Behavioral science teaching notes

Definition of some essential
terminologies in behavioral
science
1June 6, 2013 PU BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

1. Study of Behavioral Science
The scientific study of behavior, facts about the people
what they do and what they should do is behavior
science.
Focuses upon the human and better understanding of
human behavior.
Organizes facts surrounding the actions of people.
Many artists and authors, along with others have had
perceptive views of human behavior.
Our interest should be strongest in the specific
knowledge gained through scientific study.
Primarily, Behavioral Science focuses in the three
disciplines - anthropology, psychology and sociology.
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Importance
It establishes the fitness of individual in working
environment.
Better human behavior and attitudes among the
employees in an organization.
Rationalize human actions.
Exploring the areas of development among
people working together in an organizations.
Establishing better organizational across
organization.
Promote the value of cross-cultural diversity.

In 4th century BC, Aristotle, the first behavioral scientist,
labeled merits in many aspects.
Comte (1830s) wrote about the discipline of sociology
and core value of sociology.
Ford Foundation (1950s) performed the study of
favorable attitudes towards behavioral science over short
span of time.
Galileo and Merton (1963) said behavioral science
comprise a new science of ancient subject.
Berelson (1963) pointed out the revolutionary change in
the fields, i.e. technical and specialized.
Senn (1966) considered behavioral science as a valid
description of the work.
Emergence of Behavioral Sciences as a Discipline

2. Behavioral Disciplines
 The three disciplines comprising the core-anthropology,
psychology, and sociology-must be included. Beyond this,
the list is more or less arbitrary.
 Undoubtedly, mention must be made of economics,
political science, and history.
 The more applied areas such as management; marketing
and psychiatry.
 Similarly, the emerging areas include game theory, decision
theory, information theory, cybernetics and so on.

Behavior Genetics
 Study of relative influence of genetic and
environment on behavior
Genes
 The biochemical
units of heredity
 Many genes
together make up
chromosomes
Environment
Any influence, other than genetic, on an
individual’s behavior
That is transmitted from --
 the culture someone is raised in,
 the family,
 socioeconomic group,
 role, status, prestige,
 and so on.
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3. Defining Basic Behavioral Concepts
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Role of Nature and Nurture
 Nature side involves the genetic code passed
from biological parents to the child.
 Nurture side includes environmental
influences from prenatal development on.

Chromosomes
 Threadlike structures made up of DNA
 46 pairs in each cell
 23 received from each parent

Chromosomes

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
 A complex molecule
 Contains the genetic information of
each chromosome

The Genetic Makeup of One Cell
1 human cell (Zygote)
23 chromosome pairs
are contained in
46 chromosomes
equal to
about 100,000 genes
equal to
About 3 billion base pairs
equal to

Similarities
 Despite our differences, human beings
throughout the world share a number of
similarities

Evolutionary Psychology
 The study of evolution of behavior and
the mind
 Uses the principle of natural selection

Natural Selection
 Darwin’s principle that those traits
contributing to the survival of the
species will most likely be passed on to
the next generation.
 Survival of the generation will rely on
their competence to survive in changing
environment.

Identical Twins
 Twins who developed from a single
fertilized egg
 Are genetically identical
 Called monozygotic twins

Fraternal Twins
 Twins who developed from separate eggs
 Genetically no different than other siblings
 Called dizygotic twins

Heritability
 The proportion of an individual’s
characteristics that can be attributed to
genetics (heredity)
 The degree to which traits are inherited

Twin Studies
 Used to determine the heritability of a
given trait
 Data is collected from both identical
and fraternal twins on the trait
 Compare the data between the two
groups
 Important not to conclude that a
specific behavior is inherited

Adoption Studies
 Compare adopted children’s traits with
those of their biological parents and their
adopted parents
 Traits similar with biological parents --
attribute the traits to heredity
 Traits similar with the adopted parents --
attribute the traits to the environment

Early Brain Development
 Early experience is critical in brain
development.
 In later life continued use is necessary
to maintain neural connections in the
brain.

Peer Influence
 Peer influence in adolescence development
may play very powerful role.
 Many studies suggest a peer group
behavior is correlated with one’s school
performance, smoking, and other habits.

Culture
 Shared attitudes, beliefs, norms and
behaviors of a group, may be in a family.
 Culture is communicated from one
generation to the next.
 The way how a system has been operating
over the period is culture.

Norms
 Rules for accepted and expected behavior
understood in a defined context.
 Norms consist of the “proper behavior”
within a group.

Individualism
 Giving priority to one’s goals over the
goals of the group
 Defining one’s identity in terms of
personal attributes rather than the group’s
identification
 Tend to see people as separate and
independent

Collectivism
 Giving priority to the goals of one’s group
over one’s personal goals
 Defining one’s identity in terms of the
group’s identification rather than personal
attributes
 See people as connected to others
 Individual needs are sacrificed for the
goodness of the group.

UNIT II: DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
1. Nature and Nurture
2. Span of Development
3. Individual Differences
4. Biological Basis for Individuality
5. Personality
6. Socio-cultural Factors
7. Achievement
8. Age Recapitulation

1. Nature and Nurture
 No two people in the world are exactly the
same
 At the same time, many similarities may exist
 What would you do if you were stuck in an
elevator?

Nature and Nurture: Heredity and Environment
 Genetic arrangement also determines the
physical and functional basis of individual
behavior.
 How much of what we are is due to heredity.
 The fundamental positions can be recognized in
statements like “you can’t make a silk purse out
of sow’s ear”.

Nature and Nurture Contd…
 Example: Twins are born. One of them lives
with the father in USA while the other lives
with the mother in a village in Nepal.
 They may have a lot of similar hereditary
characteristics, but the environment affects
their individual differences.
 They will have different culture, thinking,
feeling and lifestyle.

2. Span of Development
 A exploration of the biological, cognitive, and
psychosocial changes that occur different periods
of life of human.
 Life span development begins with conception
and continues all throughout life from changes
that begin at conception and last until
death(internet 30-11-2067).
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32PU BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

 Children go through many changes throughout
life that develop over time such as physical
growth cognitive development and
psychological development.
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Broadly, the span of development may be
categorized in three phases:
a. Infancy and childhood,
b. Adolescence, and
c. Maturity and old age

Infancy and childhood
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 Infancy is the foundation of life.
 Infancy is the very first stage of
the life. It commences from the
neonatal stage.
 In this stage natural ability to
respond against situations like
hunger, cold, fear by crying
occurs.
 The natural capacity to
recognize nearer , dearer, and
beloved ones by a smile.

 Physical growth is rapid during infancy. Due to
good nutrition, infants almost triple in weight
(to about 20 pounds or 9 kilograms) and increase
in body length by about one-third (28 or 29
inches, 71 to 74 cms) during the first year alone.
 Infants and children learn from their parents,
families, surrounding and schools.
 Imitating words, standing upright with support,
commencing walking, playing with caregivers.
 Toothing, independent playing with toys,
demanding with claims, recalling family
relations, pet loving, peer playing, singing, etc.
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 Development of creativity, science, maths,
language and construction skills.
 Gaining family and social values, norms and
behavior.
 Reading and recalling storing, knowing
about great personalities.

Adolescence
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 The transition from child to adult
takes place more gradually during a
period known as adolescence.
 Rapid spurt in physical growth gained
by sexual maturation and as ending
when individuals assume the
responsibilities associated with adult
life marriage, entry into the workforce.
 Due to sexual maturity, menstruation
begins in girls and boys get sperms
produced as they are 14-15.

 Boys develop facial and chest hair and their voice
deepen.
 Recognition of best personalities and making
their ones role models.
 Adaptation of behavior as of ones role model.
 Setting objectives of life, sets mission and vision.
 Making friends cycle, choosing best friend.
 Attraction towards opposite sex.
 Adolescents may be easily drifted to addiction
due to poor nurturing environment.

Maturity and old age
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 Involvement in chosen career path.
 Involvement in family affairs.
 Creativity rises rapidly, usually in a
person’s late thirties to early
forties, then gradually declines.
 Able to retain as much information
in this limited capacity.
 Ability to transfer information
from working memory to long
term memory may decrease with
age because of changes in brain.

 Total brain weight decreases five percent by
age seventy ten percent by age eighty and
twenty percent by age ninety.
 Decision making on marriage, child plan and
property accumulation as well as business.
 Emergence of a new family out of prenatal
family
 Old age planning and social involvement
during retirement also appear in action.

3. Individual Differences
• Obviously the people differ from each.
• How and why they differ is less clear and is the
subject of individual difference.
• Individual difference seems to be a study
variance, how people are different.
• The difference between individuals that separates
from one another and makes one as a unique
individual in oneself.
• Individual difference is any difference in the way
in which people behave or think.

Causes of individual differences
 There are many
factors that make a
person different
from others:
 Family
 Traits
 Culture
 Heredity
 Early pre-school
linguistic
experience

Individual Difference: The Distribution of Traits
 Most human traits are distributed, a continuum,
with most people in the middle and few at either.
 The resulting curve is called normal curve of
distribution.
 The curve contain two-third of individual with
the range from one sigma, or standard deviation.
 The curve represent the distribution of many
traits such as height, weight or IQ scores.

Individual traits
Individual traits measure
those dimension of
individual that play a role
in his reaction to life
situation.
The important traits are:
 Mental ability
 Language ability
 Interest
 Aptitude
 Achievement
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 Openness
 Conscientiousness
 Extraversion
 Agreeableness
 Neuroticism
Measures of individual traits

Caveats in appraisal
 In obtaining and using information about
individual difference, the decision maker must be
aware of many factor that should make him
continuous about applying the result obtained.
 This is specially true in selection situation where
person are chosen for specific task.
 Provide information about individual difference
in academic or other organization setting.

Test factor
Some terms in test factor are:
 Score
 Profile
 Norms
 Reliability
 Validity
 Selection ratio
 Diagnostic use
 Use in selection

4. The Biological Basis for Behavior
The basis for individuality
 The nucleus of the cell contains 23 pairs or 46 in
total chromosomes.
 Each chromosome contains countless tiny
bodies called genes.
 Each chromosomes and each gene in the
chromosome are paired to provide the
characteristics of the person.
 One pair of gene is dominant while the other is
recessive.

Patterns of Development
 There are certain patterns in the development
of the organism both in uterus and after birth.
 The new organism unfolds according to two set
plans; it grows and develops as follows:
1. Cephalocaudally: development proceeds from
head to tail.
2. Proximimodistally: individual structure shows
growth and development from the midpoint
to the extremities, or from proximate parts to
those that are more distant.

Patterns of development contd…
1. Input Process
 Information receiving, or sensation, serves as a
basis for behavior.
 The part the age factor plays in the reception of
stimuli concerns us here
2. Central Process
Psychological developments including
perception, learning, mental ability, concept
formation, problem solving, language ability,
etc.

Patterns of development contd…
3. Output: Psychomotor activities
- Psychomotor activities are those actions
involving some voluntary movement of the
body ranging from fine manual hardiness to
more complex co-ordination of limb and
trunk movements.
- Psychomotor skills show a change over life
span of individual.

• Personality Development
• Mental health
• Retirement
• Interest & Attitude

Personality picture

• Personality is defined as the enduring personal
characteristics of individuals.
• The shaping of the personality of the individual is done
by many forces, the primary ones originating within the
family.
• personality also colors our values, beliefs, and
expectations .
• Hereditary factors that contribute to personality
development do so as a result of interactions with the
particular social environment in which people live.

• More serious or affective responses are part of the
problem of psychopathology, the study of mental
diseases.
• About 25 percent of a old age disorders such as
senile brain disability.
• No more than 2 percent of the older group can
expect to be hospitalized for mental illness.

Retirement
 Retirement is the point where a person stops
employment completely. A person may also semi-
retire by reducing work hours.
 Nowadays most developed countries have
systems to provide pensions on retirement in old
age, which may be sponsored by employers
and/or the state.
 A person may retire at whatever age they please.
However, a country's tax laws and/or state old-age
pension rules usually mean that in a given
country a certain age is thought of as the
"standard" retirement age.

Retirement Picture

Famous People Who Have Had Mental Illness
 Hans Christian Anderson, Ludwig Von
Beethoven, Winston Churchill, Kurt Cobain,
Charles Darwin, Emily Dickenson, Thomas
Edison, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Betty Ford, Paul
Gauguin, King George III, Johan Goethe, Ernest
Hemingway, Victor Hugo, Ignatius of Loyola,
Thomas Jefferson, John Keats, Abraham Lincoln,
Martin Luther, Michelangelo, Florence
Nightingale, King Saul, Robert Louis Stevenson,
Sir Isaac Newton.

Interest & Attitudes
 The interest s of the young are differentiated
more on the basis of sex. Boys are more
appeal in football, fishing, marbles, etc.
whereas girls play house, sew, and play at
cooking.
 Adolescents keep somewhat the same
patterns of masculine and feminine
interests but with some close parallels at
certain points.

1. ATTITUDES OF SOCIETY
2. SOCIOECONOMIC INFLUENCES
3. CHILD REARING PRATICES
4. BEYOND THE FAMILY
5. MENTAL ILLNESS
6. PHYSICAL DISABILITY

Attitudes of society
 Prevalent views of individuals and groups in society usually
appear with particular “themes” for each ageing group.
 Attitudes are usually oversimplified in presenting a picture
of “typical” behavior.
 In our society the elder male has been the one who
occupies the position of responsibility ,and legal
restrictions ,for instance, follow suit.
 Organization pressure the older workers to leave and make
room for the younger ones on the treadmill behind them
makes the company policy more emphatic.

Socio economic influences
.The attitudes in different strata of society, if they are
different ,help in shape the person in that level or
grouping accordingly.
.When the broader social influences arising from class
placement do play a role , their effects are perpetuated
through future generations.

Child-rearing practices
 Parents in higher socio economic levels have
traditionally been among the first to adopt those
practices of rearing children which have been
promoted by “experts” and have done so with greater
enthusiasm.
 Middle class parents are more prone to stress
achievement and encourage education.
 The correlation in attitudes between the children and
their teachers was even lower than in first two
comparisons.

PICTURE OF CHILD REARING

Beyond the family
 There are influences beyond those arising from the
social placement of the family as individuals are
exposed to agencies outside the home, particularly the
school.
 Children from broken homes or disrupted families
may find release in school or play activities.
 May be enrolled in different vulgar activities like drug
addiction ,girls trafficking etc

Involved in addiction

Mental illness
 The classic study of community and its by
Hollingshead and redlich(1958) found a relationship
between class placement and types of mental illness.
 Psychos were most often diagnosed in the lower
classes by age 55 a ratio of 7 ti1 was found between the
upper and lower class levels in the community.

Picture of mental illness

Physical Disability
 In the physical area the same relationship
between social economic status and health are
present.
 The lower income groups, when this taken as an
indication of socioeconomic level show a higher
disability rate.
 This point out a clear basis in
socioeconomics factors rather than ethnic or
racial ones.

7. Achievement
 Questions of occupational achievement or
productivity do not occur in a society until
adulthood.
 The age span is considered meaningful.
- Employment patterns with age
1. Job productivity
2. Professional achievement
- Other factors in achievement
1. Absenteeism
2. Reassignment
- Accidents

8. Age-Recapitulation
 General statements about the abilities of the
individuals of different ages are generally
stereotypes.
 Differences between people of the same age may
be great due to social and personality differences.
 There may be wide variation in basic physical
factors as well.
 Selye (1956) has noted that the amount of “wear
and tear” to which the person has been exposed,
not time elapsed since birth, is a true measure of
physiological ageing.

Conclusions
 Though there are many similarities in human beings,
there is not yet a single case of 100% identical person in
this world due to varying level of nature and nurture
factors affecting the formation, and development of
individual life.
 Individual means different from others.
 Human life represents a beautiful pattern of
development of differences across the life cycle.
 Level of interest, attitude, desire, strength, intellect,
etc. differs across various spans of human life.
 Keeping an elderly person in the manufacturing
assembly line would be considered as unethical as
hiring a minor as a labor.

 Unit 3: Cultural Behavior
1. Concept and dynamics
2. Relation social constructs
3. Common social responses

CONCEPT AND DYNAMICS
1. Meaning and importance of
culture
2. Cultural dynamics and
change
3. Development process
4. Cultural lags

Meaning and importance of culture
 Culture is a set of rules of or standards shared
by members of a society, which when acted
upon by the members produce behavior that
falls within a range of variation the members
consider proper and acceptable.
 Culture is a social way of functioning of people
on something brought in practice over time.
 Culture is the learned way of living which is
transmitted socially from generation to
generation and person to person over a certain
duration.

Cultural dynamics and change
 The very nature of culture is the transformation
that is initiated under changing environment.
 All the patterns of human behavior undergo
transformation as the micro as well as macro
level social structural system goes on changing.
 Cultural dynamism brings home newer and
more innovative ways of living making lives
more colorful and prosperous.
 Dynamism is vital for development.

 Change is initiated through newer human
contacts by means of migration, war ,trade ,
foreign or new community based working
opportunities and exploration.
 Similarly, climatic change, ecological changes
and struggle for survival also bring in changes
in humanity and its behavior.
 Equally important is the innovation and
technological development.

Development process
(cultural dynamism drives forward the developmental process)
1. Enculturation: the process whereby a developing person
is molded by the culture is enculturation.
2. Acculturation: the process of change toward the new
cultural form is called acculturation.
3. Assimilation: when the newer members are
incorporated into the broad stream of functioning of the
general society, it may be said that assimilation has taken
place.
4. Integration: assimilation implies integration into the
community.

Cultural
lags
 Cultural lag is an essential outcome of
cultural dynamism.
 Cultural gaps are developed down between
the earlier and later generations due to
generation gaps and newer innovation and
technological development.

The broad social
structural
variables that
initiate for the
promotion of
intact social
relationships
among similar
social groups.

Race
 Race refers to the possession of certain
biological characteristics on which a
classification is made, a somewhat arbitrary and
very often superfluous and meaningless
process.

Nationality
 Nationality is a purely
political concept
referring to allegiance
to a political entity.
One may be labeled
simply by identifying
the boundaries of the
country of which one is
a citizen.

Ethnicity
 An ethnic group is one which is
distinguished from the general
population on the basis of
differences in culture.
 Many ethnic groups may exist
within the boundaries of one
particular country.
 Countries like Yugoslavia, India,
etc. have many groups
demonstrating cultural variation
through the differences in
language, religion, attitudes,
values, norms and dress as well.

Society
 A society is a large
aggregate of people who
have a way of life in
common, a settled
existence, and can be
definitely located on a
geographic basis.
 Society refers to a group
while culture indicates
patterns of behavior.

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 Language in global workplace
 Fashion and interpersonal discourses
 Personal and family status and its presentation in
the developing and developed societies
 Differences in perception over some cross
cultural communication system
 Official arrangement, location management and
language and symbols used across the world
 Use of silent languages across the world

 Cultural dynamism ultimately results in the
differentiating political and economic patterns
across the world
 These patterns also bring in the changes in
national fundamental structure.

1. Cultural pattern in simple and large societies
2. Cross-cultural communication

Difference between responses
 Large societies
1. Individualism
2. Focused on gaining
prosperity for self
3. Productivity focused
4. Evolution of multi level
diversity
5. Sources of learning
change
6. Intergenerational
exploration
7. Complex political and
economic patterns
 Simple societies
1. Collectivism
2. Focused on development of
the societies at large
3. People focused
4. Promotion of years long
tradition and values
5. Destination for imitating
change
6. Generational gaps
7. Simple political and
economic patterns

1. Culture represents diversity
2. Getting fit into a new culture is a more
systematic and critical process.
3. Cross-cultural communication, dynamism, and
social responses show the varying social patterns
in which human life passes on.
4. In work places, diversity and cross-cultural
communication plays a vital role in individual
and group success.

1. Social structure.
2. Social Organization.
3. Individual Differences.
4. Social Stratification.
5. Social Institutions.

Social structure refers to the patterned social
arrangements which form the society as a
whole, and which determine, to some varying
degree, the actions of the individuals
socialized into that structure.
 For e.g. Being a doctor he/she should not
drink alcohol but some variation form his/her
professional and personal life amongst the
doctor there may be some who can drink
alcohol in his/her personal life.

 Social structure may also be defined as
the socialties that bind individuals,
groups and social systems.
 Social structuring does not only advocate
on binding all members, but it also
advocate on how a differentiated
structure is composed by establishing
numerous social groups on the basis of
the homogeneity within heterogeneity.

WHAT ARE THE BASES OF STRUCTURING
On the basis of individual variables
a. Age
b. Sex
c. Race
d. Skills
e. Tenures
f. others

On the basis of Nationality
a. Asian
b. American
c. European
d. Eastern
e. Western
f. Nepalese
g. Non-Nepalese

On the basis of Development
a. Developed societies
b. Underdeveloped societies
c. Negros
d. Red Indians and so on.

On the basis of Religion, Ethnicity and
Culture
a. Hindus
b. Islams
c. Open societies
d. Closed societies

On the basis of Profession
a. Professional associations
b. Unions
c. Federations, etc.

Definition:
 Social organization is the people in a society
considered as a system organized by a
characteristic pattern of relationships.
 Social organization refers to a group of social
positions, connected by social relations,
performing a social role.
 It simply refers to the patterns how individuals
are arranged in social structures.
 For example; Rotary club, Nepalese Children’s
Education Fund

A. Forms of Social Organization
a. Kinship refers to the bond of membership in the family.
Family enterprises are still popular worldwide.
b. Status refers to the individual person’s place in a social
organization.
c. Fealty denotes the individual member’s relationship
with other members based on trust, loyalty and mutual
benefits.
d. Coordination refers to the arrangement of members in
different social structure settings.
e. Contract is based on exchange of one promise for
another.

B. Levels of Organization
We may identify three levels of social organization.
a. Interpersonal level
b. Group level
c. Systems or social order

3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE
The people differ from each other is
obvious. How and why they differ is less
clear and is the subject of the study of
Individual differences. Although to study
individual differences seems to be to study
variance, how are people different.
It is also to study central tendency, how
well can a person be described in terms of
an overall within-person average.

The bases of individual differentiation are
The basic grounds of individual differentiation are;
a. Status is simply a collection of rights and duties. A person
has more than one status. i.e A man who is a dutiful
husband, is also a father and a son.
b. Role represents the dynamic aspect of status. When a
man puts the rights and duty which constitute the status
into effect, he is performing a role.
c. Prestige is the evaluation of status and the role that
accompanies the basis for a ranking.

4. Social Institutions
Definition:
An institution is any structure or mechanism
of social order and cooperation governing the
behavior of a set of individuals within a given
human community.
The term "institution" is commonly applied to
customs and behavior patterns important to a
society, as well as to particular formal
organizations of government and public
service.

Types of Social Institutions:
Political Institutions.
For e.g.; Nepal congress party, YCL, etc
Economic Institutions.
For e.g.; business, industry, etc
Education.
For e.g.; school, college, tuition centre,
etc
The Family.

5. Social Stratification
Social stratification is ranking some
individuals and groups as more deserving than
others; from this a social hierarchy is formed
which is a set of ranked statuses from highest to
lowest.
Social stratification is also a form of
inequality in which categories of people are
systematically ranked in a hierarchy on the basis
of their access to scarce but valued resources.
For example: age, race/ethnicity, gender, etc

BASES OF STRATIFICATION
Objective evaluation
Subjective placement
Reputational selection

Objective evaluation
 For e.g.; objective tests are scored by scanning
machines and computers. Objective tests are often
constructed with selected-response item formats, such
as multiple-choice, matching, and true-false.

Subjective placement
For e.g.; When a man sees a beautiful women he
immediately places value on her, he does this
subjectively, the amount of value that he places on her
cannot be measured, it is a subjective placement

Reputational selection
It is a broader and sometime more ambiguous attempt
to get persons in the community to act as judges and
assign rankings to members of that community on the
basis of criteria those judges have developed

Conclusions
 Social structure is as relationships between
different entities or groups or as enduring and
relatively stable patterns of relationship
emphasizes the idea that society is grouped into
structurally related groups or sets of roles, with
different functions, meanings or purposes.
 One example of social structure is the idea of
"social stratification", which refers to the idea
that society is separated into different levels,
guided by the underlying structures in the
social system.

 This approach has been important in the
academic literature with the rise of various
forms of structuralism.
 It is important in the modern study of
organizations, because an organization's
structure may determine its flexibility,
capacity to change, and many other factors.
 Therefore, structure is an important issue for
management.

UNIT 5: SOCIAL PROCESS
Concept
Causes
Application
Social Process and Human
Behavior
PU BEHAVIORAL SCIENCEJune 6, 2013 112

 A society or a human society is a group of people
related to each other through persistent relations such
as social status, roles and social networks.
 A large social grouping that shares the same
geographical territory and is subject to the same
political authority and dominant cultural expectations.
Concept of Society

SOCIETY

There are many perspectives developed advocating
about human beings in a society.
Primarily, Anthropology and Polictical Science play
the most dominant role in such studies.
Human being in a society

 Societies are most often organized according to
their primary means of subsistence.
 Social scientists have identified hunter-gatherer
societies, nomadic pastoral societies,
horticulturalist or simple farming societies, and
intensive agricultural societies, also called
civilizations.
 Some consider industrial and post-industrial
societies to be qualitatively different from
traditional agricultural societies.
Anthropology

 Societies have also been organized according to their political
and class hierarchy from the beginning of civilization as seen by
humans.
 The combination of men and their resources in an affective
manner to take the decision for the betterment of the society as a
whole is the ruling of a civilization.
 Political science is a social science concerned with the theory
and practice of politics and the analysis of political systems and
political behavior.
 In order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands,
tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies.
 These structures may have varying degrees of political power,
depending on the cultural geographical, and historical
environments that these societies must contend with.
Political Science

 Human is a social creature and learns many behavioral
aspects from the society itself.
 Social values and norms make up for the society to act as
a foundation for behavioral transformation.
 Society serves as a source of human nurturing.
 For example: Two twins who share similar genetic code
one adopted in an American family and an Indian family
will have opposite behavior where one is conservative
and thinks more of the society where as another is a free
person who think his interest is above that of others.
Human Behavior in a Social Process

 In this presentation we will study in detail what are the
various factors that make the human being in a society
what he is today.
 How does the changes in the society, generation and
the views of the individual that bring upon the
changes in the society and the social process itself
Objective

Every Path is Different

 Development of the social individual
 Aggregate Social Process
 Collective Behavior
 Social Mobility
 Population Dynamic
 Conflict & Disintegration
SOCIAL PROCESS

SOCIAL PROCESS

Socialization, what it is
 Socialization is a term used by sociologists, social
psychologists, anthropologists, politicians and
educationalists to refer to the process of inheriting norms,
customs and ideologies.
 It may provide the individual with the skills and habits
necessary for participating within their own society; a
society itself is formed through a plurality of shared norms,
customs, values, traditions, social roles, symbols and
languages.

 Socialization is the primary means by which human
infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform
as a functioning member of their society, and is the
most influential learning processes one can
experience].
 In simple words, socialization refers to getting
familiar with a new group or society
Socialization (contd.)

 The rules that every society uses to point out what kind
of behavior is desirable or appropriate are called norms.
 The guidelines for behavior are based on cultural values
of the social system at large.
 Norms are fundamental in socialization. In this process
the child incorporates the values of the society by
following the rules given to him by the society.
Conformity to norms

 Conformity to norms are learned and are rewarded in
social appraisal.
 Complying with the social norms is one of the pre-
requisites of socialization process.
 Acceptance is very important in this respect.
Conformity to norms (contd.)

 The aggregate social process is all the factors of the
society that come with various factors in an aggregate
form in order to make up an individual fit into the
society.
 Change is the single driver of overall social process.
 Change in individuals, groups and society is obvious
for development and prosperity.
AGGREGATE SOCIAL PROCESSES

Change as a Basic Process
i. Concept of change
ii. Social Change
iii. Change in Groups
iv. Individual Factors in change

Social Change
 Social change refers to an alteration feature of the social
order
 Social change is a very basic term and must be assigned
further context.
 It may refer to the notion of social progress or socio cultural
evolution.
 The philosophical idea that society moves forward by
dialectical or evolutionary means.

Change

 It may refer to a paradigmatic change in the socio-
economic structure. For instance, a shift away from
feudalism and towards capitalism.
 Change also may be referred to as social revolution,
such as the Communist revolution presented in
Marxism, or to other social movements, such as
Women's suffrage or the Civil rights movement.
Social Change (contd.)

Change in groups
The process of change in small groups and organizations
occupies the attention of researchers as the critical nature of
the process is recognized in the light need to function
effectively in the midst of rapidly developing social and
technological event.
The response to change are conditioned both by individual
factors and those relating to the nature.
Socialization and conformity to norms may have closer
relation with the change in groups.

 Individual Factors in change
1. Attitude: It varies from person to person and may lead to
change.
2. Motivation: This impacts every individual differently as
some are quickly motivated and some are not.
3. Age: This is without a doubt the most important factor to
change as it links also with knowledge and maturity.
4. Similarly, other equally important individual factors
influencing change are interest, task achievement, role
status in the group and perceived rationality of being the
member of the group. Why have I been the member of this
group?

1. Accommodation: The process of adjustment that takes place
when individuals accede to various compromises or develop
working relationships in order to be able to function
together is called accommodation.
2. Assimilation: The melting of individuals with previously
diverse backgrounds into the general society to the general
society to the point where attitudes and values are held
commonly in that society is called Assimilation.
3. Alienation: is a tendency of a worsening of relations. One of
the key reasons of it is increasing gap between union and
company in a deteriorating labor dispute.

1. Integration: When used with respect to social
organization in it’s broadest outlines, refers to
the amount of contact existing between social
groups within the society is known as
integration.
2. Isolation is known as the lack of integration in
the society. Isolation of groups within a society
is a matter of degree, since complete isolation is
not possible if a society exists.
3. Anomie: A “normlessness” that results from an
individual departure from group values is
anomie.

Collective behavior is non institutionalized,
unconventional group activity such as panics,
crazes, mass delusions, incited crowds, riots, and
reform or revolutionary movements.
A sociological approach to collective behavior
focuses on social conditions such as political
structures and shared beliefs as these conditions
influence patterns of collective behavior.
Collective Behavior

 Emotional Contagion
 Broad Patterns
Factors in Collective Behavior

 This means the mood the individual in a group or crowd have in
common.
 Emotional contagion is the tendency to catch and feel emotions
that are similar to and influenced by those of others.
 One view developed by John Cacioppo of the underlying
mechanism is that it represents a tendency to automatically
mimic and synchronize facial expressions, vocalizations,
postures, and movements with those of another person and,
consequently, to converge emotionally.
 A broader definition of the phenomenon was suggested by Sigal
G. Barsade, "a process in which a person or group influences the
emotions or behavior of another person or group through the
conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and
behavioral attitudes.”
Emotional Contagion

This is often the emotional and shifting behavior
seen in mass action that adds to our
understanding of social behavior even though
much of collective activity may be more routine
and less dramatic than the activity that makes
headlines
1. Crowds
2. Panic
3. Rumor

 Crowds
 A crowd is a large and definable group of people, while
"the crowd" is referred to as the so called lower orders
of people in general (the mob).
 A crowd may be defined on the basis of a common
purpose or set of emotions, such as at a political rally, at
a sports event, or during looting, or simply be made up
of many people going about their business in a busy
area (eg, shopping).
 Everybody in the context of general public or the
common people is normally referred to as the masses.
Proximate (contd)

 Panic
Panic is a sudden sensation of fear which is so strong as
to dominate or prevent reason and logical thinking,
replacing it with overwhelming feelings of anxiety and
frantic agitation consistent with an animalistic fight or
flight reaction.
Panic may occur singularly in individuals or manifest
suddenly in large groups as mass panic (closely related to
herd behavior).
Proximate(contd)

 Rumor
A rumor is often viewed as "an unverified account or
explanation of events circulating from person to person and
pertaining to an object, event, or issue in public concern“
However, a review of the research on rumor conducted by
Pendleton in 1998 found that research across sociology,
psychology, and communication studies had widely varying
definitions of rumor.
Thus, rumor is a concept that lacks a particular definition in
the social sciences.
But most theories agree that rumor involves some kind of a
statement whose veracity is not quickly or ever confirmed
Proximate(contd)

1. Fashion
2. Fads
3. Crazes
4. Boom
5. Social Movement
Broad Influence Process

 Fashion
Fashion may be defined as a socially sanctioned
variation in material form or activity. Changes in
clothes, style, music art, is often seen in our culture
where fashion plays an important role.
 Fads
A limited or more superficial manner of dress or other
behavior is known as fads. These come quickly and go
quickly. They have less acceptance than fashion.
 Craze is a form of fad eg hippie era

FASHION & SOCIETY

FADS (HIPPIE era)

 Boom
 A boom-bust cycle is an episode characterized by a
sustained increase in several economics indicators
followed by a sharp and rapid contraction.
 Commonly the boom is driven by an rapid expansion
of credit to the private sector accompanied with rising
prices of commodities and stock market index.
 Following the boom phase, asset prices collapse and a
credit crunch arises, where access to financing
opportunities are sharply reduced below levels
observed during normal times.
 The unwinding of the bust phase brings a considerably
large reduction in investment and fall in consumption
and a economic recession may follow.

 Social Movements
 Social movements are a type of group action.
 They are large informal groupings of individuals
and/or organizations focused on specific political or
social issues, in other words, on carrying out, resisting
or undoing a social change.

 Career Mobility
 Generational Mobility
 Other Factors In Mobility
SOCIAL MOBILITY

 The upward or downward mobility in an occupation or
the change from one occupation to another.
 People do move from one place to another and from
one occupation to another but they often do not move
very far from their occupation or profession.
Career mobility

 Generational mobility is a measure of the changes in
social status which occurs from the parents' to the
children's generation.
 It can effect anyone in the population, as one’s
economic standing can increase or decrease from the
position they were born into.
 Our society is constantly changing, and because of this
various opportunities can cause one to advance or
digress in their economic standing.
 One’s talents can cause them to surpass the economic
position into which they were born
Generational mobility

 Fertility
 Migration
 Urbanization
POPULATION DYNAMICS

Fertility and mortality
Demography, the study of the population, provides a
further basis for the discussion of social dynamics,
changes in the population arising from variation s in
the birth rate or the drop in the mortality with the
technological development can have profound social
results.
It also supports age mix.

Migration
When people moves from one place to another, either
internal or external, then it is said to be migration.
Types of migration
 Internal migration
 External migration

Urbanization
 The move from cottage to the factories increased
urbanization.

 Cities have grown because they provide diversified
service to the inhabitants, but such a diversity may
have undesirable consequences in the conflicts it
produces.

 Urbanization has been concomitant of
industrialization and commercialization.

 Family pattern
 Community conflict
 Crime and delinquency
 Industrial conflict
Conflict and Disintegration

Family pattern
 Family is the first and most fundamental socialize of
the vidual, any conflict should begin from this
primary unit of the society.
 Environmental stresses on the family occurs the
conflict and disintegration, such as unemployment.

Community conflict
 The competing elements in the community provide a
basis for the emergence of conflict.
 Frustration in a rapidly changing set of intergroup
conditions provide an emotional basis for conflict.
 However the social loss in discrimination is extensive.

Crime and delinquency
 Crime is the behavior that violates the criminal law.
Delinquency is the similar activity by a juvenile.
 This is the behavior that deviates from official norms
and is disruptive of the legal order.
 It is the social disorganization that should come to the
attention of duly constituted agents of the state and be
acted on with all the machinery available to them.

Industrial conflict
 Industrial conflict involves various parties to dispute-workers,
management and the political bodies.
 The most visible form of the industrial conflict, the strike,
represents only the small part of the total discord.
 The bases for industrial conflicts lie in the fundamental factors
in individual and social behavior.
 Frustration, aggression and counter aggression have been well
documented.
 Means of conflict resolution must incorporate consideration of
these dynamics.

The major conclusion that we have come to assemble
from our study are as follows:
 Society plays as a major nurture role in the development of
an individual.
 The masses may also bring a change in the views of an
individual as the individual may sacrifice his own needs to
become a part of the mass.
 Time changes the society and its principles which
automatically brings a change in individuals.
Conclusions

 We have reached to the end of our presentation
by concluding that society and individuals are
interlocked with each other where changes in one
directly affect the other.
 The differences we see in various society and the
impact of individuals on society has always been
the leading factor of the proper functioning of
human beings.
Final Conclusions on Social Process

 Attitude
 Values & Norms
 Prejudice
 Job Attitude & Satisfaction

 Meaning and importance, formation of attitudes,
measurement of attitudes, consistency in
attitudes, attitude change
 Meaning and importance values and other factors
categories of norms, variations in norms
 Characteristics, bases of prejudice, reduction of
prejudice
 Job satisfaction factors in job satisfaction, job
satisfaction and performance

Attitudes and Values
Attitude
An attitude is a predisposition to react, positively or
negatively, to a person, place, or circumstances.
It may also be defined as the tendency (learning) to
respond to a particular situation.
Two main elements of attitude are, the
predisposition and the direction of that
predisposition.

Opinion
An opinion is the expression of one’s
judgment of a particular set of facts, an
evaluation of the circumstances
presented to him.

Attitude vs. Opinion
 Attitude generates stimuli by the help of
predisposition.
 Stimuli helps one to judge a particular set of
facts, or the evaluation of facts.
 Opinion is the final outcome of this
judgment.

Beliefs
 A belief is the acceptance of a statement or a set of
circumstances.
 Beliefs are much stronger than the opinions.
 Beliefs are less affected by the pro or con positions
fundamental in attitude, than are opinions.

Attitude, opinions, and beliefs are closely tied
together in real life that it is difficult to separate
them except on a limited conceptual basis.
The literature shows a high degree of overlap
between them.

• Norms are rules to govern the behavior of
the members in a group.
• It is also guidelines or directions which
helps to know what is accepted or
prohibited in the society.
• Norms are dependent on values.

Categories of norms
a. Formal or institutionalized
b. Informal or uninstitutionalized
Variation in norms
• Change in pace
• Informal norms may be violating
• Difference norms in different society
• University alteration

Values
 The basic convictions that a specific mode of
conduct or end-state of existence is personally
or socially preferable to an opposite or converse
mode of conduct or an state of existence is
referred to as value.
 For example, serving customers with
truthfulness vs. cheating them.

Value System
 A hierarchy based on a ranking of an
individual’s values in terms of their intensity.
 For example, generation-wise faith on God;
older generation has more faith whereas the
newer generation has less.
 For newer American society, the elderly people
are just a burden.

Types of Values
Terminal Values: The desirable end-states of
existence; the goals a person would like to
achieve during his/her life time.
Instrumental Values: The preferable modes of
behavior means of achieving one’s terminal
values.

Where do we get values from?
 our homes,
 school,
 society,
 friends,
 TV,
 church,
 music,
 books,
 families,
 culture,
 employers,
 time-period in which you were
raised (70’s anti-establishment,
peace, individuality. 80’s money,
prestige, don’t get caught, etc.
90’s earth, green peace, health
and fitness), etc.

Some examples of values
Moral
Material
Aesthetic
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Universal/American
Group specific values

Moral Development

“It’s not doing things
right,
but doing the right
things. “

Prejudice
 Is making a decision about a person or group of
people without sufficient knowledge
 Pre-judging
 Based on stereotypes
 Is an attitude
 Are not born being prejudice
 Is learned.
 Causes discrimination

Stereotype
 Stereotypes are "mental cookie cutters"--they
force a simple pattern upon a complex mass
and assign a limited number of characteristics
to all members of a group.
Is a standardized conception or image
of a specific group of people or objects.

Stereotype
 Occurs without our awareness: Some
advertisements show mothers serving meals to their
families (but very few show fathers doing this).
 Many television advertisements show young boys
playing with action toys such as trucks and super-hero
figures (but girls are not shown doing this)
 Many magazine photographs and advertisements show
teenage girls grooming themselves such as putting on
make-up, brushing their hair and generally worrying
about their appearance (but few show teenage boys
doing these things).

Objects can be stereotyped as well.
Places :-
"All inner cities are
corrupt and sinful."
•"Small towns are safe
and clean." •"In
England, it rains all
the time.”
Things :-
“All American cars are
cheaply and terribly
made."
"A good house has a
large lawn, big garage,
and at least two
bathrooms."

Attitudes and Job Satisfaction

Attitudes
Evaluative statements or judgments concerning
objects, people, or events.
Three components of attitude include:
Attitude
Behavioral
Cognitive
Affective
The emotional or
feeling segment
of an attitudeThe opinion or
belief segment of
an attitude
An intention to
behave in a certain
way toward someone
or something

What are the Major Job Attitudes?
 Job Satisfaction
 A positive feeling about the job
resulting from an evaluation of its
characteristics
 Job Involvement
 Degree of psychological
identification with the job where
perceived performance is important
to self-worth
 Psychological Empowerment
 Belief in the degree of influence over
the job, competence, job
meaningfulness, and autonomy

Are These Job Attitudes Really Distinct?
 No, these attitudes are
highly related.
 Variables may be
redundant (measuring
the same thing under a
different name)
 While there is some
distinction, there is
also a lot of overlap.

Job Satisfaction
 One of the primary job attitudes measured.
 Broad term involving a complex individual summation
of a number of discrete job elements.
 How to measure?
 Single global rating (one question/one answer) - Best
 Summation score (many questions/one average) - OK
 Are people satisfied in their jobs?
 In the U. S., yes, but the level appears to be dropping.
 Results depend on how job satisfaction is measured.
 Pay and promotion are the most problematic elements.

 Pay influences job satisfaction only to a point.
 After about $40,000 a year (in the U. S.), there is no
relationship between amount of pay and job
satisfaction.
 Money may bring happiness, but not necessarily job
satisfaction.
 Personality can influence job satisfaction.
 Negative people are usually not satisfied with their jobs.
 Those with positive core self-evaluation are more
satisfied with their jobs.
Causes of Job Satisfaction

Employee Responses to Dissatisfaction
Exit
• Behavior
directed toward
leaving the
organization
Voice
• Active and
constructive
attempts to
improve
conditions
Neglect
• Allowing
conditions to
worsen
Loyalty
• Passively
waiting for
conditions to
improve
Active
Passive
ConstructiveDestructive

Outcomes of Job Satisfaction
 Job Performance
 Satisfied workers are more productive AND more
productive workers are more satisfied!
 The causality may run both ways.
 Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
 Satisfaction influences OCB through perceptions of
fairness.
 Customer Satisfaction
 Satisfied frontline employees increase customer
satisfaction and loyalty.
 Absenteeism
 Satisfied employees are moderately less likely to miss
work.

More Outcomes of Job Satisfaction
 Turnover
 Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
 Many moderating variables in this relationship.
 Economic environment and tenure
 Organizational actions taken to retain high
performers and to weed out lower performers
 Workplace Deviance
 Dissatisfied workers are more likely to unionize,
abuse substances, steal, be tardy, and withdraw.

 Individual and Individualism
 Individualism and Freedom
 Organization and Its Social Responsiveness
 Society and Role of Individual and Organization in the
Society
Unit 7: Individual, Organization and Society

 Concept.
 Cause of individual freedom.
 Escape from freedom.
 Individuals are vulnerable to anxiety.
 Application of individualism and freedom.
Individualism and freedom

 Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or
social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual".
 Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so
independence and self-reliance while opposing most external
interference upon one's own interests, whether by society, family or
any other group or institution.
 Freedom is the available scope for agents to make choices free
from certain kinds of constraints. Historically, the constraint of
dominant concern has been the metaphysical constraint of
determinism.
 The opposing positions within that debate are metaphysic
libertarianism, the claim that determinism is false and thus that
free will exists (or is at least possible); and hard determinism, the
claim that determinism is true and thus that free will does not
exist.

 Free from the constraints of a restrictive social or
political structure.
 Development of behavioral sciences.
 Individual to adopt the personality patterns.
 It is the dizziness of freedom.
 Ideas, decision making, etc.

 Individuals operating within larger social structures.
 Social impact of organizational activities.
 Individualism and organization.
 Old concept.
 Grand strategy.
ORGANIZATION

 Freedom and autonomy are being framed
increasingly around the relationships.
 Providing a basis for personal growth or
actualization.
 Feeling toward individualism and organization.
 Individual can find full opportunity for self
expression.
 Experience dependence and submissiveness.
Organization contd…

 Social responsibility is an ethical ideology
or theory that an entity, be it an organization or
individual, has an obligation to act to benefit the
society at large.
 Responsibility can be passive, by avoiding engaging
in socially harmful acts, or active, by performing
activities that directly
advance social goals.
 Consumers have become more conscious of whom
they are doing business with and which products
they should buy.
 Many companies who are looking for long-term
profitability are looking for ways to become more
socially responsible.
Social responsibility

Corporate Social Responsibility is
the continuing commitment by
business to behave ethically
and contribute to economic
development while improving the
quality of life of the workforce and
their families as well as of the local
community and society at large

• Individual Level Challenges
• Organizational Level Challenges
• Social Level Challenges

 Individual challenges are challenges you do on your
own (you do not need to belong to a team to
participate)
 Challenges
 Who are we?
 What do we do?
 What we’ve done?
 What we think?
Individual Challenges

 Organizational Behavior is the study and application
of knowledge about how people, individuals, and
groups act in
organizations.
 Challenges
 The truth
 Leadership
 Success maker and breaker
 We can assist you
 Leadership create culture
Organizational Challenges

1. THE TRUTH
The truth is organizational challenges/problems/difficulties do
not come in nice, tight and neat packages as stated above.
Organizational challenges today come crashing collectively in
relentless waves and it is up to leadership at every level - from
the Board, to the CXOs, to the Directors, Mangers,
Supervisors and Junior Executives to raise their capabilities to
deal with these challenges and deliver profitably in these
increasingly demanding times.
2. LEADERSHIP IS THE KEY
All intelligent human being know that leadership has always
been and will always be the key differentiator between
successful and unsuccessful organizations. Therefore the
organizations that will thrive in the future will be those who
successfully groom leaders at all levels independent of
position and title.

3. SUCCESS MAKER OR BREAKER
We have moved into the era where personal, visionary and inspiring
leadership is the success-maker and the lack of it a certain success-
breaker.
4. WE CAN ASSIST YOU
We can assist you set up your organization for the levels of
success you desire through our practical, cutting-edge, best-
practices-factored, principled-based, immediately-actionable,
core-knowledge approach to delivered specific, measurable,
tangible and intangible desired results.
5. SUCCESS MAKER OR BREAKER
We have moved into the era where personal, visionary and
inspiring leadership is the success-maker and the lack of it a
certain success-breaker.

 Feeling isolated
 Distance from family
 Dealing with ignorance
 Establishing healthy
relationship with the
people
Social Challenges

Feeling isolated
Any new faculty member can feel isolated, as a result of moving to a
new location and working long hours, mostly independently. To
overcome these feelings, reach out:
Host a potluck party for all of the other new faculty members (or those
in the sciences, if you are at a very large institution), early in the term.
Find out about international students on campus: do they have a social
organization? When does it meet? Go and introduce yourself.
Distance from family
Webcasts can be free and provide a great way to see and interact with
folks at a distance, not just hear them. For example, you can draw
collaborative pictures with children far away on the computer and talk
with them at the same time.

Dealing with racism/ignorance
While you may never have to deal with this kind of intolerance, it's best
to be prepared. Proactively build a network of friends/supporters at
your institution by reaching out to colleagues.
Teach them about your culture as you learn about theirs.
Work to create cultural exchanges on your campus, perhaps through the
office of multicultural affairs.
Establishing healthy working relationships with students
Take some guidance from your senior colleagues here, but remember
that your relative youth may already provide a less formal atmosphere
than that of those colleagues.
Don't confuse being popular with doing a good job!

Please think for the ‘system’ and then ‘teams’ rather than
only for ‘self’

Transform in self, teams, and organizational systems will
happen through good behavior and relationships

Each one of you are especially natured and nurtured to be a
different individual with respect to human universality

Teaching learning of Behavioral Science at Whitehouse
GSM under my stewardship is aimed to develop a more
competent, skilled and humane individuals to make them
‘fit’ in more diverse and challenging work situations and
environment across the world, forever.
- Chandra P Rijal, PhD in Leadership

Behavioral science teaching notes

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