
>by Hydrogen bonds
α-helix: between atoms of the same chain, e.g. hair,
wool
pleated sheet: between parallel chains, e.g. silk
random coil: no repeating pattern
Tertiary structure
>3D shape of secondary structure
> several types of interaction
Quaternary structure
>3D shape of tertiary structures of different
polypeptide chains
19. Protein Structure
• Primary structure is the sequence of
the amino acids in the protein.
• Example: NH2-leu-his-ala-…-ala-
val-ser-COOH
• A change in one amino acid can alter
the biochemical behavior of the
protein.
• Secondary structure is the regular
arrangement of segments of protein.
• One common secondary structure is
the α-helix.
• Contains hydrogen-bonding
parallel to helix
20. • Another is the β-pleated sheet.
• Contains H-bonding perpendicular to the sheet
• The helix or pleated sheet is held together by hydrogen
bonds between N-H bonds and carbonyl groups.
21. Tertiary Structure is the overall shape of the protein.
• Fibrous Proteins – provide strength for tissue (muscle,
hair,cartilage)
• Globular Proteins (sphere-shaped)
• Transport and store nutrients
• Catalyze reactions (enzymes)
• Fight invasion
• Participate in metabolism
Tertiary structure of Myoglobin
22. Forces Affecting Tertiary Structure:
• Ionic Bonding
• Hydrogen Bonding
• Covalent Bonds (disulfide linkage)
• London Dispersion Forces
• Dipole-dipole Forces
Denaturation – A change in the
function of a protein as a result of a
change in tertiary structure.
23. Quaternary Structure
• How multiple polypeptide chains are held together in
large proteins containing more than one polypeptide
molecule
– Intermolecular forces (H-bonds, dipole-dipole, LDF)
Haemoglobin
24. Analysis of Proteins
Paper Chromatography
• Hydrolysis of protein (6 M HCl, 110°C)
• Break peptide bonds, obtain amino acids
• Place sample spot on paper, set paper in
solvent
• Spray ninhydrin to “develop” spots
• Amino acids separate based on polarity
solventbymovedcedis
spotbymovedcedis
Rf
tan
tan
=
26. Human Biochemistry 26
Chromatography Rf
value
distance traveled by compound
distance traveled by solvent
Rf
=
Rf
is specific for each amino acid
27. Electrophoresis
Separate amino acids based on isoelectric point (pI)
pI = isoelectric point = the pH at which positive and
negative charges are balanced (no net charge on
amino acid or polypeptide)
– Depends on acid-base properties of “R”
1. Mixture of amino acids placed on gel (or paper)
2. Gel (or paper) is saturated with a buffer of known
pH.
3. Electric Current is applied
28. • If pH = pI, amino acid does not move
• If pH > pI, amino acid moves toward “+”
– Amino acid loses H+
in basic solution and becomes negative, moving
toward anode.
• If pH < pI, amino acid moves toward “-”
– Amino acid gains H+
in acidic solution and becomes positive, moving
toward cathode.
• The further the pH is from pI, the faster the amino acid will move.
29. • Example – A mixture of 5 amino acids
(shown below with pI values) is to be
separated by electrophoresis. A buffer
with a pH of 6.0 is used. What will happen
when the current is turned on?
Cys Gln Gly His Lys
5.1 5.7 6.0 7.6 9.7
What if the buffer used has a pH of 7.0?
+ -
30. Major Functions of Proteins
1. Structure – fibrous proteins
• Muscle, cartilage, skin, bones, hair, nails
• Collagen (skin), keratin (hair)
1. Catalyst. Enzymes catalyze specific
chemical reactions in the body.
2. Control. Hormones – ie.insuline
3. Transport and storage of energy and
nutrients – ie.haemoglobin
4. Protection – ie. antibodies
5. Energy source- ie.proteins in muscles.
31. • Carbohydrates have empirical formula Cx(H2O)y.
• Monosaccharides contain:
One C=O group and at least two OH- groups
• Most abundant carbohydrate is glucose, C6H12O6.
• Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
• Glucose is a 6 carbon aldehyde (aldoses) sugar and
fructose is a 6 carbon ketone (ketoses) sugar.
• The alcohol side of glucose can react with the aldehyde
side to form a six-membered ring.
B3.CarbohydratesB3.Carbohydrates
32.
33. • Most glucose molecules are in the ring form.
• Note the six-membered rings are not planar.
• Focus on carbon atoms 1 and 5: if the OH groups are on
opposite sides of the CH2OH group, then we have α-
glucose; if they are on the same side of the ring, then we
have β-glucose.
• The α- and β- forms of glucose form very different
compounds.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38. Disaccharides
• Glucose and fructose are monosaccharides.
• Monosaccharides: simple sugars that cannot be broken
down by hydrolysis with aqueous acids.
• Disaccharides are sugars formed by the condensation of
two monosaccharides. Examples: sucrose (table sugar),
maltose and lactose (milk sugar).
• Sucrose is formed by the condensation of α-glucose and
fructose.
• Glycoside linkage – “ether” bond formed when
monosaccharides combine to form disaccharides or
polysaccharides (C-O-C).
39. • Lactose is formed from galactose and α-glucose.
• Sucrose is about six times sweeter than lactose, a little
sweeter than glucose and about half as sweet as fructose.
• Disaccharides can be converted into monosaccharides
by treatment with acid in aqueous solution.
43. Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are formed by condensation of several
monosaccharide units.
• There are several different types. Example: starches can
be derived from corn, potatoes, wheat or rice.
44. • Starch performs storage of glucose in plants and animals.
• Starch contains 1,4 and 1,6 linkages.
• Enzymes catalyze the conversion of starch to glucose.
• Starch is poly α-glucose whereas cellulose is poly β-
glucose.
• Enzymes that hydrolyze starch do not hydrolyze cellulose
because of the different shapes of the polymers.
• Ingested cellulose is recovered unmetabolized. This is
referred to as dietary fiber.
45. Polysaccharides
• Cellulases are enzymes that enable animals to use
cellulose for food and break down cellulose by
hydrolysis. These enzymes are absent in most animals,
including mammals.
51. Major Functions of Carbohydrates
1. Energy sources (glucose)
2. Energy reserves (glycogen)
3. Structure (cellulose)
4. Precursors for other important molecules
Dietary Fiber – mainly plant material that is not
digested by hydrolyzed by enzymes in the human
digestive tract.
Importance – may help prevent diverticulitis, IBS,
constipation, obesity, Crohn’s disease,
hemorrhoids, and diabetes mellitus.
52. B4. Lipids
Organic molecules with long hydrocarbon
chains (nonpolar)
Types: Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.
Major functions in the body:
* energy storage
* insulate and protect organs
* form cell membranes
* hormones
53. Triglycerides are fats and oils – esters composed of glycerol
(1,2,3-propanetriol) and long-chain carboxylic acids.
R is usually a straight chain
- usually an even number of carbon atoms
- between 10 & 20 carbon atoms
- no other functional groups present
OH
OH
OH
OH R1
O
OH R2
O
OH R3
O
O R1
O
O R2
O
O R3
O
glycerol fatty acids
triglyceride
Triglycerides
54. Saturated Fats Unsaturated Fats
All single bonds C-C contains C=C
and/or C=C
Animal fats vegetable oils
Solids (high mp) Liquids (lower mp)
Pack closely together Not closely packed
55. • Lipases – enzymes in the body that
hydrolyze fats to glycerol and fatty acids.
– Fatty acids are then broken down to make
CO2, H2O and energy. Produce large amounts
of energy compared to proteins and
carbohydrates (gram for gram)
56. Essential fatty acids
– Omega-6 linoleic
• Cis,cis-9,12-octadecadienoic acid
– Omega-3 linolenic
– From these, the body can synthesize longer and more
unsaturated fatty acids.
– Trans fatty acids increase formation of LDL
57. Iodine Number – The number of moles of I2
reacting with one mole of fat/oil indicates the
number of double bonds present in the fat/oil
molecule. I2 reacts with pi bonds. I2 is added to
a fat – the more I2 reacts, the more pi bonds
present (more unsaturated)
C C
R
R
R
R
+ I I C C
I
R
R
I
R
R
58. Saponification – the production of soap from fatty
acids.
Base Hydrolysis – triglyceride is hydrolyzed in the
presence of a strong base (OH-
) – produces
glycerine and conjugate bases of carboxylic
acids (soap molecules).
Action of soaps – Form micelles to attract nonpolar
dirt into polar water.
OH
OH
OH
O R1
O
O R2
O
O R3
O
O R1
O
O R2
O
O R3
O
glycerol bases of
fatty acids
(soap)
triglyceride
+ NaOH
59.
60. Hard Water – Resists solution of soap
(bubbles not produced)
- contains Ca2+
and Mg2+
ions, which
precipitate the ions of soap.
61. Phospholipids contain polar and
nonpolar ends (like soap) – form bilayers
in cell membranes.
Embedded proteins – allow for transport of
substances into and out of the cell.
Phospholipids
62.
63. Waxes – monohydroxy alcohols
- low melting solids
- waterproof coating (fruits, some animals)
Steroids – A group of molecules with a common
fused 4-ring structure
Waxes and Steroids
64. Cholesterol – multifunctional lipid found in tissues,
blood, brain, spinal cord building block for other
steroids formed in liver, available in food
hardening of arteries – heart disease
transported by lipoproteins
LDL – low density lipoproteins (“bad” cholesterol)
– source is saturated fats.
- large molecules (18-25 nm long)
- transport cholesterol to arteries, leading to
cardiovascular diseases.
65. HDL – high density lipoproteins (“good”
cholesterol)
- can remove cholesterol from arteries and
transport it back to liver.
- smaller molecules (8-11 nm long)
66. • Macronutrients – required by the body in
large amounts (>0.005% body mass)
– Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
– Na, Mg, K, Ca, P, S, Cl
• Micronutrients – required by the body in
trace amounts (<0.005% body mass)
– Vitamins and trace minerals (Fe, Cu, Zn, I, Se,
Mn, Mo, Cr, Co, B)
B5. Micro and macro nutrients
67. Vitamins
• Organic compounds needed in small
amounts for normal growth and metabolism,
but are not synthesised by the body
• Some of them are water soluble (polar): Vit C
• Some of them are fat soluble (non polar):
slower to be absorbed and excess is stored in
fat tissue producing side effects (Vit A, Vit D)
70. Deducing wheter a vitamin is water or fat
soluble from its structure
71.
72.
73. Malnutrition
• Not having a balanced diet (deficit in some
nutrients)
• Serious problem both in developing and
non developing countries
74. Micronutrient deficiencies
• Deficit in Iodine: goitre
• Deficit in Vitamin A: Xerophthalmia
• Iron deficiency: anaemia
• Niacin (vit B3) deficiency: pellagra
• Deficit in thiamin (vit B1): beriberi
• Vit c deficiency: scurvy
• Vit D deciciency: rickets
• Selenium deficit: Kashin-Beck disease.
75. Macronutrients deficiencies
• Marasmus: protein deficiency found
mainly in infants
• Kwashioskior: condition affecting young
children with diets rich in carbs and poor in
proteins
76. Metal Ions in the Body
• Ca – bones and teeth (needs P to attach)
• Mg, Na, K – ions in fluids in and around cells.
• Transition metals – REDOX reactions
- Lewis Acids
• Zn2+
- cofactor in 100 enzymes
– In insulin
• Co3+
- vitamin B12
• Fe – hemoglobin (oxygen transport)
• Cu – cytochrome
• Mn – needed for healthy bones
• Cr – helps in metabolism
77. Sodium/Potassium – transmission of nerve
impulses.
– K+
- most abundant ion inside cells
• Responsible for cellular enzymes
– Na+
- most abundant ion outside cells
• Maintains water balance
– BOTH regulate H+
ions in the body
78. Hormones – chemical messengers
• Hypothalamus controls pituitary gland,
which controls the endocrine glands that
make hormones.
• Adrenaline (epinephrine) – produced in
the adrenal cortex. Stimulant that is
released in times of excitement. Increases
heart rate and release of glucose into
bloodstream.
B6. Hormones
79. • Thyroxin – produced in thyroid glands in
the neck. Contains iodine. Low levels
(hypothyroidism) cause lethargy,
sensitivity to cold, and dry skin. High
levels (hyperthyroidism) causes anxiety,
weight loss, intolerance to heat, and
protruding eyes.
• Insulin – produced in the pancreas.
Regulates blood sugar levels.
Hyperglycemia is caused by too little
insulin (thirst, weight loss, circulatory
problems). Hypogycemia causes
dizziness and fainting.
80. • Aldosterone
Is produced in the adrenal cortex, which is part of
the adrenal gland. It manages sodium and
potassium balance and maintains body fluid
levels.
• The Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
It is produced in the hypothalamus, but is released
by the pituitary gland. It is also called
vasopressin. It prevents the production of dilute
urine and contracts the arteries and capillaries
81. • Sex hormones – produced in the testes
and ovaries
– Estrogen
– Testosterone
Oral Contraceptives action
• Synthetic progesterone and estrogen
– Stop release of hormones that cause
ovulation
– Mimics action of production of progesterone in
pregnancy
– Often “progesterone-like”
82. • Minipill – changes composition of cervical
mucous – prevent spermatozoa from
entering.
– Can be inserted under the skin
• Time release over 5 years
Anabolic Steroids – (anabolic = building up)
uses – increase muscle mass
problems – Aging
– Impotence, baldness, problems urinating,
smaller testes (in men)
– Build up muscles, facial hair (in women)
– Temper, aggressive behavior, liver tumors, high
blood pressure, heart attacks
83.
84. Action of Enzymes
• Enzymes are proteins.
• NO EFFECT on ΔH, ΔS, ΔG.
• Increases the rate of the reaction by decreasing Ea
• Action of enzyme is determined by tertiary and quaternary
structure.
• Substrate – the “reactant” molecule in the catalyzed
reaction.
• Active Site – the specific site on the enzyme molecule that
catalyzes the reaction.
• Each enzyme catalyzes a specific chemical reaction.
B7. Enzymes
88. • Cofactor – A substance that attaches to an
enzyme in order to increase its effectiveness.
– Coenzyme – an organic cofactor.
• Factors that affect the rate of a catalyzed
reaction
– [enzyme] – first order Rate = k[E]
• As concentration of enzyme increases, more substrate
molecules can be catalyzed
Rate vs. [Enzyme]
[Enzyme]
RateofReaction
89. • [Substrate]
• As concentration increases, rate increases
(first order kinetics) up to a point – enzyme
saturation. When all enzyme molecules are
working at capacity, rate levels off.
Rate vs. [Substrate]
[Substrate]
RateofReaction
90. Rate vs. [Substrate]
[Substrate]
RateofReaction
Vmax
Vmax = The maximum rate of a reaction for a particular
enzyme concentration.
Km = Michaelis-Menten constant
Represents approximate [substrate] in human
body under normal conditions
Equal to [substrate] at ½ Vmax
Km
91. • Inhibitor – A substance that attaches to
enzyme and slows down (inhibits) the
action of the enzyme
– Irreversible inhibition – occurs if the inhibitor
bonds covalently to the enzyme
– Reversible if weak forces are present (H-
bonds, dipole-dipole, LDF)
1. Competitive Inhibition – The inhibitor
attaches at the active site, preventing the
substrate from binding with the enzyme.
(example is CO or CN-
)
– To reduce the effect, we can increase the
substrate concentration
92. 2. Non-competitive inhibition – Inhibitor binds to
the enzyme at a site other than the active site.
This causes the shape of the active site to
change, so that the enzyme will no longer fit
into the active site properly. (heavy metal ions)
Rate vs. [substrate] with Inhibition
[Substrate]
Rate
Uninhibited Competitive Non-competitive
93. • Temperature
• Most efficient at body temperature. As
temperature increases or decreases, tertiary
structure changes, altering active site.
Rate vs. Temperature
Temperature
Rate
94. • pH
Each enzyme has an optimal pH. The further
you get from that pH, the less effective it is
(denaturation occurs)
Rate vs. pH
pH
Rate
95. Uses of Enzymes in Biotechnology
1. Fermentation – production of alcohol
– Wine – yeasts in grape skin turn sugars into
alcohol
– 2 (C6H10O5)n + n H2O n C12H22O11
– C12H22O11 + H2O 2 C6H12O6
– C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2
• Cheese manufacture – fermentation of
lactose.
• Penicillin – fermentation to make antibiotic.
2. Enzyme immobilization
3. Genetic Engineering (anti-virals)
96. All nucleotides contain three components:
1. A nitrogen base
2. A pentose sugar
3. A phosphate residue
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, long, thread-like polymers
made up of a linear array of monomers called nucleotides
B8. Nucleic Acids
98. RNA - has a 2’-OH , ribose sugar
- has Uracil instead of Thymine as a
base
- Single-strand nuclic acid
DNA - has a 2’-H a deoxyribose sugar
- Double-strand nucleic acid
Chemical Structure of DNA vs RNA
103. DNA molecules are packaged in the cell as
structures called chromosomes.
A single chromosome contains thousands
of genes, each encoding a protein.
All of an organism’s chromosomes make
up the genome.
Humans have 46 chromosomes.
The human genome has about 3 billion
nucleotide base pairs.
104.
105. •DNA is isolated from a biological specimen
•DNA is cut by an enzyme into restriction fragments.
•The DNA fragments are separated by size into discrete bands in a gel (gel
electrophoresis)
•Fragments are identified using probes (known DNA sequences that are "tagged" with a
chemical tracer).
•The resulting DNA profile is visualized by exposing the membrane to a piece of x-ray
film.
DNA Profiling
106.
107. The process by which glucose is converted to
energy.
Aerobic – C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
First, glucose reacts with O2 to produce pyruvic
acid, C3H4O3:
C6H12O6 + O2 2 C3H4O3 + 2 H2O
H C
H
H
C
O
C
O
O H
B9. Respiration
108. Then, pyruvic acid is oxidized to form CO2 and
H2O:
2 C3H4O3 + 5 O2 6 CO2 + 4 H2O
Hemoglobin, with Fe2+
attached, carries O2 from the
lungs to the cells, then carries CO2 from the
cells to the lungs.
Cytochromes, with Fe3+
or Cu2+
attached, facilitate
the oxidation of glucose (metal ion is reduced to
Fe2+
or Cu+
)
Anaerobic – C6H12O6 2 CO2 + 2 C2H5OH
(fermentation)
109. Anaerobic – In humans, pyruvic acid is converted to
lactic acid:
Otherwise, pyruvic acid becomes ethanol:
C6H12O6 2 CO2 + 2 C2H5OH
(fermentation)
H C
H
H
OH
H
C
O
OH
Editor's Notes
RFLP DNA fingerprinting. In this example of a forensic application, the DNA from a semen sample obtained from a rape and murder victim was compared with DNA samples from the victim and two suspects. Each sample was cleaved into fragments and separated by gel electrophoresis. Radioactive DNA probes were used to identify a small subset of fragments that contained sequences complementary to the probe. The sizes of the identified fragments varied from one individual to the next, as seen here in the different patterns for the three individuals (victim and two suspects) tested. One suspect&apos;s DNA exhibits a banding pattern identical to that of the semen sample taken from the victim.