Bacteria can exist as commensals, opportunistic pathogens, or pathogens in the host. Commensals live harmlessly, while opportunistic pathogens can cause disease when host resistance is low. Pathogens are capable of directly causing disease. Virulence refers to a bacteria's ability to cause disease and depends on factors like invasiveness and toxins. Bacteria can enter the host through various ports and have an incubation period before symptoms appear. They may exist as carriers or cause primary, secondary, or cross infections. Bacterial virulence factors include capsules, adhesins, exoenzymes, and toxins, which help bacteria evade the immune response or directly harm the host.
This document discusses the mechanisms of bacterial pathogenesis. It defines key terms like commensal, opportunistic pathogen, pathogen, virulence, infection, and portal of entry. It describes bacterial virulence factors such as capsules, adhesins, invasiveness, exoenzymes, and toxins. It also discusses concepts like infecting dose, clinical manifestations, and the evolution of infection.
This document is a submission from a student named Avudaiappan.A to their professor Dr.S.Viswanathan on the topic of virulence factors of bacteria. It discusses 9 key determinants of bacterial virulence: 1) adhesion, 2) invasiveness, 3) toxigenicity, 4) enzymes, 5) anti-phagocytic factors, 6) survival within phagocytes, 7) genetic factors, 8) route of infection, and 9) communicability. For each determinant, examples are provided of bacteria that use that virulence strategy as well as short descriptions of the mechanisms involved. The document is intended to cover the core topic of immunology on virulence factors for the student's
This document discusses pathogenic microorganisms and the factors that determine their ability to cause disease. It defines pathogens as microorganisms that can cause infection or disease. It then discusses several factors that influence microbial pathogenicity, including virulence factors possessed by the microbe, the susceptibility and resistance of the host, and mechanisms of host-pathogen interaction like adhesion, invasion, toxin production, and avoidance or subversion of host immune defenses. Overall, microbial pathogenicity is determined by both microbial virulence determinants and the interaction between the microbe and host factors.
This document discusses bacterial pathogenicity and virulence factors. It begins with defining key terms like pathogenesis, virulence, and types of bacterial pathogens. It then covers various requirements for bacterial pathogenicity like adhesion, invasion, multiplication, and tissue destruction. The document discusses several virulence factors like capsules, cell wall proteins, cytotoxins, fimbriae, biofilms, and exotoxins that allow bacteria to evade host defenses and cause disease. It also covers concepts like quorum sensing, bacterial secretion systems, and mechanisms of bacterial infection and colonization.
Microbes, Man and Environment (Microbial pathogenicity) .pptxMidhatSarfraz
The document discusses microbial pathogenicity and the progression of infection and disease. It provides details on:
1) The factors that influence a microbe's pathogenicity, including host factors like age and immune status, and microbial factors like virulence factors and inoculum size.
2) The steps in pathogenesis which include a microbe gaining access to the host, adhering to tissues, penetrating defenses, and damaging the host directly or through toxins.
3) The two qualities that allow microbes to cause disease - invasiveness and toxigenesis. It also discusses bacterial adherence, biofilm formation, and how pathogens prevent host defenses.
Mechanism of pathogenicity-Exotoxin and endotoxinaiswarya thomas
Brief description on mechanisms of pathogenicity, actions of toxins produced by various bacteria and notable endotoxins and exotoxins. Mechanism of action of some of the commonest endotoxins and exotoxins are explained.
Bacterial pathogenesis is a complicated process. On encountering a host, pathogenic microorganisms must first adapt to life on the host surface and survive long enough to initiate an infection.
This document discusses the mechanisms of bacterial pathogenesis. It defines key terms like commensal, opportunistic pathogen, pathogen, virulence, infection, and portal of entry. It describes bacterial virulence factors such as capsules, adhesins, invasiveness, exoenzymes, and toxins. It also discusses concepts like infecting dose, clinical manifestations, and the evolution of infection.
This document is a submission from a student named Avudaiappan.A to their professor Dr.S.Viswanathan on the topic of virulence factors of bacteria. It discusses 9 key determinants of bacterial virulence: 1) adhesion, 2) invasiveness, 3) toxigenicity, 4) enzymes, 5) anti-phagocytic factors, 6) survival within phagocytes, 7) genetic factors, 8) route of infection, and 9) communicability. For each determinant, examples are provided of bacteria that use that virulence strategy as well as short descriptions of the mechanisms involved. The document is intended to cover the core topic of immunology on virulence factors for the student's
This document discusses pathogenic microorganisms and the factors that determine their ability to cause disease. It defines pathogens as microorganisms that can cause infection or disease. It then discusses several factors that influence microbial pathogenicity, including virulence factors possessed by the microbe, the susceptibility and resistance of the host, and mechanisms of host-pathogen interaction like adhesion, invasion, toxin production, and avoidance or subversion of host immune defenses. Overall, microbial pathogenicity is determined by both microbial virulence determinants and the interaction between the microbe and host factors.
This document discusses bacterial pathogenicity and virulence factors. It begins with defining key terms like pathogenesis, virulence, and types of bacterial pathogens. It then covers various requirements for bacterial pathogenicity like adhesion, invasion, multiplication, and tissue destruction. The document discusses several virulence factors like capsules, cell wall proteins, cytotoxins, fimbriae, biofilms, and exotoxins that allow bacteria to evade host defenses and cause disease. It also covers concepts like quorum sensing, bacterial secretion systems, and mechanisms of bacterial infection and colonization.
Microbes, Man and Environment (Microbial pathogenicity) .pptxMidhatSarfraz
The document discusses microbial pathogenicity and the progression of infection and disease. It provides details on:
1) The factors that influence a microbe's pathogenicity, including host factors like age and immune status, and microbial factors like virulence factors and inoculum size.
2) The steps in pathogenesis which include a microbe gaining access to the host, adhering to tissues, penetrating defenses, and damaging the host directly or through toxins.
3) The two qualities that allow microbes to cause disease - invasiveness and toxigenesis. It also discusses bacterial adherence, biofilm formation, and how pathogens prevent host defenses.
Mechanism of pathogenicity-Exotoxin and endotoxinaiswarya thomas
Brief description on mechanisms of pathogenicity, actions of toxins produced by various bacteria and notable endotoxins and exotoxins. Mechanism of action of some of the commonest endotoxins and exotoxins are explained.
Bacterial pathogenesis is a complicated process. On encountering a host, pathogenic microorganisms must first adapt to life on the host surface and survive long enough to initiate an infection.
dear students,, myself dr manish tiwari tutor department of microbiology at saraswati medical college unnao lucknow if any query regarding this ppt olease contact me my whatsaap no 8979352824.
The document provides information about pathogenesis presented in a student assignment. It defines pathogenesis and lists some general terms used. It discusses virulence factors and provides examples. It describes the stages of pathogenesis as exposure, adhesion, invasion, and infection. It explains how pathogens penetrate host defenses and produce toxins. It covers transmission of disease and lists references. The skill achieved from the seminar is described as communication skills, confidence, better subject knowledge, presentation skills, and motivation.
STAINSStains and dyes are frequently used in histology, in cytology, and in t...AyushiSharma843565
Staining is a technique used to enhance contrast in samples, generally at the microscopic level. Stains and dyes are frequently used in histology, in cytology, and in the medical fields of histopathology, hematology, and cytopathology that focus on the study and diagnoses of diseases at the microscopic level
This document summarizes information about Paraprotex, a food supplement that provides anti-parasitic, anti-microbial, and anti-fungal protection. It discusses how parasites and infections are becoming more common worldwide due to factors like diet and immunity. Paraprotex aims to strengthen the immune system and change the body's environment to make it inhospitable for parasites and pathogens. The document also reviews mechanisms of immunity against various biological agents like parasites, fungi, bacteria and viruses. It describes both innate immune responses and acquired immune responses mediated by antibodies and T cells. It discusses how different pathogens elicit distinct immune responses and how parasites have evolved strategies for evading the immune system.
Pathogenic microbes cause disease through their ability to invade tissues (invasiveness) and produce toxins (toxigenesis). The degree of pathogenicity depends on factors related to the host, microbe, and environment. For a microbe to cause disease, it must gain access to and adhere to the host, penetrate host defenses, and damage tissues directly or through microbial waste products. Bacterial pathogens contribute to diseases like pneumonia and foodborne illness through various virulence factors that help them colonize, avoid host defenses, and damage host cells and tissues.
NORMAL HUMAN MICROBIOTA AND TYPES OF MICROBIOTAsararazi1508
The document discusses the normal flora or microbiota that colonize the human body, including their definition, advantages, types, tissue specificity, and relationship with the human body. It describes how normal flora colonize different body sites like the skin, eyes, oral and respiratory tract, urogenital tract, and gastrointestinal tract. It also discusses how the microbiota can sometimes cause disease when the immune system is compromised or they shift locations.
This document discusses bacterial virulence factors. It defines virulence as the ability of a microbe to cause disease or interfere with a host's functions. Virulence factors help bacteria cause disease, evade host defenses, invade hosts, and include adhesins, mechanisms for colonization, toxins/enzymes, and inhibiting phagocytosis. The outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria contains important proteins and lipopolysaccharides that are virulence factors. Understanding the microbial etiology of periodontal diseases requires identifying the virulence factors of periodontal pathogens like P. gingivalis.
The document discusses host-microbe interactions and principles of infectious disease. It covers several key points:
1) Anatomical barriers like skin and mucous membranes form ecosystems that support beneficial microbial communities while also protecting from pathogens. Microbes and human hosts often have symbiotic relationships that can be mutualistic, commensal, or parasitic.
2) Normal flora microbes play an important protective role by occupying space, producing antimicrobials, and stimulating the immune system. However, if normal flora is disrupted, pathogens may cause disease.
3) Pathogens can damage the host directly through toxins or invasion, or indirectly by eliciting immune responses. Successful pathogens have developed multiple mechanisms to breach
Pathogenic mechanisms of microbes of medical importanceJoyce Mwatonoka
The document summarizes the pathogenic mechanisms of microbes that are medically important. It discusses key terms and outlines various mechanisms including adherence, invasion, evasion of host defenses, and toxigenesis. Specifically, it describes how bacteria adhere to host cells using adhesins and receptors. It also explains how they invade tissues using invasins like hyaluronidase and collagenase. Bacteria can evade host defenses by inhibiting phagocytosis and surviving inside phagocytes. Some vary antigens to avoid immune responses. Toxins including exotoxins and endotoxins are also discussed.
The document discusses the pathogenesis of bacterial infection, including the steps involved from initial exposure and penetration of the pathogen, multiplication and spread within the host, evasion of host defenses, and damage caused to the host tissues. Key aspects covered are virulence factors that enable bacterial survival and disease progression, different mechanisms of tissue injury caused by exotoxins and endotoxins, and the immune response damage.
Microbial pathogens can cause disease through several mechanisms:
1. They gain entry into the host through portals of entry like mucous membranes or skin and adhere using adhesins.
2. To overcome host defenses, they avoid phagocytosis using capsules or enzymes and penetrate host cells.
3. Pathogens can directly damage host cells by using their nutrients or producing waste, or cause damage remotely by producing toxins that spread through the bloodstream.
This document provides an overview of antimicrobial drugs and related concepts for nursing students. It defines key terms like infection, sepsis, and antibiotics. It discusses the types of microbes that can cause infection and how culture and sensitivity testing is used to identify the infecting organism and determine the most appropriate antibiotic. It also covers concepts like narrow versus broad-spectrum antibiotics, mechanisms of antibiotic action, and factors that influence how antibiotics penetrate tissues.
Immunity can be innate or acquired. Innate immunity is resistance from birth based on genetic and physiological factors, while acquired immunity develops from exposure to pathogens through natural infection or vaccination. Acquired immunity can be active, developing from direct exposure, or passive, developing from transfer of antibodies. Both humoral immunity from antibodies and cell-mediated immunity from T-cells contribute to acquired immunity. A combination of innate barriers and immune responses work together to provide host defense against infection.
Pathogenesis of microbial infections dr. ihsan alsaimarydr.Ihsan alsaimary
Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary
PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY
ihsanalsaimary@gmail.com
mobile : 009647801410838
university of basrah - college of medicine - basrah -IRAQ
Immunology and Immunization by Dr Nadeem Aashiq Nadeem Aashiq
This document discusses immunity and immunization. It defines innate and acquired (adaptive) immunity. Innate immunity is inborn and provides the first line of defense, including physical barriers and cells like neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells. Acquired immunity develops from exposure to antigens and produces long-lasting humoral and cell-mediated responses. It also describes the development and processing of lymphocytes, the role of antigens, and how vaccines provide artificial active immunity.
a brief overview of endotoxin and exotoxin is given in the ppt. as for bachelor's level this would be sufficient to know about the toxins but as for master's and higher studies more in-depth level of understanding is required. Hope this helps everyone who is referring this.
This document provides an overview of vaccine delivery systems. It begins with definitions of immunity and describes the immune cells involved in vaccine responses, including lymphocytes like B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells, as well as granulocytes such as neutrophils and macrophages. The document then reviews the history of vaccine development from Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine to modern vaccines. Finally, it outlines different types of vaccines including killed, attenuated, toxoid, subunit, conjugate, and recombinant vector vaccines.
This document discusses antimicrobial drugs and infections. It defines different types of infections like acute, chronic, and opportunistic infections. It also describes different causative agents of infections like bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. The document then discusses the classification of antimicrobial drugs based on their chemical structure, mechanism of action, spectrum of activity and more. It provides examples for each category. The principles of antimicrobial therapy and factors considered in selecting antimicrobial agents are also summarized.
Innate immunity is the body's first line of defense against pathogens. It includes physical barriers like skin and mucous membranes, as well as cellular responses mediated by phagocytes, inflammation, and soluble factors. Innate immunity provides non-specific protection and has no memory or ability to improve upon repeated exposure. Its mechanisms recognize common molecular patterns on pathogens but cannot distinguish self from non-self.
Raw to Ready by Arham Abdullah, Class 1- purple.pptxAymanshahzad4
The document discusses raw materials and how they are transformed into finished products. It defines raw materials as basic materials that come from nature, like plants, animals and rocks. It provides examples of raw materials such as wood, fruits, cereals, cotton and animals products like wool, fish, meat and eggs. It then explains how these raw materials are processed in factories to make finished consumer goods, giving examples like paper and pencils from wood, veggie burgers from vegetables, t-shirts from cotton, and bread or pasta from cereals.
Nuclear medicine uses small amounts of radioactive tracers and imaging techniques to examine organ structure and function. It combines fields like chemistry, physics, and medicine. Nuclear imaging allows visualization of tissue structure and function by tracking how radiotracers are absorbed. Common nuclear medicine scans include thyroid scans to help diagnose thyroid abnormalities early. A thyroid scan involves administering a small amount of radioactive iodine and using a gamma camera to detect its distribution and uptake in the thyroid gland.
dear students,, myself dr manish tiwari tutor department of microbiology at saraswati medical college unnao lucknow if any query regarding this ppt olease contact me my whatsaap no 8979352824.
The document provides information about pathogenesis presented in a student assignment. It defines pathogenesis and lists some general terms used. It discusses virulence factors and provides examples. It describes the stages of pathogenesis as exposure, adhesion, invasion, and infection. It explains how pathogens penetrate host defenses and produce toxins. It covers transmission of disease and lists references. The skill achieved from the seminar is described as communication skills, confidence, better subject knowledge, presentation skills, and motivation.
STAINSStains and dyes are frequently used in histology, in cytology, and in t...AyushiSharma843565
Staining is a technique used to enhance contrast in samples, generally at the microscopic level. Stains and dyes are frequently used in histology, in cytology, and in the medical fields of histopathology, hematology, and cytopathology that focus on the study and diagnoses of diseases at the microscopic level
This document summarizes information about Paraprotex, a food supplement that provides anti-parasitic, anti-microbial, and anti-fungal protection. It discusses how parasites and infections are becoming more common worldwide due to factors like diet and immunity. Paraprotex aims to strengthen the immune system and change the body's environment to make it inhospitable for parasites and pathogens. The document also reviews mechanisms of immunity against various biological agents like parasites, fungi, bacteria and viruses. It describes both innate immune responses and acquired immune responses mediated by antibodies and T cells. It discusses how different pathogens elicit distinct immune responses and how parasites have evolved strategies for evading the immune system.
Pathogenic microbes cause disease through their ability to invade tissues (invasiveness) and produce toxins (toxigenesis). The degree of pathogenicity depends on factors related to the host, microbe, and environment. For a microbe to cause disease, it must gain access to and adhere to the host, penetrate host defenses, and damage tissues directly or through microbial waste products. Bacterial pathogens contribute to diseases like pneumonia and foodborne illness through various virulence factors that help them colonize, avoid host defenses, and damage host cells and tissues.
NORMAL HUMAN MICROBIOTA AND TYPES OF MICROBIOTAsararazi1508
The document discusses the normal flora or microbiota that colonize the human body, including their definition, advantages, types, tissue specificity, and relationship with the human body. It describes how normal flora colonize different body sites like the skin, eyes, oral and respiratory tract, urogenital tract, and gastrointestinal tract. It also discusses how the microbiota can sometimes cause disease when the immune system is compromised or they shift locations.
This document discusses bacterial virulence factors. It defines virulence as the ability of a microbe to cause disease or interfere with a host's functions. Virulence factors help bacteria cause disease, evade host defenses, invade hosts, and include adhesins, mechanisms for colonization, toxins/enzymes, and inhibiting phagocytosis. The outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria contains important proteins and lipopolysaccharides that are virulence factors. Understanding the microbial etiology of periodontal diseases requires identifying the virulence factors of periodontal pathogens like P. gingivalis.
The document discusses host-microbe interactions and principles of infectious disease. It covers several key points:
1) Anatomical barriers like skin and mucous membranes form ecosystems that support beneficial microbial communities while also protecting from pathogens. Microbes and human hosts often have symbiotic relationships that can be mutualistic, commensal, or parasitic.
2) Normal flora microbes play an important protective role by occupying space, producing antimicrobials, and stimulating the immune system. However, if normal flora is disrupted, pathogens may cause disease.
3) Pathogens can damage the host directly through toxins or invasion, or indirectly by eliciting immune responses. Successful pathogens have developed multiple mechanisms to breach
Pathogenic mechanisms of microbes of medical importanceJoyce Mwatonoka
The document summarizes the pathogenic mechanisms of microbes that are medically important. It discusses key terms and outlines various mechanisms including adherence, invasion, evasion of host defenses, and toxigenesis. Specifically, it describes how bacteria adhere to host cells using adhesins and receptors. It also explains how they invade tissues using invasins like hyaluronidase and collagenase. Bacteria can evade host defenses by inhibiting phagocytosis and surviving inside phagocytes. Some vary antigens to avoid immune responses. Toxins including exotoxins and endotoxins are also discussed.
The document discusses the pathogenesis of bacterial infection, including the steps involved from initial exposure and penetration of the pathogen, multiplication and spread within the host, evasion of host defenses, and damage caused to the host tissues. Key aspects covered are virulence factors that enable bacterial survival and disease progression, different mechanisms of tissue injury caused by exotoxins and endotoxins, and the immune response damage.
Microbial pathogens can cause disease through several mechanisms:
1. They gain entry into the host through portals of entry like mucous membranes or skin and adhere using adhesins.
2. To overcome host defenses, they avoid phagocytosis using capsules or enzymes and penetrate host cells.
3. Pathogens can directly damage host cells by using their nutrients or producing waste, or cause damage remotely by producing toxins that spread through the bloodstream.
This document provides an overview of antimicrobial drugs and related concepts for nursing students. It defines key terms like infection, sepsis, and antibiotics. It discusses the types of microbes that can cause infection and how culture and sensitivity testing is used to identify the infecting organism and determine the most appropriate antibiotic. It also covers concepts like narrow versus broad-spectrum antibiotics, mechanisms of antibiotic action, and factors that influence how antibiotics penetrate tissues.
Immunity can be innate or acquired. Innate immunity is resistance from birth based on genetic and physiological factors, while acquired immunity develops from exposure to pathogens through natural infection or vaccination. Acquired immunity can be active, developing from direct exposure, or passive, developing from transfer of antibodies. Both humoral immunity from antibodies and cell-mediated immunity from T-cells contribute to acquired immunity. A combination of innate barriers and immune responses work together to provide host defense against infection.
Pathogenesis of microbial infections dr. ihsan alsaimarydr.Ihsan alsaimary
Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary
PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY
ihsanalsaimary@gmail.com
mobile : 009647801410838
university of basrah - college of medicine - basrah -IRAQ
Immunology and Immunization by Dr Nadeem Aashiq Nadeem Aashiq
This document discusses immunity and immunization. It defines innate and acquired (adaptive) immunity. Innate immunity is inborn and provides the first line of defense, including physical barriers and cells like neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells. Acquired immunity develops from exposure to antigens and produces long-lasting humoral and cell-mediated responses. It also describes the development and processing of lymphocytes, the role of antigens, and how vaccines provide artificial active immunity.
a brief overview of endotoxin and exotoxin is given in the ppt. as for bachelor's level this would be sufficient to know about the toxins but as for master's and higher studies more in-depth level of understanding is required. Hope this helps everyone who is referring this.
This document provides an overview of vaccine delivery systems. It begins with definitions of immunity and describes the immune cells involved in vaccine responses, including lymphocytes like B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells, as well as granulocytes such as neutrophils and macrophages. The document then reviews the history of vaccine development from Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine to modern vaccines. Finally, it outlines different types of vaccines including killed, attenuated, toxoid, subunit, conjugate, and recombinant vector vaccines.
This document discusses antimicrobial drugs and infections. It defines different types of infections like acute, chronic, and opportunistic infections. It also describes different causative agents of infections like bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. The document then discusses the classification of antimicrobial drugs based on their chemical structure, mechanism of action, spectrum of activity and more. It provides examples for each category. The principles of antimicrobial therapy and factors considered in selecting antimicrobial agents are also summarized.
Innate immunity is the body's first line of defense against pathogens. It includes physical barriers like skin and mucous membranes, as well as cellular responses mediated by phagocytes, inflammation, and soluble factors. Innate immunity provides non-specific protection and has no memory or ability to improve upon repeated exposure. Its mechanisms recognize common molecular patterns on pathogens but cannot distinguish self from non-self.
Raw to Ready by Arham Abdullah, Class 1- purple.pptxAymanshahzad4
The document discusses raw materials and how they are transformed into finished products. It defines raw materials as basic materials that come from nature, like plants, animals and rocks. It provides examples of raw materials such as wood, fruits, cereals, cotton and animals products like wool, fish, meat and eggs. It then explains how these raw materials are processed in factories to make finished consumer goods, giving examples like paper and pencils from wood, veggie burgers from vegetables, t-shirts from cotton, and bread or pasta from cereals.
Nuclear medicine uses small amounts of radioactive tracers and imaging techniques to examine organ structure and function. It combines fields like chemistry, physics, and medicine. Nuclear imaging allows visualization of tissue structure and function by tracking how radiotracers are absorbed. Common nuclear medicine scans include thyroid scans to help diagnose thyroid abnormalities early. A thyroid scan involves administering a small amount of radioactive iodine and using a gamma camera to detect its distribution and uptake in the thyroid gland.
X-rays are a form of ionizing radiation that are used in diagnostic imaging to identify fractures, detect diseases like cancer, and examine internal structures. An x-ray tube produces x-rays by accelerating electrons at a metal target. X-rays are penetrating and can pass through tissues to form radiographic images. Radiologists use x-rays to examine bones, teeth, organs and tissues. While low dose, repeated x-ray exposures increase cancer risks, so the diagnostic benefits are weighed against risks in each case. Shielding with lead and distance from the source reduce radiation exposure for patients and medical staff.
This document discusses several classes of psychoactive drugs, including psychomotor stimulants and hallucinogens. Psychomotor stimulants like amphetamines cause excitement and decrease fatigue by increasing motor activity and CNS stimulation. Hallucinogens like LSD and THC produce altered thought patterns and hallucinations. Many of these drugs are addictive and can have adverse effects like anxiety, insomnia, and cardiovascular issues when taken in high doses. The document provides details on the mechanisms and therapeutic and recreational uses of various stimulants and hallucinogenic drugs.
This document discusses various classes of psychoactive drugs, including their mechanisms of action, effects, uses and adverse reactions. It covers psychomotor stimulants such as caffeine, nicotine and cocaine, which cause excitement and increase motor activity. It also discusses hallucinogens like LSD, THC and PCP, which can produce changes in thought patterns and mood. The document provides details on specific drugs, outlining their therapeutic uses and risks.
The document discusses abdominal trauma care, providing definitions and signs of various abdominal injuries. It describes mechanisms of injury including blunt and penetrating trauma. Specific injuries to organs like the spleen, liver, kidneys, and hollow organs are outlined, with signs and symptoms, diagnostic tests, and treatment approaches summarized for each. General assessment, management principles and diagnostic tests for abdominal trauma are also reviewed.
1. Antidepressants work by increasing levels of neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain. They are divided into several classes including SSRIs, SNRIs, TCAs, and MAOIs.
2. SSRIs are now the most commonly prescribed due to their safer side effect profile. They work by inhibiting reuptake of serotonin. TCAs affect serotonin and norepinephrine but have more side effects.
3. Antidepressants take 2-3 weeks to start working and should be taken long term to prevent relapse of depression. Side effects are usually mild and transient but can include nausea, sexual dysfunction, and dry mouth depending on the drug class.
This document discusses antiepileptic drugs, their mechanisms of action, classifications, pharmacokinetics, indications, and adverse effects. It covers older drugs like phenobarbital, phenytoin, carbamazepine, and ethosuximide as well as newer drugs like lamotrigine, gabapentin, vigabatrin, tiagabine, and topiramate. The main mechanisms of action are enhancing GABA transmission, blocking sodium channels, and blocking calcium channels. The drugs are used to treat generalized tonic-clonic, partial, and absence seizures, as well as neuropathic pain and bipolar disorder. Common adverse effects include sedation, dizziness, rash
A mammogram is an x-ray of the breast used to detect breast cancer. Modern mammography machines use low doses of radiation that are considered safe. Screening mammograms are used to check women without symptoms, while diagnostic mammograms are used to investigate abnormalities. Mammograms produce images of breast tissue that radiologists analyze for signs of cancer such as masses or microcalcifications. The BI-RADS system is used to classify mammogram results. Mammograms can miss some cancers and detect abnormalities that turn out to be non-cancerous, but regular screening is still recommended as the best way to find cancers early.
The document discusses the pancreas and its role in producing digestive enzymes and peptide hormones like insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. It describes the four types of diabetes, focusing on type 1 diabetes which results from an absolute deficiency of insulin due to destruction of beta cells in the pancreas. Signs and symptoms of type 1 diabetes include polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria, and weight loss. Treatment involves administering exogenous insulin through injections to control blood glucose levels.
This document discusses several types of streptococci bacteria. S. pyogenes causes pharyngitis and cellulitis, as well as immunological diseases like rheumatic fever. S. agalactiae is a cause of neonatal sepsis and meningitis. Streptococci are catalase-negative and can exhibit alpha, beta, or gamma hemolysis on blood agar plates. Beta-hemolytic streptococci produce enzymes like streptolysin O and S. They cause disease via pyrogenic toxins, hemolysins, and cross-reacting antibodies that can damage tissues. S. pneumoniae is a cause of pneumonia and forms an alpha-hemolytic polysaccharide capsule that inhibits phag
1) MRI uses powerful magnets and radio waves to create detailed images of the inside of the body without using ionizing radiation.
2) It provides highly detailed images of soft tissues and is especially useful for imaging the brain, spine, joints, and inside of bones.
3) During an MRI scan, the patient lies inside a large tube-like scanner with a magnet and computer that produces cross-sectional images of internal organs and structures.
This document provides an overview of neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. It discusses the pathophysiology, symptoms, and pharmacological treatments for each condition. For Parkinson's, it describes how dopamine production decreases and the resulting motor symptoms. Common drugs mentioned include levodopa, dopamine agonists, COMT inhibitors, and anticholinergics. For Alzheimer's, it outlines the amyloid plaque and neurofibrillary tangle pathology and resulting cognitive decline. Cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine are the major pharmaceutical therapies discussed for Alzheimer's treatment. The document concludes by mentioning some newer investigational drugs for both conditions.
Introduction to Interventional Radiology.pptxAymanshahzad4
Interventional radiology provides minimally invasive diagnosis and treatment using imaging guidance. Some common procedures described in the document include percutaneous biopsy of organs, drainage of abscesses, angioplasty and stenting of vessels, embolization to cut off blood flow, placement of catheters and dialysis access ports, retrieval of foreign bodies, transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts (TIPS) to treat portal hypertension, biliary drainage, nephrostomy tubes, gastrostomy tubes, radiofrequency ablation of tumors, and vertebroplasty to treat painful fractures. Imaging such as ultrasound, CT, and fluoroscopy is used to guide placement of devices and administration of treatments.
Lec 4 - Thyroid and anti thyroid drugs.pptxAymanshahzad4
The document discusses thyroid hormones, their synthesis, regulation, actions, and uses. It then discusses various anti-thyroid drugs including thioamides like propylthiouracil and methimazole which inhibit hormone synthesis, ionic inhibitors which inhibit iodine trapping, iodine and iodides which inhibit hormone release, and radioactive iodine which is used to destroy thyroid tissue for treatment of hyperthyroidism. The mechanisms, uses, and adverse effects of these anti-thyroid drugs are covered.
The adrenal gland consists of the cortex and medulla. The cortex secretes steroid hormones including glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens. Glucocorticoids regulate metabolism and immune function while mineralocorticoids regulate sodium retention. Secretion is controlled by ACTH from the pituitary gland. Glucocorticoids have many effects including metabolism, stress response, and inflammation. Long term use can cause side effects like osteoporosis, diabetes, and hypertension.
This document provides information on antidiabetic drugs used to treat diabetes mellitus. It describes the two main types of diabetes, type 1 resulting from autoimmune destruction of beta cells and type 2 characterized by insulin resistance. Insulin and other hypoglycemic drugs are discussed, including rapid, short, intermediate and long-acting insulins as well as oral medications like sulfonylureas, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, biguanides, and glitazones. Age-related considerations and potential side effects are also reviewed.
This document discusses normal flora and classification of gram-positive cocci. It focuses on Staphylococcus aureus, describing its morphology, culture characteristics, antigenic structure, resistance, and important virulence factors. S. aureus can cause both pyogenic (pus-producing) and toxin-mediated infections. Important toxins and enzymes produced by S. aureus that contribute to disease include enterotoxins, toxic shock syndrome toxin, exfoliatin, alpha toxin, and Panton-Valentine leukocidin.
This document discusses the etiology, classification, and treatment of hypertension. It begins by explaining that the cause of essential or primary hypertension is unknown in most cases, while secondary hypertension has an identifiable cause. It then covers the classification of hypertension by blood pressure levels. The rest of the document details the mechanisms regulating blood pressure, various classes of antihypertensive drugs including diuretics, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers, and guidelines for treating different stages of hypertension.
This document discusses hyperlipidemia, which is abnormally elevated levels of lipids in the blood. It defines the major lipids (cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids) and describes how they are transported via lipoproteins. It classifies lipoproteins and explains their roles in transporting lipids. The document then summarizes the mechanisms and effects of several classes of drugs used to treat hyperlipidemia, including HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, fibrates, niacin, bile acid sequestrants, and cholesterol absorption inhibitors.
The biomechanics of running involves the study of the mechanical principles underlying running movements. It includes the analysis of the running gait cycle, which consists of the stance phase (foot contact to push-off) and the swing phase (foot lift-off to next contact). Key aspects include kinematics (joint angles and movements, stride length and frequency) and kinetics (forces involved in running, including ground reaction and muscle forces). Understanding these factors helps in improving running performance, optimizing technique, and preventing injuries.
STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF SPECIAL POPULATIONS: GERIATRICS E7shruti jagirdar
Unit 4: MRA 103T Regulatory affairs
This guideline is directed principally toward new Molecular Entities that are
likely to have significant use in the elderly, either because the disease intended
to be treated is characteristically a disease of aging ( e.g., Alzheimer's disease) or
because the population to be treated is known to include substantial numbers of
geriatric patients (e.g., hypertension).
The Children are very vulnerable to get affected with respiratory disease.
In our country, the respiratory Disease conditions are consider as major cause for mortality and Morbidity in Child.
Nano-gold for Cancer Therapy chemistry investigatory projectSIVAVINAYAKPK
chemistry investigatory project
The development of nanogold-based cancer therapy could revolutionize oncology by providing a more targeted, less invasive treatment option. This project contributes to the growing body of research aimed at harnessing nanotechnology for medical applications, paving the way for future clinical trials and potential commercial applications.
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Bacterial pathogenesis
1. BY
M S . J I GI S H A P A N C H O L I
H E A D
D E P T . O F B I O C H E M I S T R Y & M I C R O B I O L O G
Y I N D I A N I N S T I T U T E O F A Y U R V E D I C
P H A R M A C E U T I C A L S C I E N C E S
GU J A R A T A Y U R V E D U N I V E R S I T
Y J A M N A GA R
Mechanism of Bacterial
Pathogenesis
3. Introduction
⚫ Humans and animals have abundant bacterial flora that are
usually harmless.
⚫ A general balance exists between host and his environment.
⚫ The host- parasite interaction is influenced by host factors as
well as the infecting microbe.
⚫ The outcome of this interaction can range from no
demonstrable effect to death.
⚫ Majority of the free living organisms are saprophytes.
5. Commensal
⚫Commensals live in complete harmony with the
animal body (host) without causing any harm to it.
⚫The commensals constitute the normal bacterial
flora of the body, such as S. epidermidis of skin and
E. coli of gastrointestinal tract.
⚫They subsist on secretions, food residues or waste
products of the body.
⚫They serve important functions in their hosts, like
production of vitamins, protection of host from
colonisation with pathogenic organism etc.
6. Opportunistic Pathogen
⚫These are the commensals or saprophytes which can
produce disease when the body resistance is lowered.
⚫Example:
⚫Candida albicans – a causal agent of opportunistic
oral and genital infections in humans
⚫Staphylococcus aureus- occurs as commensal on
human skin but may cause Staph infections
7. Pathogen
⚫A micro organism capable of producing disease is
called as pathogen.
⚫Pathogenicity is the ability of a class of bacteria
(Pathogen) to produce disease.
⚫Examples:
⚫Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax
⚫Clostridium tetani causes tetanus
⚫Salmonella typhi causes typhoid
8. Virulence
⚫Virulence is
pathogenicity
the measure
and depends
of the degree of
on invasiveness and
toxigenecity of the organism.
⚫The ability of a bacteria to cause disease is described
in terms of the number of infecting bacteria, the
route of entry into the body, the effects of host
defense mechanisms and intrinsic characteristics of
the bacteria called as virulence factors.
9. Infection
⚫Infection may be defined as lodgement and
multiplication of an infectious agent in the body.
⚫All infections do not invariably result in disease.
symptoms (disease) after break down
others may lead to development of signs
of
⚫Some infections may remain asymptomatic and
and
host-
parasite relationship in favour of the parasite.
10. Portal of Entry
⚫The infectious agent enters the body by one of the
following routes:
⚫Oral
⚫Respiratory
⚫Genitourinary
⚫Conjunctiva
⚫Cutaneous
11. Incubation Period
⚫The time interval between the entry of the infectious
agent and the onset of clinical manifestations of
disease is called incubation period.
⚫The infective agent, after reaching the selective
tissue, undergoes multiplication during this period.
⚫The period may be as short as minutes to as long as
thirty years in the case of variant Creutzfeldt- Jakob
disease
12. Clinical Manifestation
⚫ An infection that does not cause any detectable
manifestation is known as in apparent or subclinical
infection.
⚫ A person with symptomless infection is called as carrier.
⚫ In some diseases, either because of inadequate treatment
or immune response, the infectious agent us not
eliminated, leading to carrier state.
⚫ Carriers may be temporary or chronic.
13. ⚫ Temporary carrier state lasts for less than six months,
whereas the chronic carrier is the one who excretes
the disease producing organisms for indefinite period of
several years or throughout life.
⚫ Examples: Cholera, polio, diphtheria, meningitis, typhoid
etc.
⚫ Following infection, some pathogens may remain in
latent or dormant form in host tissues and proliferate
when host resistance is lowered producing clinical
disease. This is called as Latent infection. Example:
HIV
14. ⚫ Primary infection is referred to the first or initial
infection caused by an infecting organism.
⚫ Subsequent infections by the same parasite in the host is
called as re infection.
⚫ When the body resistance of a patient is lowered by a pre
existing infectious disease or during some treatment, a
new micro organism sets up an infection which is called
as secondary infection. Example: A vaginal yeast
infection after taking antibiotics to remove bacterial
infection.
15. ⚫ When a new infection from patient or healthy staff
carrier is set up in an already diseased person, it is called
as cross infection.
⚫ Cross infections acquired in hospitals are called as
hospital acquired or nosocomial infections.
⚫ Infection where the typical or characteristic
manifestations of a particular disease is lacking, it is
called as atypical infection. Eg: Atypical mycobacterial
infections in HIV patients
⚫ An iatrogenic infection is defined as physician
induced infection resulting from drug therapy or
diagnostic procedure, eg. Hepatitis B following blood
transfusion.
16. Evolution of Infection
⚫ From the portal entry the parasites may directly invade the
tissue or may pass through lymphatic channels into blood
stream for dissemination into internal organs.
⚫ In majority of the instances, the parasites get destroyed by
the host defense mechanisms.
⚫ When the host resistance fails, an acute inflammatory
response is developed which is characterized by vascular
dilatation, marked exudation of plasma and accumulation
of leucocytes with the formation of pus.
⚫ The pus forming bacteria are termed pyogenic, eg. S.
aureus, S. pyogenes.
18. Capsule
⚫ Capsule is one of the most
important virulence
factors.
⚫ They surround many
bacterial cells which shield
the bacteria from immune
and phagocytic response.
⚫ They are made up of either
carbohydrates or proteins
19. ⚫ Capsule inhibits
phagocytosis by means of
several ways:
⚫ 1. Capsule prevents
interaction between
antibody and C3 bound to
outer
bacteria
membrane
and
respective receptors
of
their
on
phagocytic cells.
⚫ Complement activation is
inhibited by the capsule.
⚫
20. Adhesins
⚫The pathogenesis of many bacteria depend on the
ability to adhere to mucosal cells as a first step.
⚫With adhesion factors, many bacteria adhere to
epithelial or endothelial cell linings of bladder,
intestine and blood vessels.
⚫Types: Pili
Lipopolysaccharide
M proteins
21. ⚫ Pili: in most cases pili serve
as adhesion factor. Many of
the adhesin proteins are
present at the tip of pili and
binds tightly to the target
tissue.
of bacteria
pili as adhesion
⚫ Examples
producing
factor:
⚫ E.coli
⚫ Neisseria gonorrhoeae
⚫ Lipopolysaccharides: They
are present in the outer
membrane of gram –ve
bacteria.
22. ⚫ M protein: the
expression of M proteins
on the cell membrane of
bacteria mediates their
adherence to epithelial
cells as
pyogenes
seen
that
pharyngitis,
appears to be
in S.
causes
which
directly
related to the production
of M proteins.
23. Invasiveness
⚫ Invasiveness of bacteria appears to be multifactorial and
complex process. Invasive bacteria either destroy the
barrier or penetrate into the cells of the barrier.
⚫ Examples:
⚫ 1. Shigella: a series of invasive proteins are involved:
a. Proteins called as “invasion plasmid antigens
(IPA)” expressed on outer membrane permit the
bacterium to bind to the luminal surface of mucosal M
occurs
cells of intestine then endocytosis
followed by rapid exit of the
which is
bacterium from the
endosome into the cytoplasm.
24. b. Another protein, known as
“intracellular spread protein
(ICS)” expressed on the outer
membrane of the bacterium,
allows to interact with the
host cell integrins.
Following interaction, the
bacterium travels towards the
cell membrane which forms a
protrusion and fuses with cell
membranes of adjacent cells,
thereby enabling Shigella to
diffuse from cell to cell.
25. ⚫2. Enteropathogenic Yersinia: they secrete an
invasion protein which promotes binding of bacteria
to the host cells, which in turn stimulates the cell to
invaginate and take in the bacteria.
⚫3. Neisseria gonorrhoea: with its pili adhere to
mucosal cells. The bacteria also contains an enzyme
that dissolves mucosal cell lining and thereby
enables the organism to penetrate submucosal
tissues.
26. Exoenzymes
⚫ Many bacteria release enzymes that can damage host tissue in
a variety of mechanisms:
⚫ 1. Enzymes that break down collagen (eg.: collagenase,
hyaluronidase) and fibrin (eg: fibrinolysins) allows better
penetration of microbes into tissues.
⚫ 2. Enzymes that break down cellular material (Eg: proteases,
lecithinases) are associated with many Clostridia
⚫ 3. Enzymes that modify and inactivate antibiotics (eg. Beta
lactamase) hydrolyses the beta lactum ring of the antibiotics.
The beta lactamase for penicillin and cephalosporin are called
penicillinase and cephalosporinase respectively.
27.
28. Toxins
⚫Bacterial toxins directly harm tissue or trigger
destructive biological activities.
⚫They are classified into two categories: Exotoxins
and Endotoxins
29. Exotoxins
⚫They are proteins produced and released extra
cellularly from the bacterial cell to cause toxicity.
⚫They are produced by both Gram +ve and Gram –ve
bacteria.
⚫In many cases the toxin is encoded by the plasmid,
eg: LT and ST toxins of E.coli, tetanus toxin of Cl.
tetani or a lysogenic phage, eg: C. diphtheriae, Cl.
botulinum
30.
31. ⚫ Most exotoxins have two
structural domains, “A”
subunit (active
domain)that causes cell
cytotoxicity and “B”
domain (binding domain)
subunit that binds the A
domain to specific cellular
receptors.
⚫ “A “subunit is transferred
to the interior of the cell,
where the cell injury is
induced
32. Functional types of Exotoxins
⚫Enterotoxins: Affect gastrointestinal tract and
include cholera toxin, E.coli toxin
⚫Neurotoxins: Affect nervous system and include
botulinum toxin, tetanus toxin
⚫Cytotoxin: Affect cells in a variety of tissues and
include diphtheria toxin, pseudomonas toxin A
33. Identification of exotoxins
⚫ Ileal loop test: Ligated loops
of ileum are inoculated with
enterotoxin producing bacteria
(V. cholerae, Enterotoxigenic
E.coli), accumulation of fluid
occur in the lumen in the
organism is toxigenic.
⚫ Cell culture test: to
monolayers of sensitive cells
(eg: Vero cells) bacteria free
culture filtrate is added and
incubated. The monolayer will
be disrupted if the filtrate
contains toxin (eg Vero
cytotoxin of E.coli)
34. ⚫ Serological test (Immunoassay): Since the enterotoxin
are immunogenic, antisera can be used to detect the
presence of toxin in specimens (eg: faecal material) or in
culture media
⚫ Molecular method: for detection of DNA of toxin
producing organism in specimens are now being developed.
35. Endotoxins
⚫ They are lipopolysaccharides (LPS) present on Gram –ve bacterial
cell wall.
⚫ The lipid A portion of LPS is responsible for endotoxin activity.
⚫ They are the integral part of the bacteria and are released as
bacteria lyse.
⚫ They are primarily responsible for sepsis and septic shock.
⚫ Endotoxin mediated toxicity include: Fever, activation of
complement, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intra vascular
coagulation, decreased peripheral circulation and perfusion of
organs, shock and death
36.
37. Infecting Dose
⚫ Adequate number of bacteria is needed for successful infections
⚫ The dose of infection depends on virulence of bacteria,
organisms of high virulence can produce severe infection in small
numbers
⚫ Bacterial virulence is the sum total od invasiveness to tissues,
capacity of multiplication in tissues and production of toxin
⚫ Minimum lethal dose (MLD) is the minimum number or
weight of organisms or toxin in micrograms needed to kill a
particular species of animal when administered by a certain
route.
38. ⚫ Minimum infecting dose (MID) is the minimum
number of bacteria required to produce clinical evidence of
infection in a susceptible animal when administered under
standard condition.
⚫ LD 50 and ID 50
⚫ Organisms like S. typhi can infect in small doses while S.
typhimurium require large number of organisms to make
infection
39. ⚫ Enhancement in virulence is called exaltation which can
be achieved by serial passage in susceptible hosts.
⚫ Reduction of virulence is termed are attenuation which
can be attained by serial passage of the organism through
un favourable hosts, prolonged storage, growth under high
temperature, repeated cultures in artificial media and in
presence of weak antiseptic substances.