This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 2 of a textbook on organizational behavior. It discusses how personal values and attitudes influence workplace behavior. It describes theories of how values are structured and how attitudes form via cognitive dissonance. Four important workplace attitudes are discussed: organizational commitment, employee engagement, perceived organizational support, and job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is linked to outcomes like performance, citizenship behaviors, and turnover. The chapter aims to help managers understand employee values and attitudes to improve work-related outcomes.
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Values: abstract ideals that guide one’s thinking and behavior across all situations.
Values stem from our parents' values, our experiences in childhood and throughout life, and our religious or spiritual beliefs.
Values are relatively stable and can influence behavior outside our awareness.
Understanding values can help you to self-manage and help you be more effective at influencing others’ attitudes and behaviors.
Shalom Schwartz categorized values into two opposing or bipolar dimensions.
The first dimension ranges from concern for the welfare of others (i.e., self-transcendence) to pursuit of one's own interests (i.e., self-enhancement).
The second dimension ranges from self-directed independence (i.e., openness to change) to conformity (i.e., conservation).
Schwartz stressed that it is the relative importance we give to these two dimensions of opposing values that drives our behavior.
As indicated in Figure 2.2, Schwartz proposed that 10 broad values guide behavior including:
Power—social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources.
Achievement—personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards.
Hedonism—pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself.
Stimulation—excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.
Self-direction—independent thought and action, such as choosing, creating, or exploring.
Universalism—understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection of the welfare of all people and of nature.
Benevolence—preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one is in frequent personal contact.
Tradition—respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion provides the self.
Conformity—restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms.
Security—safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self.
Managers can better supervise workers by using Schwartz’s model to understand their values and motivation. For example, if a manager knows that an employee values universalism and benevolence, then it would be wise to assign this employee to projects or tasks that have social value.
This model can help you determine if your values are consistent with your goals and whether you are spending your time in a meaningful way.
In general, values are relatively stable across time and situations. This means that positive employee attitudes and motivation are greatest when the work environment is consistent with employee values.
Values tend to vary across generations because they are influenced by events occurring during childhood.
Values are relatively stable across time and situations.
Positive employee attitudes and motivation are greatest when the work environment is consistent with employee values.
Values tend to vary across generations because they are influenced by events occurring during childhood (e.g., Vietnam War versus September 11).
The answer is D. Values are motivational in nature in that they represent broad goals that apply across contexts and time.
Personal values represent global beliefs that influence behavior across all situations, while personal attitudes relate only to behavior directed toward specific objects, persons, or situations.
Personal attitudes affect behavior via intentions.
Attitudes: our feelings or opinions about people, places, and objects, and range from positive to negative.
Workplace attitudes: an outcome of various OB-related processes, such as leadership.
Managers conduct attitude surveys to monitor workplace attitudes like job satisfaction and employee engagement, and to determine the causes of employee turnover.
Managers can better supervise workers by using Schwartz’s model to understand their values and motivation. For example, if a manager knows that an employee values universalism and benevolence, then it would be wise to assign this employee to projects or tasks that have social value.
This model can help you determine if your values are consistent with your goals and whether you are spending your time in a meaningful way.
In general, values are relatively stable across time and situations. This means that positive employee attitudes and motivation are greatest when the work environment is consistent with employee values.
Values tend to vary across generations because they are influenced by events occurring during childhood.
Three key general motives predict or at least influence intention and behavior.
1. Attitude toward the behavior—The degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question.
2. Subjective norm—A social factor representing the perceived social pressure for or against the behavior.
3. Perceived behavioral control—The perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior, assumed to reflect past experience and anticipated obstacles.
According to the Ajzen model, someone’s intention to engage in a given behavior is a strong predictor of that behavior.
So, if we want to change behavior, we should look at intentions and how we might modify them by working on the three general motives shown in Figure 2.2.
Managers may be able to influence behavioral change by doing or saying things that affect the three determinants of employees’ intentions to exhibit a specific behavior: attitude
toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.
In the workplace, one of the simplest levers managers can use to change behavior is information. Management provides information to employees daily. Standard organizational information that can affect motivation includes:
• Reports on the organization’s culture.
• Announcements of new training programs.
• News on key managers.
• Updates to human resource programs and policies.
• Announcements of new rewards of working for the company.
All such messages reinforce certain beliefs, and managers may consciously use them to influence behavior.
The answer is B. The other answers are determinants of intentions:
Attitude toward the behavior.
Subjective norm.
Perceived behavioral control.
Savvy managers will track four key workplace attitudes:
1. Organizational commitment.
2. Employee engagement.
3. Perceived organizational support.
4. Job satisfaction.
These attitudinal measures serve a dual purpose:
First, they represent important outcomes that managers may be working to enhance directly.
They link to other significant outcomes that managers will want to improve where possible.
Organizational commitment reflects the extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and commits to its goals.
Committed individuals tend to display two outcomes:
• Likely continuation of their employment with the organization.
• Greater motivation toward pursuing organizational goals and decisions.
Organizational commitment exists to the degree that your personal values generally match the values that undergird a company’s organizational culture. For example, if you value achievement and your employer rewards people for accomplishing goals, you are more likely to be committed to the company.
Commitment depends on the quality of an employee’s psychological contracts.
Psychological contracts represent an individual’s perception about the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange between him- or herself and another party.
In a work environment, the psychological contract represents an employee’s beliefs about what he or she is entitled to receive in return for what he or she provides to the organization.
Research shows that an employer breach of the psychological contract is associated with lower organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and performance, and greater intentions to quit.
Employee engagement is defined as “the harnessing of organization members’ selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performance.”
The essence of this definition is the idea that engaged employees “give it their all” at work. Further study identified its components as four feelings:
• Urgency.
• Being focused.
• Intensity.
• Enthusiasm.
Person Factors:
Positive or optimistic personalities.
Proactive personality.
Conscientiousness.
Environmental Characteristics:
Job characteristics—These represent the motivating potential of the tasks we complete at work. For example, people are engaged when their work contains variety and when they receive timely feedback.
Leadership—People are more engaged when their manager is charismatic and when a positive, trusting relationship exists between managers and employees.
Stressors—Stressors are environmental characteristics that cause stress. Engagement is higher when employees are not confronted with a lot of stressors.
Organizational Level Factors:
Career opportunities.
Managing performance.
Organization reputation.
Communication.
Recognition.
One way to increase employee engagement is to make sure that the inputs in the Organizing Framework are positively oriented. Organizations do this by measuring, tracking, and responding to surveys of employee engagement.
Other ideas include the creation of career and developmental opportunities for employees, recognizing people for good work, effectively communicating and listening, effective use of performance management practices allowing people to exercise during the workday, creating a physically attractive and stimulating work environment, and giving people meaningful work to do.
Perceived organizational support (POS): the extent to which employees believe their organization values their contributions and genuinely cares about their well-being.
Perceptions of support can either be positive or negative.
People are willing to work hard and commit to their organizations when they believe that the company truly cares about their best interests.
We are motivated by the norm of reciprocity, which obliges us to return the favorable treatment when someone treats us well.
The outcomes associated with POS include employee engagement, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, greater trust, innovation, and lower tendency to quit.
Managers can foster POS by treating employees fairly, avoiding political behavior, providing job security, empowering employees, reducing stressors in the work environment, eliminating abusive supervision, and fulfilling the psychological contract.
We are more likely to reciprocate with hard work and dedication when our employer treats us favorably.
The outcomes associated with POS include increased organizational commitment, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and task performance. POS also is related to lower turnover.
POS can be increased by treating employees fairly, by avoiding political behavior, by providing job security, by giving people more autonomy, by reducing stressors in the work environment, and by eliminating abusive supervision.
The answer is D. The other answers are ways to increase employee engagement.
Job satisfaction essentially reflects the extent to which an individual likes his or her job.
Formally defined, job satisfaction is an affective or emotional response toward various facets of one’s job.
This definition implies job satisfaction is not a unitary concept. Rather, a person can be relatively satisfied with one aspect of her or his job and dissatisfied with one or more other aspects.
Need Fulfillment: proposes that satisfaction is determined by the extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill her or his needs.
Met expectations: the difference between what an individual expects to receive from a job, such as good pay and promotional opportunities, and what she or he actually receives.
When expectations are greater than what is received, a person will be dissatisfied, while an individual will be satisfied when he or she attains outcomes above and beyond expectations.
Research supports the conclusion that met expectations are significantly related to job satisfaction.
Value Attainment: the value attainment model proposes that job satisfaction is fostered when jobs and rewards are structured to match employee values.
Equity: proposes that job satisfaction is a function of how “fairly” an individual is treated at work.
Dispositional/Genetic Components: based on the belief that job satisfaction is partly a function of both personal traits and genetic factors.
The answer is B. David is comparing his outcomes/inputs ratio with a co-worker and perceiving it to be less favorable.
People bring their abilities, goals, and experiences to each and every situation, which often changes the situation.
Conversely, because situations have unique characteristics, such as opportunities and rewards, they change people.
It also is true that the current job market and employer expectations differ from those at the height of the technology bubble in the late 1990s or at the depths of the Great Recession in 2007–2009. In the first scenario, you changed, and in the second the environment changed.
Finally, your manager—an environmental characteristic—can change what you do, how you do it, and your effectiveness. You in turn can impact these same characteristics in your manager.
One of the biggest controversies within OB research centers on the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance.
This is more complicated than it might first appear, and OB experts have identified at least eight different ways in which these variables are related.
The dominant theories are either that satisfaction causes performance or performance causes satisfaction.
Two key research findings:
Job satisfaction and performance were moderately related, supporting the belief that employee job satisfaction is a key workplace attitude that managers should consider when attempting to increase employees’ job performance.
The relationship is complex. It is not that one directly influences the other or vice versa. Rather, researchers now believe both variables indirectly influence each other through a host of person factors and environmental characteristics. Researchers now believe that incomplete measures of individual level of performance understate the relationship between satisfaction and performance. To solve this problem, researchers examined the relationship between aggregate measures of job satisfaction and organizational performance.
It thus appears managers indirectly or directly can positively affect a variety of important organizational-level outcomes such as job performance and customer satisfaction by increasing employee job satisfaction.
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is defined as “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization.”
This definition highlights two key points:
OCBs are voluntary.
OCBs help work groups and the organization to effectively achieve goals.
OCBs have a moderately positive correlation with job satisfaction.
OCBs are significantly related to both individual-level consequences and organizational-level outcomes.
This is important for two reasons.
Exhibiting OCBs is likely to create positive impressions about you among your colleagues and manager. In turn, these impressions affect your ability to work with others, your manager’s evaluation of your performance, and ultimately your promotability.
The aggregate amount of employees’ OCBs affects important organizational outcomes.
It therefore is important for managers to foster an environment that promotes OCBs.
CWBs represent a particularly negative work-related outcome. In contrast to the helping nature of OCBs, counterproductive work behavior (CWB) represents behavior that harms other employees, the organization as a whole, or organizational stakeholders such as customers and shareholders.
Examples of CWBs include bullying, theft, gossiping, backstabbing, drug and alcohol abuse, destroying organizational property, violence, purposely doing bad or incorrect work, surfing the Internet for personal use, excessive socializing, tardiness, sabotage, and sexual harassment.
Job satisfaction has a moderately strong, negative relationship with turnover.
This finding suggests that managers are well served to reduce turnover by trying to enhance employees’ job satisfaction. This recommendation is even more important for high performers.
Managers can reduce voluntary turnover if they
Hire people who “fit” within the organization’s culture.
Spend time fostering employee engagement. Engaged employees are less likely to quit.
Provide effective onboarding. Onboarding programs help employees to integrate, assimilate, and transition to new jobs by making them familiar with corporate policies, procedures, culture, and politics by clarifying work-role expectations and responsibilities.
Recognize and reward high performers because they are more likely to quit than average performers.
The answer is E. Catherine’s voluntary act is demonstrating care for the organization’s property, a component of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB).
The answer is E. All the statements describe the organizing framework.
