This document provides an overview of benign diseases of the stomach. It begins with the gross anatomy and congenital abnormalities of the stomach. It then discusses various types of gastritis including acute, chronic, autoimmune, and H. pylori-related gastritis. The document also covers hypertrophic gastropathies, peptic ulcer disease, gastric ulcer classification and symptoms, and other benign stomach diseases.
Approach to Management of Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) BleedingArun Vasireddy
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is gastrointestinal bleeding in the upper gastrointestinal tract, commonly defined as bleeding arising from the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum. Blood may be observed in vomit (hematemesis) or in altered form in the stool (melena). Depending on the severity of the blood loss, there may be symptoms of insufficient circulating blood volume and shock. As a result, upper gastrointestinal bleeding is considered a medical emergency and typically requires hospital care for urgent diagnosis and treatment. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding can be caused by peptic ulcers, gastric erosions, esophageal varices, and some rarer causes such as gastric cancer.
The initial assessment includes measurement of the blood pressure and heart rate, as well as blood tests to determine hemoglobin concentration. In significant bleeding, fluid replacement is often required, as well as blood transfusion, before the source of bleeding can be determined by endoscopy of the upper digestive tract with an esophagogastroduodenoscopy. Depending on the source, endoscopic therapy can be applied to reduce rebleeding risk. Specific medical treatments (such as proton pump inhibitors for peptic ulcer disease) or procedures (such as TIPS for variceal hemorrhage) may be used. Recurrent or refractory bleeding may lead to need for surgery, although this has become uncommon as a result of improved endoscopic and medical treatment.
Approach to Management of Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) BleedingArun Vasireddy
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is gastrointestinal bleeding in the upper gastrointestinal tract, commonly defined as bleeding arising from the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum. Blood may be observed in vomit (hematemesis) or in altered form in the stool (melena). Depending on the severity of the blood loss, there may be symptoms of insufficient circulating blood volume and shock. As a result, upper gastrointestinal bleeding is considered a medical emergency and typically requires hospital care for urgent diagnosis and treatment. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding can be caused by peptic ulcers, gastric erosions, esophageal varices, and some rarer causes such as gastric cancer.
The initial assessment includes measurement of the blood pressure and heart rate, as well as blood tests to determine hemoglobin concentration. In significant bleeding, fluid replacement is often required, as well as blood transfusion, before the source of bleeding can be determined by endoscopy of the upper digestive tract with an esophagogastroduodenoscopy. Depending on the source, endoscopic therapy can be applied to reduce rebleeding risk. Specific medical treatments (such as proton pump inhibitors for peptic ulcer disease) or procedures (such as TIPS for variceal hemorrhage) may be used. Recurrent or refractory bleeding may lead to need for surgery, although this has become uncommon as a result of improved endoscopic and medical treatment.
Colorectal cancer is most common GI cancer
The rectum is the most frequent site involved
Adenoma-carcinoma sequence: Arises from adenoma in stepwise progression
Different esophageal disorders are discussed in this lecture. The learning objectives are to understand:
The anatomy and physiology of the oesophagus and their relationship to disease.
The clinical features, investigations, and treatment of benign and malignant disease with particular reference to the common adult disorders.
Topics include: Surgical anatomy, Physiology, Symptoms, Investigations, Congenital lesions: TOF and Atresia, Benign tumours, Cancer of oesophagus, Foreign bodies,Oesophageal perforation, Gastro-oesophageal reflux diease, Hiatal hernia,
Oesophageal motility disorders: achalasia and diffuse spasm, Oesophgeal diverticula.
and Others.
Colorectal cancer is most common GI cancer
The rectum is the most frequent site involved
Adenoma-carcinoma sequence: Arises from adenoma in stepwise progression
Different esophageal disorders are discussed in this lecture. The learning objectives are to understand:
The anatomy and physiology of the oesophagus and their relationship to disease.
The clinical features, investigations, and treatment of benign and malignant disease with particular reference to the common adult disorders.
Topics include: Surgical anatomy, Physiology, Symptoms, Investigations, Congenital lesions: TOF and Atresia, Benign tumours, Cancer of oesophagus, Foreign bodies,Oesophageal perforation, Gastro-oesophageal reflux diease, Hiatal hernia,
Oesophageal motility disorders: achalasia and diffuse spasm, Oesophgeal diverticula.
and Others.
The word Gastritis comes from two words “gastro” referring to the stomach and “itis” means inflammation.
Gastritis is an inflammation, irritation, or erosion of the lining of the stomach mucosa.
Inflammation of the lining of the stomach.
INCIDENCE:
The incidence of gastritis is highest in the fifth and sixth decades of life; men are more frequently affected than women. The incidence is greater in clients who are heavy drinkers and smokers.
Acute gastritis is considered one of the most common type of gastritis. This is a painful inflammation of the lining of the stomach that occur suddenly and may involve bleeding of the stomach mucosa
Chronic gastritis involve s long- term inflammation of the mucosal lining of the stomach and this inflammatory condition of upper digestive system can last for years.
Chronic gastritis, on the other hand, is more often found in older people
ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
3. LAYOUT
Gross anatomy of stomach
Congenital abnomralities
Gastritis,types and management
Hypertrophic gastropathies
Gastric ulcer,types and management
Complications of gastric ulceration
Post gastrectomy sequelae and syndromes
Other benign diseases of stomach
References.
4. Gross anatomy of stomach
Stomach is the dilated part of the alimentary canal
between esophgus and small intestine.
J shaped or steer horn shaped
It lies under the cover of ribs extending from left costal
margin to epigastrium and umblical region
Postion is not constant.
2 openings (cardiac and pyloric)
2 carvatures (greater and lesser)
2 surfaces (anterior and posterior).
5.
6.
7. Relations of stomach
ANTERIOR
o Ant. Abdomenal wall
o left costal margin
o left pleura and lung
o diaphragm
o left lobe of liver
POSTERIOR
o The lesser sac & pancreas
o Left suprarenal gland & kidney
o The spleen & spleenic artery
o The transverse mesocolon and
transverse colon
o The diaphragm.
8. Blood supply of stomach
ARTERIES
Left gastric artery
Right gastric artery
Short gastric arteries
Left gastroepiploic artery
Right gastroepiploic artery
VEINS
Left and right gastric vein (portal vein)
Short gastric and left gastroepiploic vein (splenic vein)
Right gastroepiploic vein (sup. Mesenteric vein)
15. Pyloric stenosis
Males 3:1 vs. Females
ist week presentation
May occur with Turner syndrome,
trisomy 18, esophageal atresia
Features:
Narrowing of pyloris,hypertrophy and possibly
hyperplasia.
Hypochloremia,hypokelemia and alkalosis
Regurgitation (projectile !!)
Aspiration
dehdration
16. DIAGNOSIS
O/E oval mass will be palpable (OLIVE)
USG confirms diagnosis.
Contrast study string sign.
TREATMENT (curative)
Pyloromyotomy
(Ramstedt's Operation)
Open or lap
18. Acute gastritis
Chronic gastritis
a) Type A gastritis (autoimmune)
b) Type B gastritis (H.pylori)
c) Type C gastritis (Chemical/Reactive gastritis)
d) Other forms
19. ACUTE GASTRITIS
Gastritis (inflammation of gastric mucosa)
Transient inflammation (usually)
a) bleeding and erosion
b) sloughing of mucosa
Pathogenesis not clear: associations
a) NSAID (e.g., aspirin)
b) alcohol
c) smoking
d) stress (trauma, burns, surgery)
e) uremia,infections
20. Factors involved: (1 or more)
acid secretion with back diffusion
Decreased HCO3- buffer
Decreased blood flow
Disruption of mucus layer
Damage to epithelium
Lots of patients have idiopathic acute
gastritis without any of the listed disorders !!
Neutrophils above basement membrane
(Active inflammation)
21. Features
may be asymptomatic
Epigastric pain
Stomach fullness
loss of appetite
indigestion
black stools
nausea
vomiting
bloody vomit that looks like used coffee grounds
22. Diagnosis
History
Examination
A complete blood count (CBC), which is used to
check your overall health
A blood, breath, or saliva test, which is used to check
for H. pylori
A fecal test, for occult blood
Endoscopy,
Gastric tissue biopsy
23. Management
Lifestyle Changes:
avoiding or limiting alcohol consumption
avoiding spicy, fried, and acidic foods
eating frequent, small meals
reducing stress
avoiding drugs that can irritate the stomach lining, such
as NSAIDs or aspirin or steroids
Medications
H2 receptor antagonist (cimetidine)
PPI (omeprazole)
Antibiotics if h.pylori is there
24. Chronic gastritis
presence of chronic mucosal inflammation
a) leading to mucosal atrophy
b) intestinal metaplasia
c) usually no erosion
d) epithelial changes may lead to dysplasia
>basis for CA
26. Presentation
Nausea or recurrent upset stomach
Abdominal bloating
Abdominal pain
Vomiting
Indigestion
Burning feeling in the stomach between meals or at night
Hiccups
Loss of appetite
Vomiting blood or coffee ground-like material
Black, tarry stools
27. Types A gastritis
Autoimmune gastritis
10% of gastritis cases
Ab against H+-K+-ATPase in perietal cells , gastrin
and IF
a) Mucosal atrophy (body) - Loss of acid production
b) Pernicious anemia (lack of IF from body)
seen with other autoimmune disease
a) type 1 diabetes
b) Addison's disease
c) Hashimoto thyroiditis
28. High risk of gastric CA and endocrine Tumors
(carcinoid tumors)
Diffuse mucosal damage
a) Fundus and body
b) Lymphocytes and plasma cells
c) Active inflammation neutrophils !
d) Atrophy is frequently associated with pangastritis
(H. pylori)
e) Hyperplasia of G cells of antrum (Inc. gastrin)
i. Gastremia (Inc. gastrin>ECL cell hypertrophy)
29. Decreased acid production increased gastrin from G
cells increased stimulation of ECL cells for histamin
secretion hypertrophy of ECL cells in body
microadenomapotential for transformation into
malignant tumor.
(TYPE A GASTRITIS PATIENTS ARE PREDISPOSED
TO GASTRIC CANCER.ENDOSCOPIC SERVIALANCE
IS APPROPRIATE FOR SCREENING)
30. Type B gastritis
H.PYLORI most important etiologic association
with chronic gastritis
Gram neg microaerophilic flagellated urease
producing spiral shaped bacteria found in stomach.
Urease breaks down urea into ammonia and CO2
which produce a neutral area around bacteria.
Urease is important for producing chronic infection
Upto 50% of worlds population affected.
RISK FECTORS overcrowding, inc number of
siblings, sharing a bed, and lack of running water.
31. Transmission fecal/oral and oral/aral
plays role in other diseases:
a) peptic ulcer
b) gastric carcinoma
c) gastric MALT lymphoma
“mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue”
(B-cells produce igG and igA against bacteria locally.B cells are
stimulated by T cells of host.prolonged stimulation can produce
B cell lymphomas in rare cases)
32.
33. 1. Antral type gastritis
G cell stimulation by bacteria
increased acid production
causes peptic ulcers
1. Pangastritis
concomitant autoimmune gastritis
multifocal gastric atrophy
decreased acid production
inc risk of adenocarcinoma
34. Diagnosis
CBC for anemia and infection
Serologic test for gastrin level,antiperietal cell
antibodies
Fecal test for blood
Fecal bacteria detection
Urea breath test
An endoscopy
Gastric biopsy (culture)- histology visualization
(proximal stomach for Autoimmune gastritis)
35. Management
Life style modifications
Avoidance of drugs like NSAIDs and steroids
H2 receptor antagonist
PPI
FOR AUTOIMMUNE VERIETY immunosupressive
drugs and chemotherpy
Iron and B12 supplements (autoimmune gastritis)
37. Reactive/chemical gastropathy
absence of active inflammation (no neutrophils)
causes:
a) Bile reflux (post surgery)
b) Alcohol
c) NSAIDS
Diagnosis made on biopsy
Risk of carcinoma in bile reflux gastritis
38. OTHER FORMS
Eosinophilic gastritis
Lymphocytic gastrits
Allergicgastrtis
Granulomatous gastritis
40. Ménétrier's disease
• hypoproteinemic hypertrophic
gastropathy
• Gross hypertrophy of gastric mucosal folds
• Mucus production,hypochlorhydra,anemia and
hypoproteinemia (80%).
• Overexpression of TGF-α
• CMV AND H.PYLORI association
• Detected on contrast study and endoscopy
• Cituximab ist line treatment
• Gastrectomy in resistance (Malignant potential)
41. Zollinger Ellison Syndrome
Caused by gastrinoma
Cmmon sites pancreas,duodenum and abd L/N.
Massive secretion of HCL and ulcers due to ectopic
gastrin production from tumor
Associated w/ type I (MEN) PPP (25%)
20% multiple, 2/3 malignant, w/ slow growing
Parietal cell mass is increased
42. Diagnosis
• Endoscopy
• Secretion stimulation test
• Basal gastrin level 36 times normal
• Gastric PH
• MRI
Treatment
H2 rec blockers ,PPI and excision of primary tumor.
44. A circumscribed ulceration of the gastrointestinal
mucosa occurring in areas exposed to acid and
pepsin and most often caused by Helicobacter pylori
infection and NSAIDS.
46. Pud demographics
Higher prevalence in developing countries
• H. Pylori is sometimes associated with socioeconomic status
and poor hygiene
In the US:
• Lifetime prevalence is ~10%.
• PUD affects ~4.5 million annually.
• Hospitalization rate is ~30 pts per 100,000 cases.
• Mortality rate has decreased dramatically in the past 20 years
• approximately 1 death per 100,000 cases
47. GASTRIC ULCER
common in late middle age
• incidence increases with age
Male to female ratio—2:1
More common in patients with blood group A
Use of NSAIDs - associated with a three- to four-fold
increase in risk of gastric ulcer
related to H. pylori ~ 75%,90% in case of duodenum.
10 - 20% of patients with a gastric ulcer have a
concomitant duodenal ulcer
49. Etiology
A peptic ulcer is a mucosal break, 3 mm or greater,
that can involve the stomach or duodenum.
Contributing factors are H pylori, NSAIDs, acid, and
pepsin.
Aggressive factors include smoking, ethanol, bile acids,
aspirin, steroids, and stress.
Protective factors are mucus, bicarbonate, mucosal
blood flow, prostaglandins, hydrophobic layer, and
epithelial renewal.
When an imbalance occurs, PUD might develop
1% due to Zollinger Ellison Syndrome
50. SIGNS AN SYMPTOMS
Pain— ”gnawing”, “aching”, or “burning”
• Duodenal ulcers: occurs 1-3 hours after a meal and may
awaken patient from sleep. Pain is relieved by food, antacids,
or vomiting.
• Gastric ulcers: food may exacerbate the pain while vomiting
relieves it.
Nausea, vomiting, belching, dyspepsia, bloating, chest
discomfort, anorexia, hematemesis, &/or melena may
also occur.
• nausea, vomiting, & weight loss more common with Gastric
ulcers
51. Epigastric tenderness
Succussion splash resulting from scaring or edema due
to partial or complete gastric outlet obstruction
• A succussion splash describes the sound obtained by shaking
an individual who has free fluid and air or gas in a hollow
organ or body cavity.
• Usually elicited to confirm intestinal or pyloric obstruction.
• Done by gently shaking the abdomen by holding either side of
the pelvis. A positive test occurs when a splashing noise is
heard, either with or without a stethoscope. It is not valid if the
pt has eaten or drunk fluid within the last three hours.
52. Differential Diagnosis
Neoplasm of the stomach
Pancreatitis
Pancreatic cancer
Diverticulitis
Non ulcer dyspepsia (also called functional
dyspepsia)
Cholecystitis
Gastritis
GERD
MI—not to be missed if having chest pain
53. Diagnostic Plan
Guaiac test for occult blood loss
Labs: CBC , LFTs, amylase, and lipase.
H. Pylori can be diagnosed by urea breath test, blood
test, stool antigen assays, & rapid urease test on a
biopsy sample.
Upper GI Endoscopy: Any pt >50 yr with new onset of
symptoms or those with alarm markings including
anemia, weight loss, or GI bleeding.
• Preferred diagnostic test b/c its highly sensitive for dx of ulcers
and allows for biopsy to rule out malignancy and rapid urease
tests for testing for H. Pylori.
54. MANAGEMENT (NON SURGICAL)
Lifestyle Changes
Discontinue NSAIDs and use Acetaminophen for pain
control if possible.
Acid suppression--Antacids
Smoking cessation
Avoidance of alcohol
No dietary restrictions unless certain foods are
associated with problems.
Stress reduction
55. Plan: H. Pylori
Medications: Triple therapy for 14 days is considered the
treatment of choice.
Goal: complete elimination of H. Pylori. Once achieved
reinfection rates are low.
56. Plan: Non H. Pylori
Medications—treat with Proton Pump Inhibitors or
H2 receptor antagonists to assist ulcer healing
2 months duration.
57. Complications
Perforation & Penetration—into pancreas, liver and
retroperitoneal space
Peritonitis
Bowel obstruction, Gastric outflow obstruction, &
Pyloric stenosis
Bleeding--occurs in 25% to 33% of cases and
accounts for 25% of ulcer deaths.
Gastric CA
59. MANAGEMENT (SURGICAL)
People who do not respond to medication, or who
develop complications:
• BI, BII resection
• Trancal vagotomy and drainage
• Highly selective vagotomy
62. VAGOTOMY
Trancal vagotomy and drainage
• Nerve sectioned from trunk dec acid production
• S/E; Gastric stasisPyloroplasty or gastrojejunostomy
gall bladder stasisgall stones
Highly selective Vagotomy
• Only perietal cell mass denervated
• S/E Epigastric fullness (loss of receptive relaxation of
stomach)
Trancal vagotomy and antrectomy
64. Giant Gastric Ulcer
Giant gastric ulcer: >2cm;10 30% malignancy risk
Subtotal gastrectomy with Roux-en-Y (high
morbidity and mortality)
Kelling-Madlener procedure: less aggressive,
antrectomy, BI reconstruction, bilateral truncal
vagotomy, multiple biopsies, cautery of ulcer
65. Complications after stomach resection
Recurrent ulceration,
stenosis of anastomosis,
bleeding, pancreatitis,obstructive icterus,
fistulation,
stasis,
intestinal obstruction from adhesions and
intussusception
early dumping syndrome
late dumping syndrome
Anemia,diarrhea,weight loss and bile vomiting
66. Early dumping syndrome
group of symptoms approved shortly after meal
appears after BII resection
vasomotoric sy. - face redness, fall of blood pressure,
dizziness
GI sy. - vomiting, diarrhoea
Management: diet, no sugar, low quantities of food,
change BII to BI resection
67. Late dumping syndrome
hypoglycaemia (sugar is not enough digested)
appears after BII resection
weakness, perspiration, dizziness, tremor 3h after meal
Management.: no sugar, change BII to BI resection
68. References
Bailey and love short practice of surgery 26th
addition
Sabiston 19th addition
Wikipedia