The document summarizes key information about the Earth's atmosphere and major human impacts on it. It describes the atmosphere's composition and layers, and its vital roles in sustaining life through circulating gases and shielding the planet. It then discusses four major issues - ozone depletion caused by CFCs, global warming from increased greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, the resulting climate change effects, and air pollution. The Antarctic ozone hole is described as the largest on record. Global warming is recognized as a serious threat and is mainly caused by human activities like fossil fuel use. Predicted consequences include rising sea levels and impacts on hundreds of millions of people.
The document describes the composition and layers of Earth's atmosphere. It begins by outlining the learning objectives which are to describe the atmosphere's composition and layers, explain heat transfer mechanisms, and explain the greenhouse effect. It then provides details on the composition of the atmosphere including the main gases, atmospheric dust, and varying components. The layers of the atmosphere are defined based on temperature and composition changes at different altitudes. Heat transfer through radiation, conduction, and convection is explained. Finally, the greenhouse effect is described as gases in the atmosphere trapping heat from the sun like glass in a greenhouse.
Abstract: There are many situations where human activitieshave significant effects on the environment. Ozone layerdamage is one of them. The objective of this paper is to reviewthe origin, causes, mechanisms and bio effects of ozone layerdepletion as well as the protective measures of this vanishing layer. The chlorofluorocarbon and the halons are potent ozone depletors. One of the main reasons for the widespread concernabout depletion of the ozone layer is the anticipated increase inthe amounts of ultraviolet radiation received at the surface ofthe earth and the effect of this on human health and on the environment. The prospects of ozone recovery remain uncertain. In the absence of other changes, stratospheric ozoneabundances should rise in the future as the halogen loading fallsin response to regulation. However, the future behaviour ofozone will also be affected by the changing atmospheric abundances of methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour, sulphateaerosol, and changing climate.
Earth's atmosphere consists of permanent gases like nitrogen and oxygen that make up most of the atmosphere, as well as variable gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide whose distribution varies over time and location. Gases enter and leave the atmosphere through natural sources like volcanoes, forests, and oceans, maintaining a delicate steady state balance. The urban atmosphere contains primary pollutants emitted directly and secondary pollutants formed from chemical reactions. Air pollution causes health effects on living organisms and damage to properties and materials. Removal processes like oxidation and dry deposition help reduce pollutants over land and sea.
The document provides an overview of Earth's atmosphere including:
- Its composition of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and trace amounts of other gases.
- It describes the layers of the atmosphere from lowest to highest - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
- Key topics covered include the nitrogen cycle, how pressure decreases with altitude, measuring pressure, atmospheric chemistry, and issues like acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and ozone depletion.
The document provides information on the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It discusses the following key points:
1. Earth's atmosphere can be divided into layers based on temperature and composition, including the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
2. The principal gases that make up the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, along with variable gases like carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and water vapor.
3. Each layer serves important functions, such as the stratosphere containing the ozone layer which protects the surface from UV radiation, and the thermosphere where auroras occur.
ATMOSPHERE ENVIRONMENT
PRESENTORS ::
>> Cuevas, Jennifer
>> Doble, Rogin
>> Gutierrez, Arlene
>> Marasigan, Debie Joy
>> Sibuan, Andrew
The Atmosphere Environment
This chapter discusses:
The significance of the Atmosphere
The composition of the Atmosphere
The layers of the atmosphere
The Atmospheric Circulation
Importance
Atmosphere – a thin layer of air that forms a protective covering around Earth.
It keeps Earth’s temperature in a range that can support life.
It also care for life-forms from some of the Sun’s harmful rays.
The Composition of Atmosphere
The Atmosphere** layer of gas that surrounds Earth more commonly known as “air”.
Atmosphere. How do you know its there
Is this “air” that surrounds us considered matter? Does it weigh anything? How do you know?
Think about it and decide on an answer.
Talk in groups with the person who sits by you
Be ready to tell the class what you decided and why.
Weight of the atmosphere
Gases are in the atmosphere.
They are things we learned about in the periodic table: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen
It is matter! Sound can travel through it.
Even though you can’t see them, Atoms make up gases.
Are some atoms bigger than others?
Are their atomic weights all the same?
Helium vs. Carbon Dioxide
Do you think of helium as light and floating or heavy and falling?
Do you think about Carbon Dioxide as light and floating or heavy and falling….think about the gas released from dry ice… does it go up or down?
Weight of the atmosphere
Gases are in the atmosphere.
They are things we learned about in the periodic table: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen
It is matter! Sound can travel through it.
Even though you can’t see them, Atoms make up gases.
Are some atoms bigger than others?
Are their atomic weights all the same?
Helium vs. Carbon Dioxide
Do you think of helium as light and floating or heavy and falling?
Do you think about Carbon Dioxide as light and floating or heavy and falling….think about the gas released from dry ice… does it go up or down?
Weight of the atmosphere
Gases are in the atmosphere.
They are things we learned about in the periodic table: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen
It is matter! Sound can travel through it.
Even though you can’t see them, Atoms make up gases.
Are some atoms bigger than others?
Are their atomic weights all the same?
Helium vs. Carbon Dioxide
Do you think of helium as light and floating or heavy and falling?
Do you think about Carbon Dioxide as light and floating or heavy and falling….think about the gas released from dry ice… does it go up or down?
The document discusses the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It notes that the atmosphere is essential for life and is composed primarily of nitrogen (78.1%) and oxygen (20.9%), along with smaller amounts of other gases like carbon dioxide, ozone, and water vapor. The atmosphere can be divided into five layers based on temperature and density: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere. The troposphere is the lowest layer where weather occurs, while the stratosphere contains ozone which protects from UV rays. Radio waves are reflected by the ionosphere, enabling radio communication.
The document describes the composition and layers of Earth's atmosphere. It begins by outlining the learning objectives which are to describe the atmosphere's composition and layers, explain heat transfer mechanisms, and explain the greenhouse effect. It then provides details on the composition of the atmosphere including the main gases, atmospheric dust, and varying components. The layers of the atmosphere are defined based on temperature and composition changes at different altitudes. Heat transfer through radiation, conduction, and convection is explained. Finally, the greenhouse effect is described as gases in the atmosphere trapping heat from the sun like glass in a greenhouse.
Abstract: There are many situations where human activitieshave significant effects on the environment. Ozone layerdamage is one of them. The objective of this paper is to reviewthe origin, causes, mechanisms and bio effects of ozone layerdepletion as well as the protective measures of this vanishing layer. The chlorofluorocarbon and the halons are potent ozone depletors. One of the main reasons for the widespread concernabout depletion of the ozone layer is the anticipated increase inthe amounts of ultraviolet radiation received at the surface ofthe earth and the effect of this on human health and on the environment. The prospects of ozone recovery remain uncertain. In the absence of other changes, stratospheric ozoneabundances should rise in the future as the halogen loading fallsin response to regulation. However, the future behaviour ofozone will also be affected by the changing atmospheric abundances of methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour, sulphateaerosol, and changing climate.
Earth's atmosphere consists of permanent gases like nitrogen and oxygen that make up most of the atmosphere, as well as variable gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide whose distribution varies over time and location. Gases enter and leave the atmosphere through natural sources like volcanoes, forests, and oceans, maintaining a delicate steady state balance. The urban atmosphere contains primary pollutants emitted directly and secondary pollutants formed from chemical reactions. Air pollution causes health effects on living organisms and damage to properties and materials. Removal processes like oxidation and dry deposition help reduce pollutants over land and sea.
The document provides an overview of Earth's atmosphere including:
- Its composition of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and trace amounts of other gases.
- It describes the layers of the atmosphere from lowest to highest - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
- Key topics covered include the nitrogen cycle, how pressure decreases with altitude, measuring pressure, atmospheric chemistry, and issues like acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and ozone depletion.
The document provides information on the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It discusses the following key points:
1. Earth's atmosphere can be divided into layers based on temperature and composition, including the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
2. The principal gases that make up the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, along with variable gases like carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and water vapor.
3. Each layer serves important functions, such as the stratosphere containing the ozone layer which protects the surface from UV radiation, and the thermosphere where auroras occur.
ATMOSPHERE ENVIRONMENT
PRESENTORS ::
>> Cuevas, Jennifer
>> Doble, Rogin
>> Gutierrez, Arlene
>> Marasigan, Debie Joy
>> Sibuan, Andrew
The Atmosphere Environment
This chapter discusses:
The significance of the Atmosphere
The composition of the Atmosphere
The layers of the atmosphere
The Atmospheric Circulation
Importance
Atmosphere – a thin layer of air that forms a protective covering around Earth.
It keeps Earth’s temperature in a range that can support life.
It also care for life-forms from some of the Sun’s harmful rays.
The Composition of Atmosphere
The Atmosphere** layer of gas that surrounds Earth more commonly known as “air”.
Atmosphere. How do you know its there
Is this “air” that surrounds us considered matter? Does it weigh anything? How do you know?
Think about it and decide on an answer.
Talk in groups with the person who sits by you
Be ready to tell the class what you decided and why.
Weight of the atmosphere
Gases are in the atmosphere.
They are things we learned about in the periodic table: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen
It is matter! Sound can travel through it.
Even though you can’t see them, Atoms make up gases.
Are some atoms bigger than others?
Are their atomic weights all the same?
Helium vs. Carbon Dioxide
Do you think of helium as light and floating or heavy and falling?
Do you think about Carbon Dioxide as light and floating or heavy and falling….think about the gas released from dry ice… does it go up or down?
Weight of the atmosphere
Gases are in the atmosphere.
They are things we learned about in the periodic table: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen
It is matter! Sound can travel through it.
Even though you can’t see them, Atoms make up gases.
Are some atoms bigger than others?
Are their atomic weights all the same?
Helium vs. Carbon Dioxide
Do you think of helium as light and floating or heavy and falling?
Do you think about Carbon Dioxide as light and floating or heavy and falling….think about the gas released from dry ice… does it go up or down?
Weight of the atmosphere
Gases are in the atmosphere.
They are things we learned about in the periodic table: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen
It is matter! Sound can travel through it.
Even though you can’t see them, Atoms make up gases.
Are some atoms bigger than others?
Are their atomic weights all the same?
Helium vs. Carbon Dioxide
Do you think of helium as light and floating or heavy and falling?
Do you think about Carbon Dioxide as light and floating or heavy and falling….think about the gas released from dry ice… does it go up or down?
The document discusses the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It notes that the atmosphere is essential for life and is composed primarily of nitrogen (78.1%) and oxygen (20.9%), along with smaller amounts of other gases like carbon dioxide, ozone, and water vapor. The atmosphere can be divided into five layers based on temperature and density: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere. The troposphere is the lowest layer where weather occurs, while the stratosphere contains ozone which protects from UV rays. Radio waves are reflected by the ionosphere, enabling radio communication.
The document describes the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It is divided into multiple layers based on chemical composition, thermal properties, and electromagnetic properties. The major layers from lowest to highest are: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. Each layer has unique characteristics such as varying temperature profiles and concentrations of different gases. The thermosphere and lower layers contain the ionosphere, where solar radiation ionizes gases to form a region that can reflect radio waves.
The document discusses the global environment and its four main segments: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. It provides details on the composition and structure of the atmosphere, including the four main layers (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere). It describes the hydrosphere as the water on Earth, including oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and groundwater. It also discusses the water cycle. It defines the lithosphere as the solid outer layer of the Earth, including the continents and ocean floors, and notes its role in plate tectonics and geological events.
Global environmental segments and its structuresrabeesh
The document provides information on the various layers of Earth's atmosphere and other components of the biosphere. It discusses the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere layers in detail. It also covers the ionosphere, ozone layer, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The layers are defined and key facts about temperature, composition, and boundaries are provided for each one. The document aims to give a brief overview of the basic known structures that make up Earth's environmental systems.
The document discusses the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It is composed primarily of nitrogen (78.1%) and oxygen (20.9%), as well as smaller amounts of other gases like carbon dioxide, ozone, and water vapor. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by blocking harmful UV rays, trapping heat, and facilitating precipitation through water vapor condensation. It is divided into five main layers based on temperature and density: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere, with the troposphere being the most important for weather and climate.
The document provides an introduction to the geo-chemistry of the atmosphere. It discusses the composition and structure of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is divided into major layers including the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. It describes the major and minor components of the atmosphere, including nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ozone and others. The document also discusses atmospheric processes like the greenhouse effect and how human activities have increased carbon dioxide levels, impacting the climate.
Atmospheric chemistry is the study of the chemistry of Earth's atmosphere and the atmosphere of other planets. It is a multidisciplinary field that draws from various areas including environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology, and volcanology. The Earth's atmosphere consists of different layers - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere - each with unique characteristics and compositions. Atmospheric chemistry studies how the composition of the atmosphere changes through natural processes as well as human activities, which can negatively impact human health, ecosystems, and climate through issues like acid rain, ozone depletion, smog, and global warming.
This document provides an introduction to environmental chemistry through a course outline. It describes the structure and composition of Earth's atmosphere in detail. The atmosphere is divided into four layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere - based on how temperature varies with altitude. The troposphere and stratosphere are described in the most depth, including how the stratospheric ozone layer absorbs UV radiation and causes temperatures to increase with altitude in the stratosphere. The document also discusses the historical development of measuring tools like thermometers and barometers that helped scientists understand temperature and pressure patterns in the atmosphere.
The document discusses the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It is composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases. The atmosphere is divided into five layers - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere - based on how properties like temperature and pressure change with altitude. Each layer has distinguishing characteristics, such as weather occurring in the troposphere and protective ozone existing in the stratosphere.
The document discusses the definition, composition, and structure of the atmosphere. It describes the atmosphere as a gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases. The structure of the atmosphere is divided into six concentric layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere, and magnetosphere - based on variations in temperature with increasing altitude.
The document summarizes the different layers of Earth's atmosphere from lowest to highest:
1) Troposphere, closest to Earth's surface and containing 75% of atmosphere's mass. Temperature decreases with height.
2) Stratosphere above troposphere, contains ozone layer absorbing UV rays. Ozone layer is being depleted.
3) Mesosphere above stratosphere, temperature drops sharply with height.
4) Thermosphere above mesosphere, temperature increases with height and can reach thousands of degrees. Includes ionosphere.
5) Exosphere, the uppermost layer, where molecules can escape into space. Density is very low with few collisions.
It also discusses issues like o
The atmosphere is composed of gases, vapour, and particulates that surround the Earth. It is divided into four main layers:
1) The troposphere, the lowest layer where weather occurs, decreases in temperature with height up to 16km.
2) The stratosphere temperature increases up to 50km where the ozone layer is located.
3) The mesosphere temperature decreases again up to 80km.
4) The thermosphere is the outermost layer where temperature rapidly increases with altitude up to 640km and beyond.
The ozone layer is found in the stratosphere and protects the Earth from harmful UV rays. Certain chemicals like CFCs released from aerosol sprays and refrigerants were depleting the ozone. This caused a large seasonal "hole" over Antarctica. The Montreal Protocol banned CFCs which has helped the ozone layer start recovering, though full recovery may take until 2050. While the ozone layer decreases UV exposure, its depletion may also impact climate change.
The document summarizes key aspects of Earth's atmosphere. It describes that Earth's atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. It also notes that the atmosphere becomes thinner with increasing altitude and discusses the layers of the atmosphere, including the troposphere where weather occurs. Additionally, it introduces atmospheric circulation patterns driven by uneven solar heating, including Hadley cells that transport energy from the equator to higher latitudes.
Structure of atmosphere by Muhammad Fahad Ansari 12IEEM14fahadansari131
The document summarizes the composition and structure of the atmosphere. It discusses that the atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and trace amounts of other gases. It also notes there are variable gases like water vapor and particulates suspended in the air. The structure of the atmosphere consists of four layers - the troposphere closest to the surface which contains most of the atmosphere, the stratosphere above it which contains the ozone layer, the mesosphere and thermosphere above that. Each layer has distinctive temperature characteristics.
The document discusses the composition and structure of the Earth's atmosphere. It notes that the atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases, as well as varying amounts of water vapor and dust particles. It then describes the different layers of the atmosphere - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere - and how temperature varies with altitude through each layer. Finally, it discusses several atmospheric phenomena including air pollution, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, global warming, and ozone depletion.
The document discusses the history and formation of the ozone layer, as well as causes and effects of ozone depletion. It notes that ozone plays a key role in absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun. However, activities releasing chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals into the atmosphere have depleted the ozone layer, especially over Antarctica and the Arctic. This ozone depletion allows more harmful UV radiation to reach the Earth's surface, threatening human health, agriculture and ecosystems. International agreements like the Montreal Protocol have aimed to phase out ozone depleting substances to allow the ozone layer to recover.
This document provides an overview of a unit on atmosphere and pollution from a Canadian environmental science academy. It includes unit questions, enduring understandings, assessment criteria, and topics to be covered such as the composition and layers of the atmosphere, the greenhouse effect, ozone layer, and air pollution. Students will conduct projects and exams to demonstrate their understanding of how human actions affect atmospheric equilibrium and the consequences for the environment.
The Earth's atmosphere consists of five principal layers:
1) The troposphere extends from the Earth's surface to about 11 miles high and contains nearly all weather phenomena.
2) The stratosphere lies just above the troposphere and extends to around 30 miles high, characterized by little temperature change.
3) The mesosphere extends from 30 to 50 miles high and contains the lowest level of the ionosphere.
4) The thermosphere is the highest layer of the ionosphere, containing the principal radio reflecting layers and temperatures that can reach 1,700°F.
5) The exosphere, the uppermost layer, contains very low densities of hydrogen, helium and other gases.
The document summarizes information about the ozone layer, its formation and function, how it protects the Earth from UV radiation, and issues with its depletion. It discusses that the ozone layer is a concentration of ozone molecules in the stratosphere that absorbs harmful UV rays. It forms through interactions between oxygen and radiation, and maintains a balance through continuous breaking down and reforming. However, CFCs released into the atmosphere can destroy ozone molecules and cause depletion. This puts life on Earth at risk by increasing UV exposure.
The document discusses the structure and composition of Earth's atmosphere. It can be summarized as follows:
1) Earth's atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen as permanent gases, with variable amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and other trace gases.
2) The atmosphere is divided into five thermal layers - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere - based on how temperature varies with altitude.
3) The troposphere is where weather occurs; it transitions to the stratosphere at the tropopause, where temperature stops decreasing with height. The composition is uniform in the lower atmosphere but heterogeneous in the upper layers.
Dokumen tersebut berisi soal ulangan kenaikan kelas semester dua SD tentang pendidikan kewarganegaraan. Soal terdiri dari pilihan ganda dan isian yang membahas tentang organisasi sekolah, masyarakat, dan pengambilan keputusan secara musyawarah.
The document discusses conventions of romantic comedy (rom-com) movies. It notes that rom-coms appeal to those in love or hoping to be, featuring characters doing silly things due to distraction of love. The plots typically involve obstacles keeping an obvious couple apart until marriage at the end. Rom-coms also feature stereotypical gender roles, with the male protagonist struggling to win over the female. Common elements include rivals, misunderstandings separating the couple, and reunions ending happily.
The document describes the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It is divided into multiple layers based on chemical composition, thermal properties, and electromagnetic properties. The major layers from lowest to highest are: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. Each layer has unique characteristics such as varying temperature profiles and concentrations of different gases. The thermosphere and lower layers contain the ionosphere, where solar radiation ionizes gases to form a region that can reflect radio waves.
The document discusses the global environment and its four main segments: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. It provides details on the composition and structure of the atmosphere, including the four main layers (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere). It describes the hydrosphere as the water on Earth, including oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and groundwater. It also discusses the water cycle. It defines the lithosphere as the solid outer layer of the Earth, including the continents and ocean floors, and notes its role in plate tectonics and geological events.
Global environmental segments and its structuresrabeesh
The document provides information on the various layers of Earth's atmosphere and other components of the biosphere. It discusses the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere layers in detail. It also covers the ionosphere, ozone layer, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The layers are defined and key facts about temperature, composition, and boundaries are provided for each one. The document aims to give a brief overview of the basic known structures that make up Earth's environmental systems.
The document discusses the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It is composed primarily of nitrogen (78.1%) and oxygen (20.9%), as well as smaller amounts of other gases like carbon dioxide, ozone, and water vapor. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by blocking harmful UV rays, trapping heat, and facilitating precipitation through water vapor condensation. It is divided into five main layers based on temperature and density: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere, with the troposphere being the most important for weather and climate.
The document provides an introduction to the geo-chemistry of the atmosphere. It discusses the composition and structure of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is divided into major layers including the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. It describes the major and minor components of the atmosphere, including nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ozone and others. The document also discusses atmospheric processes like the greenhouse effect and how human activities have increased carbon dioxide levels, impacting the climate.
Atmospheric chemistry is the study of the chemistry of Earth's atmosphere and the atmosphere of other planets. It is a multidisciplinary field that draws from various areas including environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology, and volcanology. The Earth's atmosphere consists of different layers - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere - each with unique characteristics and compositions. Atmospheric chemistry studies how the composition of the atmosphere changes through natural processes as well as human activities, which can negatively impact human health, ecosystems, and climate through issues like acid rain, ozone depletion, smog, and global warming.
This document provides an introduction to environmental chemistry through a course outline. It describes the structure and composition of Earth's atmosphere in detail. The atmosphere is divided into four layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere - based on how temperature varies with altitude. The troposphere and stratosphere are described in the most depth, including how the stratospheric ozone layer absorbs UV radiation and causes temperatures to increase with altitude in the stratosphere. The document also discusses the historical development of measuring tools like thermometers and barometers that helped scientists understand temperature and pressure patterns in the atmosphere.
The document discusses the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. It is composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases. The atmosphere is divided into five layers - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere - based on how properties like temperature and pressure change with altitude. Each layer has distinguishing characteristics, such as weather occurring in the troposphere and protective ozone existing in the stratosphere.
The document discusses the definition, composition, and structure of the atmosphere. It describes the atmosphere as a gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases. The structure of the atmosphere is divided into six concentric layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere, and magnetosphere - based on variations in temperature with increasing altitude.
The document summarizes the different layers of Earth's atmosphere from lowest to highest:
1) Troposphere, closest to Earth's surface and containing 75% of atmosphere's mass. Temperature decreases with height.
2) Stratosphere above troposphere, contains ozone layer absorbing UV rays. Ozone layer is being depleted.
3) Mesosphere above stratosphere, temperature drops sharply with height.
4) Thermosphere above mesosphere, temperature increases with height and can reach thousands of degrees. Includes ionosphere.
5) Exosphere, the uppermost layer, where molecules can escape into space. Density is very low with few collisions.
It also discusses issues like o
The atmosphere is composed of gases, vapour, and particulates that surround the Earth. It is divided into four main layers:
1) The troposphere, the lowest layer where weather occurs, decreases in temperature with height up to 16km.
2) The stratosphere temperature increases up to 50km where the ozone layer is located.
3) The mesosphere temperature decreases again up to 80km.
4) The thermosphere is the outermost layer where temperature rapidly increases with altitude up to 640km and beyond.
The ozone layer is found in the stratosphere and protects the Earth from harmful UV rays. Certain chemicals like CFCs released from aerosol sprays and refrigerants were depleting the ozone. This caused a large seasonal "hole" over Antarctica. The Montreal Protocol banned CFCs which has helped the ozone layer start recovering, though full recovery may take until 2050. While the ozone layer decreases UV exposure, its depletion may also impact climate change.
The document summarizes key aspects of Earth's atmosphere. It describes that Earth's atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. It also notes that the atmosphere becomes thinner with increasing altitude and discusses the layers of the atmosphere, including the troposphere where weather occurs. Additionally, it introduces atmospheric circulation patterns driven by uneven solar heating, including Hadley cells that transport energy from the equator to higher latitudes.
Structure of atmosphere by Muhammad Fahad Ansari 12IEEM14fahadansari131
The document summarizes the composition and structure of the atmosphere. It discusses that the atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and trace amounts of other gases. It also notes there are variable gases like water vapor and particulates suspended in the air. The structure of the atmosphere consists of four layers - the troposphere closest to the surface which contains most of the atmosphere, the stratosphere above it which contains the ozone layer, the mesosphere and thermosphere above that. Each layer has distinctive temperature characteristics.
The document discusses the composition and structure of the Earth's atmosphere. It notes that the atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases, as well as varying amounts of water vapor and dust particles. It then describes the different layers of the atmosphere - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere - and how temperature varies with altitude through each layer. Finally, it discusses several atmospheric phenomena including air pollution, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, global warming, and ozone depletion.
The document discusses the history and formation of the ozone layer, as well as causes and effects of ozone depletion. It notes that ozone plays a key role in absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun. However, activities releasing chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals into the atmosphere have depleted the ozone layer, especially over Antarctica and the Arctic. This ozone depletion allows more harmful UV radiation to reach the Earth's surface, threatening human health, agriculture and ecosystems. International agreements like the Montreal Protocol have aimed to phase out ozone depleting substances to allow the ozone layer to recover.
This document provides an overview of a unit on atmosphere and pollution from a Canadian environmental science academy. It includes unit questions, enduring understandings, assessment criteria, and topics to be covered such as the composition and layers of the atmosphere, the greenhouse effect, ozone layer, and air pollution. Students will conduct projects and exams to demonstrate their understanding of how human actions affect atmospheric equilibrium and the consequences for the environment.
The Earth's atmosphere consists of five principal layers:
1) The troposphere extends from the Earth's surface to about 11 miles high and contains nearly all weather phenomena.
2) The stratosphere lies just above the troposphere and extends to around 30 miles high, characterized by little temperature change.
3) The mesosphere extends from 30 to 50 miles high and contains the lowest level of the ionosphere.
4) The thermosphere is the highest layer of the ionosphere, containing the principal radio reflecting layers and temperatures that can reach 1,700°F.
5) The exosphere, the uppermost layer, contains very low densities of hydrogen, helium and other gases.
The document summarizes information about the ozone layer, its formation and function, how it protects the Earth from UV radiation, and issues with its depletion. It discusses that the ozone layer is a concentration of ozone molecules in the stratosphere that absorbs harmful UV rays. It forms through interactions between oxygen and radiation, and maintains a balance through continuous breaking down and reforming. However, CFCs released into the atmosphere can destroy ozone molecules and cause depletion. This puts life on Earth at risk by increasing UV exposure.
The document discusses the structure and composition of Earth's atmosphere. It can be summarized as follows:
1) Earth's atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen as permanent gases, with variable amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and other trace gases.
2) The atmosphere is divided into five thermal layers - the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere - based on how temperature varies with altitude.
3) The troposphere is where weather occurs; it transitions to the stratosphere at the tropopause, where temperature stops decreasing with height. The composition is uniform in the lower atmosphere but heterogeneous in the upper layers.
Dokumen tersebut berisi soal ulangan kenaikan kelas semester dua SD tentang pendidikan kewarganegaraan. Soal terdiri dari pilihan ganda dan isian yang membahas tentang organisasi sekolah, masyarakat, dan pengambilan keputusan secara musyawarah.
The document discusses conventions of romantic comedy (rom-com) movies. It notes that rom-coms appeal to those in love or hoping to be, featuring characters doing silly things due to distraction of love. The plots typically involve obstacles keeping an obvious couple apart until marriage at the end. Rom-coms also feature stereotypical gender roles, with the male protagonist struggling to win over the female. Common elements include rivals, misunderstandings separating the couple, and reunions ending happily.
This document contains summaries of two English class activities for students in Grade 4. The first activity had students creating a family album in Spanish and then modifying an English version with self-stick notes. The homework was to finish the work started in class. The second activity reviewed common classroom commands and phrases in English. Students practiced repeating and role playing different classroom scenarios using the new vocabulary. The homework was not stated.
Este documento discute a necessidade de repensar a educação para promover o desenvolvimento sustentável em um mundo complexo. Defende uma abordagem humanista da educação que promova a inclusão, a justiça social e os direitos humanos. Também destaca a importância de considerar contextos locais e sistemas de conhecimento diversos ao formular políticas educacionais globais e locais.
The document discusses key concepts related to how the internet works including domain names, IP addresses, packets, routers, and the relationship between domain names and IP addresses. It provides explanations and examples of each concept. Domain names function as easy to remember shortcuts to locate websites, while IP addresses are unique identifiers for devices connected to the internet. Packets are how data is transferred by dividing it into smaller sections, and routers help direct packets to their destination by passing them through different networks. The document also includes references for further information.
Makenna Barnes is a highly motivated business finance professional seeking a career opportunity. She has experience in finance, management, human resources, marketing, administration and customer service. She has a Bachelor's Degree in Business Administration - Finance from Fresno Pacific University expected in May 2016. She currently works as the Office Manager and Director of Marketing and Human Resources for Barnes Dental Incorporation where she manages operations, developed their online presence, and improved their marketing strategies.
Este documento discute el uso de tecnologías digitales en la educación universitaria. Argumenta que es más importante la metodología que las herramientas, y propone cinco principios para una enseñanza efectiva: activación, demostración, aplicación, integración y modelado. También explora conceptos como la personalización a través del diseño universal para el aprendizaje, la gamificación, las comunidades de aprendizaje y los códigos éticos para entornos virtuales. El objetivo general es repensar los procesos de ense
La geosfera es la capa de la Tierra formada por rocas. Está compuesta de tres capas principales: la corteza, el manto y el núcleo. La corteza está dividida en placas tectónicas que se mueven lentamente, causando fenómenos como terremotos, volcanes y la formación de montañas.
The document discusses Ronald Reagan's quote about air pollution from natural and man-made sources. It then provides definitions for atmospheric science vocabulary words and describes the composition, structure and layers of the atmosphere. It discusses how human activities like fossil fuel use and CFC emissions are changing the atmosphere and depleting the ozone layer.
Role of ozone in environment –
Ozone layer –
Ozone depleting gases –
Green House Effect –
Radioactive effects of Greenhouse gases –
The Hydrological cycle –
Green House Gases and Global Warming –
Carbon Cycle.
Ozone is a naturally occurring molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. It has the chemical formula O3.
The word ‘ozone’ is derived from the Greek word óζειν which means “to smell”. Its strong smell allows scientists to detect it in low amounts.
Ozone is found in different levels of the earth’s atmosphere.
About 90% of ozone in the atmosphere is concentrated between 15 and 30 kilometres above the earth's surface (stratospheric ozone).
At this level it provides a protective shield from the sun, we think of this as good ozone.
It is also found at ground level in lower concentrations (tropospheric ozone).
Here ozone is a pollutant that is a key part of smog over cities and we think of it as bad ozone.
Atmospheric data demonstrates that ozone depleting substances are destroying ozone in the stratosphere and thinning the earth’s ozone layer.
Ozone depleting substances are chemicals that include -
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs); nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals containing atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine.
halons, group of organohalogen compounds containing bromine and fluorine and one or two carbons.
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4),
methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3),
Hydro-bromo-fluoro-carbons (HBFCs),
Hydro-chloro-fluoro-carbons (HCFCs),
methyl bromide (CH3Br) and
bromochloromethane (CH2BrCl).
They deplete the ozone layer by releasing chlorine and bromine atoms into the stratosphere, which destroy ozone molecules.
These and other ozone depleting substances also contribute, to varying extents, to global warming
Ozone Layer Depletion, Greenhouse Effect & Global WarmingNeetha Joseph
This is a presentation regarding some of those little threats our Earth is going through....The presentation is made interesting with a wide range of pictures, illustrations and animations...Please download to see the animated slideshow...Hope this comes of help to you!
The document discusses various topics related to atmospheric chemistry and air pollution. It begins with an overview of the composition and structure of the atmosphere, including the different layers (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere). It then covers various atmospheric reactions and processes, such as photochemical reactions, lapse rates, temperature inversions, and ozone layer formation and depletion. The document also discusses different air pollutants, their sources, effects, and methods for air quality monitoring and pollution control. Finally, it touches on related issues like the greenhouse effect, global warming, acid rain, and indoor air pollution.
Learn all about Global warming and Ozone layer, find out why are we victims of global warming and what can we do to control the situation. Get a clear view of Ozone layer, Ozone Depletion as well as what to avoid in order to stop Ozone Depletion. Enjoy!!!
The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere that contains ozone, which is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. It is located in the stratosphere, approximately 15-35km above Earth's surface. The ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation, protecting life on Earth. Depletion of the ozone layer allows more UV radiation to reach the surface, increasing health and environmental risks. Significant ozone depletion has occurred since the 1970s due to man-made chemicals like CFCs released into the atmosphere. CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances break down in the stratosphere to release chlorine and bromine atoms which destroy ozone molecules
The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere that contains ozone, which is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. It is located in the stratosphere, approximately 15-35km above Earth's surface. The ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation, protecting life on Earth. Depletion of the ozone layer allows more UV radiation to reach the surface, increasing health and environmental risks. Significant ozone layer depletion has occurred since the 1970s due to man-made chemicals like CFCs released into the atmosphere. CFCs and other ozone depleting substances break down in the stratosphere to release chlorine and bromine atoms which destroy ozone molecules
The document summarizes the structure and composition of Earth's atmosphere. It is divided into multiple layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere - based on how temperature varies with altitude. Each layer has distinct characteristics and contains different gases. The troposphere contains around 80% of atmospheric mass and is where weather occurs. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer which absorbs harmful UV radiation. The main atmospheric gases are nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), along with trace amounts of argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor and other gases. Dust and water particles are also present and influence cloud formation and precipitation.
Ozone Day Program at CSMA Hr.Sec.School MM KoviloorSheik Dawood
The ozone layer protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Ozone is produced in the stratosphere when oxygen molecules are broken apart by sunlight and reform as three-molecule ozone. The ozone layer absorbs UV light and prevents it from reaching the surface of the Earth, where it can damage DNA and cause harm. In the 1980s, scientists discovered that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were depleting the ozone layer by breaking ozone molecules apart. The 1987 Montreal Protocol banned CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances, and recent data shows the ozone layer is beginning to recover as a result of this global agreement.
This document provides information about the layers of Earth's atmosphere. It describes the principal layers from lowest to highest as the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere (which includes the ionosphere and exosphere), and exosphere. For each layer it discusses the altitude ranges and key characteristics, such as temperature profiles and composition of gases. The document also provides background on the overall composition of air and major components like nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
The Ozone Layer: Formation and DepletionKamran Ansari
This presentation explains the Earth's atmosphere and its composition and variation of temperature and pressure in different layers of the atmosphere. It contains atmospheric circulation in troposphere and stratosphere. It explains the process of ozone formation and how its stability affects by the other chemical components which lead to the ozone depletion and ozone hole. It also contains the cosmic ray theory of ozone hole.
The document discusses the ozone layer, its importance in shielding the Earth from UV radiation, and the threats to it. It notes that ozone is found mainly in the stratosphere, where it forms the ozone layer between 6-30 miles above the surface. The ozone layer absorbs most of the sun's UV rays and plays a key role in atmospheric temperature. However, chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting substances have damaged the ozone layer, leading to the Antarctic ozone hole. This depletion increases UV levels and can harm both human health and the environment. International agreements like the Montreal Protocol have sought to phase out ozone-harming chemicals and find alternatives.
The document discusses the ozone layer, its importance in shielding the Earth from UV radiation, and the threats to it. It notes that ozone is found mainly in the stratosphere, where it forms the ozone layer between 6-30 miles above the surface. The ozone layer absorbs most of the sun's UV rays and plays a key role in atmospheric temperature. However, chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting substances have damaged the ozone layer, leading to the Antarctic ozone hole. This depletion increases UV levels and can harm both human health and the environment. International agreements like the Montreal Protocol have sought to phase out ozone-harming chemicals and find alternatives.
Chapter 4THE ATMOSPHERE14.1 THE ATMOSPHERE4.1.1 .docxchristinemaritza
Chapter 4
THE ATMOSPHERE
1
4.1 THE ATMOSPHERE
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere, the gaseous layer that surrounds the earth, formed over four billion years ago. During
the evolution of the solid earth, volcanic eruptions released gases into the developing atmosphere. Assuming
the outgasing was similar to that of modern volcanoes, the gases released included: water vapor (H2O),
carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrochloric acid (HCl), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3),
nitrogen (N2) and sulfur gases. The atmosphere was reducing because there was no free oxygen. Most of
the hydrogen and helium that outgassed would have eventually escaped into outer space due to the inability
of the earth's gravity to hold on to their small masses. There may have also been signi�cant contributions
of volatiles from the massive meteoritic bombardments known to have occurred early in the earth's history.
Water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and rained down, eventually forming lakes and oceans. The
oceans provided homes for the earliest organisms which were probably similar to cyanobacteria. Oxygen
was released into the atmosphere by these early organisms, and carbon became sequestered in sedimentary
rocks. This led to our current oxidizing atmosphere, which is mostly comprised of nitrogen (roughly 71
percent) and oxygen (roughly 28 percent). Water vapor, argon and carbon dioxide together comprise a
much smaller fraction (roughly 1 percent). The atmosphere also contains several gases in trace amounts,
such as helium, neon, methane and nitrous oxide. One very important trace gas is ozone, which absorbs
harmful UV radiation from the sun.
4.1.2 ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE
The earth's atmosphere extends outward to about 1,000 kilometers where it transitions to interplanetary
space. However, most of the mass of the atmosphere (greater than 99 percent) is located within the �rst
40 kilometers. The sun and the earth are the main sources of radiant energy in the atmosphere. The
sun's radiation spans the infrared, visible and ultraviolet light regions, while the earth's radiation is mostly
infrared.
The vertical temperature pro�le of the atmosphere is variable and depends upon the types of radiation
that a�ect each atmospheric layer. This, in turn, depends upon the chemical composition of that layer
(mostly involving trace gases). Based on these factors, the atmosphere can be divided into four distinct
layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
The troposphere is the atmospheric layer closest to the earth's surface. It extends about 8 - 16 kilometers
from the earth's surface. The thickness of the layer varies a few km according to latitude and the season of
the year. It is thicker near the equator and during the summer, and thinner near the poles and during the
1This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m16687/1.2/>.
Available for free at Connexions <http://cnx.org/content/col10548/1.2>
15
16 CHAPTER 4. THE ATMOS ...
The document describes the layers of Earth's atmosphere. It begins by explaining that the atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with smaller amounts of other gases. It then discusses the main layers - the troposphere, which contains weather and extends up to 17km; the stratosphere, characterized by increasing temperatures and containing the ozone layer; the mesosphere where temperatures decrease with altitude up to 80km; the thermosphere containing the ionosphere; and the exosphere extending from 640-1280km. It concludes that the atmosphere protects the Earth from the sun's heat and light and allows life by containing oxygen and enabling biogeochemical cycles.
This document discusses the composition and structure of the atmosphere. It begins by defining the atmosphere and explaining its origin from early gases like hydrogen and helium. Over time, outgassing from the Earth's interior introduced other gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The major permanent gases that make up most of the atmosphere today are nitrogen, oxygen and argon. Variable gases like carbon dioxide, water vapor and ozone play important environmental roles despite small proportions. The atmosphere performs vital functions like supplying oxygen and protecting the planet from radiation. It facilitates processes like the water cycle and photosynthesis to support life.
The document discusses the composition and layers of the atmosphere. It notes that the atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon and 0% other gases. It then describes the four main layers of the atmosphere: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. The document also discusses the important ozone layer located between 15-30 km above the earth, and notes that the greenhouse effect occurs when gases like carbon dioxide and methane trap heat in the atmosphere and prevent it from escaping into space, which is essential for life but human activity has increased greenhouse gases and global warming.
The document discusses the greenhouse effect and thinning of the ozone layer. It explains that the greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trap heat in the atmosphere, causing global warming. The main causes are human activities that emit CO2 like burning fossil fuels. The thinning of the ozone layer is caused by chlorofluorocarbons which destroy ozone molecules. This allows more UV radiation to reach the Earth's surface, harming plants, animals and humans. The greenhouse effect and thinning ozone layer disrupt ecosystems and can lead to issues like rising sea levels, more extreme weather, and skin cancer.
The document discusses the greenhouse effect and thinning of the ozone layer. It explains that the greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trap heat in the atmosphere, causing global warming. The main causes are human activities that emit CO2 like burning fossil fuels. The thinning of the ozone layer is caused by chlorofluorocarbons which destroy ozone molecules. This allows more UV radiation to reach the Earth's surface, harming plants, animals and humans. The greenhouse effect and thinning ozone layer disrupt ecosystems and can lead to issues like rising sea levels, more extreme weather, and skin cancer.
A Abolicao do Trabalho-por Bob Black.pdfJoão Soares
No artigo intitulado “The Original Affluent Society” (Idade da Pedra, Sociedade da Abundância), o antropólogo Marshall Sahlins ao estudar os colectores de caça fez explodir o mito Hobbesiano. Os colectores de caça trabalham muito menos do que nós. Além disso, é difícil distinguir esse trabalho daquilo que nós consideramos hoje como divertimento. Sahlins diz que o “trabalho” dos caçadores e colectores em busca de alimento é intermitente e melhor do que o trabalho permanente. O descanso é abundante. Ao contrário da maioria de nós, dormem durante o dia. O trabalho que fazem — trabalham uma média de 4 horas por dia e supondo que aquilo que fazem é aos nossos olhos trabalho —, são esforços que parecem ser efectuados com habilidade e que provocam a evolução da capacidade física e intelectual. O trabalho indiferenciado em grande escala, como disse Sahlins, é impossível. Este tipo de trabalho (como modernamente também se designa, não qualificado), só se tomou possível com a industrialização.
The Open Society and Its Enemies- K. PopperJoão Soares
Written in political exile in New Zealand during the Second World War and published in two volumes in 1945, The Open Society and its Enemies was hailed by Bertrand Russell as a 'vigorous and profound defence of democracy'. This legendary attack on the philosophies of Plato, Hegel and Marx prophesied the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and exposed the fatal flaws of socially engineered political systems. It remains highly readable, erudite and lucid and as essential reading today as on publication in 1945. It is available here in a special centenary single-volume edition.
DANÇAR O ZEN: APRENDIZADO E POÉTICAS DE UM PROCESSOJoão Soares
O documento discute um processo criativo experimental que relaciona o zen budismo, danças brasileiras e técnicas teatrais. O processo é ilustrado pela coreografia "O Touro e o Vazio", que incorpora elementos dos ritos zen, da estética anime japonesa e danças nordestinas brasileiras. A coreografia explora como essas diferentes técnicas e aprendizados podem traduzir a história do corpo que dança em busca de um "acontecer poético".
How Google enables Big Oil’s greenwashing-Final ReportJoão Soares
For the first time, the Center for Countering Digital Hate comprehensively details how Google enables Big Oil’s greenwashing. We reveal that nearly half of the $23.7 million spent on Google search ads by oil and gas companies in the last two years have targeted search terms on environmental sustainability. The five companies studied in this report, ExxonMobil, British Petroleum (BP), Chevron, Shell, and Aramco, have polluted our search results while Google raked in their dirty money.
The Entropy Law and the Economic ProcessJoão Soares
"Every few generations a great seminal book comes along that challenges economic analysis and through its findings alters men's thinking and the course of societal change. This is such a book, yet it is more. It is a "poetic" philosophy, mathematics, and science of economics. It is the quintessence of the thought that has been focused on the economic reality. Henceforce all economists must take these conclusions into account lest their analyses and scholarship be found wanting. "The entropy of the physical universe increases constantly because there is a continuous and irrevocable qualitative degradation of order into chaos. The entropic nature of the economic process, which degrades natural resources and pollutes the environment, constitutes the present danger. The earth is entropically winding down naturally, and economic advance is accelerating the process. Man must learn to ration the meager resources he has so profligately squandered if he is to survive in the long run when the entropic degradation of the sun will be the crucial factor, "for suprising as it may seem, the entire stock of natural resources is not worth more than a few days of sunlight!" Georgescu-Rogen has written our generation's classic in the field of economics."— Library Journal
E-Livro - Elogio da Loucura, por Erasmo de RoterdãoJoão Soares
Esta célebre é incontornável obra, ainda que com mais de 500 anos, continua atual. O autor levanta o véu que cobre e tolda o olhar e humano, numa denúncia dos comportamentos sociais. É introduzida a linha do Humanismo nesta amálgama satírica.
Constituição da República Portuguesa 1976João Soares
O documento apresenta a Constituição da República Portuguesa, aprovada em 1976 após a Revolução dos Cravos. Ela estabelece Portugal como uma república democrática e socialista, comprometida com a independência nacional, os direitos humanos e a transição para o socialismo. A Constituição também define os princípios fundamentais do Estado, como a soberania popular e o Estado de Direito, assim como os direitos e deveres dos cidadãos portugueses.
War is a crime against humanity: The Story of War Resisters’ InternationalJoão Soares
This document provides a summary of the book "War is a Crime Against Humanity: The Story of War Resisters' International" by Devi Prasad. It details the history and work of the War Resisters' International organization from its founding in the 1920s through 1975. The document contains 13 chapters that describe the growth of pacifism and nonviolent movements throughout history, the founding and early work of WRI opposing World War I and conscription, and WRI's efforts to support war resisters and promote peace during and after World War II and through various 20th century conflicts. It also includes appendices with details on WRI conferences, leadership, publications, and affiliates around the world.
Extending Russia: Competing from Advantageous GroundJoão Soares
This report examines a range of possible means to extend Russia. As the 2018 National Defense Strategy recognized, the United States is currently locked in a great-power competition with Russia. This report seeks to define areas where the United States can compete to its own advantage. Drawing on quantitative and qualitative data from Western and Russian sources, this report examines Russia's economic, political, and military vulnerabilities and anxieties. It then analyzes potential policy options to exploit them — ideologically, economically, geopolitically, and militarily (including air and space, maritime, land, and multidomain options). After describing each measure, this report assesses the associated benefits, costs, and risks, as well as the likelihood that measure could be successfully implemented and actually extend Russia. Most of the steps covered in this report are in some sense escalatory, and most would likely prompt some Russian counter-escalation. Some of these policies, however, also might prompt adverse reactions from other U.S. adversaries — most notably, China — that could, in turn, stress the United States. Ultimately, this report concludes that the most attractive U.S. policy options to extend Russia — with the greatest benefits, highest likelihood of success, and least risk — are in the economic domain, featuring a combination of boosting U.S. energy production and sanctions, providing the latter are multilateral. In contrast, geopolitical measures to bait Russia into overextending itself and ideological measures to undermine the regime's stability carry significant risks. Finally, many military options — including force posture changes and development of new capabilities — could enhance U.S. deterrence and reassure U.S. allies, but only a few are likely to extend Russia, as Moscow is not seeking parity with the United States in most domains.
Pensar Portugal – A modernidade de um país antigoJoão Soares
Pensar Portugal – A Modernidade de um País Antigo é um livro de pequenos ensaios de ciências sociais e humanas, que apresentam e discutem assuntos e problemas relativos a Portugal. São ensaios que constituem estudos de caso, embora tenham a forma de crónicas. O ponto de vista não é propriamente filosófico, nem estético, nem político. É um exercício de compreensão do mundo contemporâneo, tendo as ciências sociais e humanas como enquadramento teórico. Estes ensaios filiam-se no reconhecimento de um pensamento da prática, e também no reconhecimento da importância do imaginário em toda a estruturação social. O livro está organizado em seis partes. Cada parte é iniciada por um capítulo teórico. A função destes capítulos é a de enquadrar, teórica e metodologicamente, os pequenos ensaios, colocadas no registo específico de cada uma das partes do livro.
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientisits 2024-Doomsday-Clock-StatementJoão Soares
The document summarizes the 2024 Doomsday Clock statement from the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. It finds that humanity faces an unprecedented level of danger from nuclear weapons, climate change, disruptive technologies, and other threats. The Doomsday Clock remains set at 90 seconds to midnight, the closest it has ever been to catastrophe. Key threats include an increased risk of nuclear war due to conflicts like Ukraine, an accelerating climate crisis, and dangers from emerging technologies like AI and biotechnology if left unchecked. Urgent global cooperation is needed to reduce threats and move the clock further from midnight.
The Man in The High Castle Philip K. DickJoão Soares
This document provides bibliographic and copyright information for the novel "The Man in the High Castle" by Philip K. Dick. It includes a dedication to the author's wife, acknowledgments for sources used, and the beginning of Chapter 1 which introduces the main character Mr. Robert Childan and describes his antique store in San Francisco.
o homem do castelo alto - philip k. dickJoão Soares
1) O documento apresenta uma introdução a uma nova edição do livro "O Homem do Castelo Alto" de Philip K. Dick, traduzido para português.
2) O autor revisita um texto introdutório que escreveu há 27 anos sobre a obra e pensamento de Philip K. Dick.
3) A introdução discute a vida e carreira de Philip K. Dick, sua visão do mundo, influências filosóficas e religiosas, e como isso é refletido em sua ficção científica.
Falsas catástrofes invisíveis e ameaças de destruiçãoJoão Soares
This document summarizes and critiques a news article claiming that Africa's oldest baobab trees are dying at an unprecedented rate that may be caused by climate change. The summary critiques several aspects of the original claim:
1) It is normal for older trees and species to die, yet the article provides no baseline rate of baobab mortality to say if the current rate is truly unprecedented.
2) The article only speculates that climate change "may" be the cause, providing no actual evidence of a link between climate change and baobab deaths.
3) There are no population figures for baobabs across Africa to determine mortality rates, yet the article claims the rate of death is increasing
Introdução ao pensamento feminista negroJoão Soares
O texto defende um feminismo que abarque as 99% das mulheres, especialmente as mais vulneráveis e marginalizadas, como mulheres negras, pobres, indígenas, trabalhadoras domésticas e LGBTQIA+. O feminismo proposto é anticapitalista, antirracista, ecossocialista e contra a opressão de gênero, classe e raça.
Queer Palestine and the Empire of CritiqueJoão Soares
This document provides background on the author's personal experiences coming to terms with his queer identity as a Palestinian. He describes growing up feeling different from his peers and hearing anti-gay messages. During college, he began exploring queer identities but still felt isolated due to differences in experiences. Exposure to queer communities in the US and Middle East helped his acceptance. The author's academic work has focused on critiquing universalizing of Western LGBT concepts and embracing a nuanced understanding of queer identities and experiences of Arabs. His journey highlights tensions between queer and Arab identities but also their connections within himself.
In the rapidly evolving landscape of technologies, XML continues to play a vital role in structuring, storing, and transporting data across diverse systems. The recent advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) present new methodologies for enhancing XML development workflows, introducing efficiency, automation, and intelligent capabilities. This presentation will outline the scope and perspective of utilizing AI in XML development. The potential benefits and the possible pitfalls will be highlighted, providing a balanced view of the subject.
We will explore the capabilities of AI in understanding XML markup languages and autonomously creating structured XML content. Additionally, we will examine the capacity of AI to enrich plain text with appropriate XML markup. Practical examples and methodological guidelines will be provided to elucidate how AI can be effectively prompted to interpret and generate accurate XML markup.
Further emphasis will be placed on the role of AI in developing XSLT, or schemas such as XSD and Schematron. We will address the techniques and strategies adopted to create prompts for generating code, explaining code, or refactoring the code, and the results achieved.
The discussion will extend to how AI can be used to transform XML content. In particular, the focus will be on the use of AI XPath extension functions in XSLT, Schematron, Schematron Quick Fixes, or for XML content refactoring.
The presentation aims to deliver a comprehensive overview of AI usage in XML development, providing attendees with the necessary knowledge to make informed decisions. Whether you’re at the early stages of adopting AI or considering integrating it in advanced XML development, this presentation will cover all levels of expertise.
By highlighting the potential advantages and challenges of integrating AI with XML development tools and languages, the presentation seeks to inspire thoughtful conversation around the future of XML development. We’ll not only delve into the technical aspects of AI-powered XML development but also discuss practical implications and possible future directions.
In his public lecture, Christian Timmerer provides insights into the fascinating history of video streaming, starting from its humble beginnings before YouTube to the groundbreaking technologies that now dominate platforms like Netflix and ORF ON. Timmerer also presents provocative contributions of his own that have significantly influenced the industry. He concludes by looking at future challenges and invites the audience to join in a discussion.
How to Get CNIC Information System with Paksim Ga.pptxdanishmna97
Pakdata Cf is a groundbreaking system designed to streamline and facilitate access to CNIC information. This innovative platform leverages advanced technology to provide users with efficient and secure access to their CNIC details.
GraphSummit Singapore | The Art of the Possible with Graph - Q2 2024Neo4j
Neha Bajwa, Vice President of Product Marketing, Neo4j
Join us as we explore breakthrough innovations enabled by interconnected data and AI. Discover firsthand how organizations use relationships in data to uncover contextual insights and solve our most pressing challenges – from optimizing supply chains, detecting fraud, and improving customer experiences to accelerating drug discoveries.
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
Unlock the Future of Search with MongoDB Atlas_ Vector Search Unleashed.pdfMalak Abu Hammad
Discover how MongoDB Atlas and vector search technology can revolutionize your application's search capabilities. This comprehensive presentation covers:
* What is Vector Search?
* Importance and benefits of vector search
* Practical use cases across various industries
* Step-by-step implementation guide
* Live demos with code snippets
* Enhancing LLM capabilities with vector search
* Best practices and optimization strategies
Perfect for developers, AI enthusiasts, and tech leaders. Learn how to leverage MongoDB Atlas to deliver highly relevant, context-aware search results, transforming your data retrieval process. Stay ahead in tech innovation and maximize the potential of your applications.
#MongoDB #VectorSearch #AI #SemanticSearch #TechInnovation #DataScience #LLM #MachineLearning #SearchTechnology
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/building-and-scaling-ai-applications-with-the-nx-ai-manager-a-presentation-from-network-optix/
Robin van Emden, Senior Director of Data Science at Network Optix, presents the “Building and Scaling AI Applications with the Nx AI Manager,” tutorial at the May 2024 Embedded Vision Summit.
In this presentation, van Emden covers the basics of scaling edge AI solutions using the Nx tool kit. He emphasizes the process of developing AI models and deploying them globally. He also showcases the conversion of AI models and the creation of effective edge AI pipelines, with a focus on pre-processing, model conversion, selecting the appropriate inference engine for the target hardware and post-processing.
van Emden shows how Nx can simplify the developer’s life and facilitate a rapid transition from concept to production-ready applications.He provides valuable insights into developing scalable and efficient edge AI solutions, with a strong focus on practical implementation.
GraphSummit Singapore | The Future of Agility: Supercharging Digital Transfor...Neo4j
Leonard Jayamohan, Partner & Generative AI Lead, Deloitte
This keynote will reveal how Deloitte leverages Neo4j’s graph power for groundbreaking digital twin solutions, achieving a staggering 100x performance boost. Discover the essential role knowledge graphs play in successful generative AI implementations. Plus, get an exclusive look at an innovative Neo4j + Generative AI solution Deloitte is developing in-house.
Let's Integrate MuleSoft RPA, COMPOSER, APM with AWS IDP along with Slackshyamraj55
Discover the seamless integration of RPA (Robotic Process Automation), COMPOSER, and APM with AWS IDP enhanced with Slack notifications. Explore how these technologies converge to streamline workflows, optimize performance, and ensure secure access, all while leveraging the power of AWS IDP and real-time communication via Slack notifications.
Cosa hanno in comune un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ?Speck&Tech
ABSTRACT: A prima vista, un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ potrebbero avere in comune il fatto di essere entrambi blocchi di costruzione, o dipendenze di progetti creativi e software. La realtà è che un mattoncino Lego e il caso della backdoor XZ hanno molto di più di tutto ciò in comune.
Partecipate alla presentazione per immergervi in una storia di interoperabilità, standard e formati aperti, per poi discutere del ruolo importante che i contributori hanno in una comunità open source sostenibile.
BIO: Sostenitrice del software libero e dei formati standard e aperti. È stata un membro attivo dei progetti Fedora e openSUSE e ha co-fondato l'Associazione LibreItalia dove è stata coinvolta in diversi eventi, migrazioni e formazione relativi a LibreOffice. In precedenza ha lavorato a migrazioni e corsi di formazione su LibreOffice per diverse amministrazioni pubbliche e privati. Da gennaio 2020 lavora in SUSE come Software Release Engineer per Uyuni e SUSE Manager e quando non segue la sua passione per i computer e per Geeko coltiva la sua curiosità per l'astronomia (da cui deriva il suo nickname deneb_alpha).
“An Outlook of the Ongoing and Future Relationship between Blockchain Technologies and Process-aware Information Systems.” Invited talk at the joint workshop on Blockchain for Information Systems (BC4IS) and Blockchain for Trusted Data Sharing (B4TDS), co-located with with the 36th International Conference on Advanced Information Systems Engineering (CAiSE), 3 June 2024, Limassol, Cyprus.
Removing Uninteresting Bytes in Software FuzzingAftab Hussain
Imagine a world where software fuzzing, the process of mutating bytes in test seeds to uncover hidden and erroneous program behaviors, becomes faster and more effective. A lot depends on the initial seeds, which can significantly dictate the trajectory of a fuzzing campaign, particularly in terms of how long it takes to uncover interesting behaviour in your code. We introduce DIAR, a technique designed to speedup fuzzing campaigns by pinpointing and eliminating those uninteresting bytes in the seeds. Picture this: instead of wasting valuable resources on meaningless mutations in large, bloated seeds, DIAR removes the unnecessary bytes, streamlining the entire process.
In this work, we equipped AFL, a popular fuzzer, with DIAR and examined two critical Linux libraries -- Libxml's xmllint, a tool for parsing xml documents, and Binutil's readelf, an essential debugging and security analysis command-line tool used to display detailed information about ELF (Executable and Linkable Format). Our preliminary results show that AFL+DIAR does not only discover new paths more quickly but also achieves higher coverage overall. This work thus showcases how starting with lean and optimized seeds can lead to faster, more comprehensive fuzzing campaigns -- and DIAR helps you find such seeds.
- These are slides of the talk given at IEEE International Conference on Software Testing Verification and Validation Workshop, ICSTW 2022.
Essentials of Automations: The Art of Triggers and Actions in FMESafe Software
In this second installment of our Essentials of Automations webinar series, we’ll explore the landscape of triggers and actions, guiding you through the nuances of authoring and adapting workspaces for seamless automations. Gain an understanding of the full spectrum of triggers and actions available in FME, empowering you to enhance your workspaces for efficient automation.
We’ll kick things off by showcasing the most commonly used event-based triggers, introducing you to various automation workflows like manual triggers, schedules, directory watchers, and more. Plus, see how these elements play out in real scenarios.
Whether you’re tweaking your current setup or building from the ground up, this session will arm you with the tools and insights needed to transform your FME usage into a powerhouse of productivity. Join us to discover effective strategies that simplify complex processes, enhancing your productivity and transforming your data management practices with FME. Let’s turn complexity into clarity and make your workspaces work wonders!
Dr. Sean Tan, Head of Data Science, Changi Airport Group
Discover how Changi Airport Group (CAG) leverages graph technologies and generative AI to revolutionize their search capabilities. This session delves into the unique search needs of CAG’s diverse passengers and customers, showcasing how graph data structures enhance the accuracy and relevance of AI-generated search results, mitigating the risk of “hallucinations” and improving the overall customer journey.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
Boost your website's visibility with proven SEO techniques! Our latest blog dives into essential strategies to enhance your online presence, increase traffic, and rank higher on search engines. From keyword optimization to quality content creation, learn how to make your site stand out in the crowded digital landscape. Discover actionable tips and expert insights to elevate your SEO game.
3. 72
T
he Earth’s atmosphere is a collec-
tion of gases, vapor, and particu-
lates that together form a blanket
of “air” that surrounds the planet. The
atmosphere extends over 560 km (348
miles) from the surface of the Earth out
toward space, and can be roughly divided
into five major layers or sections (Figure
3.4). The primary components of the at-
mosphere are three gases: nitrogen (N2, 78
per cent), oxygen (O2, 21 per cent), and
argon (Ar, 1 per cent). Other components,
present in smaller amounts, include water
vapor (H2O, 0-7 per cent), ozone (O3, 0-
0.01 per cent), and carbon dioxide (CO2,
0.01-0.1 per cent) (Phillips 1995).
The Earth’s atmosphere plays many
vital roles essential to sustaining life on
the planet. The air we breathe circulates
through its lowest level. The chemical ele-
ments carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hy-
drogen, which are constituents of all living
things, are cycled and recycled in the atmo-
sphere. Organisms convert these elements
into carbohydrates, proteins, and other
chemical compounds. The atmosphere
also shields life on the planet’s surface
from harmful solar radiation, and—for the
most part—from the threat of meteorites,
which typically burn up as they go through
the atmosphere (UNEP 1999a).
Human activities impact the Earth’s
atmosphere in many ways. Some activities
produce a quite direct effect, such as gen-
erating and releasing pollutants that foul
the air, and adding carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases to the atmosphere
that induce global warming and climate
change. Other human impacts, such as
water pollution, land degradation, and
human-induced loss of biodiversity, can
indirectly affect the atmosphere, as well as
the water and land.
In this section, four major issues that in-
volve human impacts on the atmosphere—
ozone depletion, global warming, climate
change, and air pollution—are addressed.
Ozone Depletion
Ozone is a relatively unstable molecule,
made up of three oxygen atoms (O3). In
the atmosphere, ozone is formed naturally
in the stratosphere. It is concentrated
there as an “ozone layer” that acts as a
protective shield against harmful ultravio-
let (UV) radiation coming from the Sun.
The loss of stratospheric ozone allows
more UV radiation to reach the Earth’s
surface, where it can cause skin cancer and
cataracts in people and negatively affect
other living things as well.
Ozone is also found in the troposphere,
the layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that is
closest to the planet’s surface. Ozone can
3.1 Atmosphere
Figure 3.4: The Earth’s atmosphere Credit: Used with permission from Centre for Atmospheric Science, University of Cam-
bridge, UK. Source: http://www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/tour/atmosphere.html
Exosphere
Thermosphere
Mesosphere
Stratosphere
Troposphere
300 km
400 km altitude
50 km
40 km
10 km
Credit: Image Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center
4. 73
be formed naturally in the troposphere—
for example, by lightning. However,
tropospheric ozone is also a byproduct of
certain human activities. Vehicle exhaust
contributes large quantities of ozone to the
troposphere each year.
Depending on where ozone resides,
it can protect or harm life on the Earth
(Figure 3.5). In the stratosphere, ozone
is “good” as it shields life on the surface
from harmful solar radiation. In the tropo-
sphere, ozone can be “bad” as it becomes
a type of air pollution. Changes in the
amount of ozone in either the stratosphere
or the troposphere can have serious
consequences for life on the Earth. For
several decades, “bad” tropospheric ozone
has been increasing in the air we breathe,
while “good” stratospheric ozone has been
decreasing, gradually eroding the Earth’s
protective ozone shield (Thompson 1996).
Since the late 1970s, scientists have
detected a slow but steady decline in the
amount of ozone in the stratospheric
ozone layer. This ozone destruction re-
sults from the presence of certain types
of chemicals in the atmosphere, espe-
cially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
other chlorine- and bromine-containing
compounds, coupled with fluctuations in
stratospheric temperature.
In polar regions, particularly the area
of the atmosphere that overlies Antarctica,
ozone depletion is so great that an “ozone
hole” forms in the stratosphere there every
Ozone in the Earth’s Atmosphere
Stratosphere:
Troposphere: Earth
Mesosphere
In this region,ozone is
“bad.”It can damage
lung tissure and plants.
In this region,ozone
is “good.”It protects
us from the sun’s
harmful ultraviolet
radiation.
Figure 3.5: Ozone in the stratosphere forms the protective ozone layer that shields the Earth’s sur-
face from harmful solar radiation. Ozone in the troposphere, the lowest part of the atmosphere,
can be a form of air pollution. Source: http://www.atmos.umd.edu/~owen/CHPI/IMAGES/ozonefig1.html
Credit: Image Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center
5. 74
austral spring (late August through early
October). In the past few years, the Ant-
arctic ozone hole has been about the size
of North America. In 2000, the Antarctic
ozone hole was the largest on record,
covering 29.6 million km2 (11.4 million
square miles). In the austral spring of
2003, it was almost as large, covering 28.9
million km2 (11.1 million square miles)
(Figure 3.6).
Seasonal ozone depletion is also
noticeable around the North Pole. More
than 60 per cent of stratospheric ozone
north of the Arctic
Circle was
lost during the winter and early spring of
1999-2000 (Shah 2002).
Some ozone-depleting chemicals, such
as CFCs, also contribute to global warm-
ing. Like carbon dioxide and methane,
CFCs are powerful greenhouse gases
that trap heat radiating from the Earth’s
surface and prevent it from immediately
escaping into space. This causes the part
of the atmosphere nearest the Earth’s sur-
face to warm, resulting in global warming.
This warming in the troposphere, how-
ever, leads to colder-than-normal tempera-
tures in the stratosphere. This, in turn,
enhances the formation of certain types of
stratospheric clouds that foster ozone-de-
stroying chemical reactions in the strato-
sphere (Shanklin n.d.).
Fortunately, bans against the produc-
tion and use of CFCs and other strato-
spheric ozone-destroying chemicals ap-
pear to be working to reverse the damage
that has been done to the ozone layer. In
the past few years, the Antarctic ozone
hole has not increased significantly in size
Figure 3.7: Growth of the Antarctic ozone
hole over 20 years, as observed by the satel-
lite-borne Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
(TOMS). Darkest blue areas represent regions
of maximum ozone depletion. Atmospheric
ozone concentration is measured in Dobson
Units. A “normal” stratospheric ozone mea-
surement is approximately 300 Dobson Units.
Measurements of 220 Dobson Units and below
represent significant ozone depletion. Source:
http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/2004/0517aura.html
1979
1982
1984
1986
1988
24 Sep 200306 Sep 2000
Ozone • Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)
Figure 3.6: Every austral spring, an area of severe stratospheric ozone depletion— an “ozone
hole”—forms in the atmosphere over Antarctica. The ozone holes that formed in 2000 and 2003
were the largest and second largest on record, respectively. Source: http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/earth/
pictures/2003/0925ozonehole/still_hires_24Sept2003.tif and http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/ftp/pub/ozone/ozone_still_2000_09_06.tif
(NASA 2004a)
6. 75
1990
1992
1994
1997
1999
or intensity. Some researchers predict that
if atmospheric concentrations of ozone-de-
stroying chemicals drop to pre-ozone-hole
levels, the Antarctic ozone hole should dis-
appear in approximately 50 years (Figure
3.7) (WMO-UNEP 2002).
Global Warming
Atmospheric temperature and chemistry
are strongly influenced by the amount
and types of trace gases present in the
atmosphere. Examples of human-made
trace gases are chlorofluorocarbons, such
as CFC-11, CFC-12, and halons. Carbon
dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane (CH4)
are naturally formed trace gases produced
by the burning of fossil fuels,
released by living and
dead biomass,
and resulting from various metabolic
processes of microorganisms in the soil,
wetlands, and oceans. There is increasing
evidence that the percentages of environ-
mentally significant trace gases (green-
house gases) are changing due to both
natural and human factors, and contribut-
ing to global warming.
Global warming is recognized as one of
the greatest environmental threats facing
the world today. Global warming is the
gradual rise of the Earth’s average surface
temperature caused by an enhancing of the
planet’s natural greenhouse effect. Radi-
ant energy leaving the planet is naturally
retained in the atmosphere thanks to the
presence of certain gases such as water
vapor and carbon dioxide. This heat-trap-
ping effect is, in fact, what makes life on the
Earth possible.
Global warming, by contrast, is an
intensification of the Earth’s greenhouse
effect. The Earth’s average surface tem-
perature, which has been relatively stable
for more than 1 000 years, has risen by
about 0.5 degrees Celsius in the past 100
years (Figure 3.8). The nine warmest
years in the 20th century have all occurred
since 1980; the 1990s were probably the
warmest decade of the second millennium
(IPCC 2001).
Global warming has occurred in the dis-
tant past as the result of natural influences.
However, since the industrial era, the term
is most often used to refer to the current
warming predicted as a result of increases
in the atmospheric concentrations of cer-
tain heat-trapping greenhouse gases gener-
ated by human activities (Figure 3.9).
Most scientists
Credit: NOAA Photo Library
7. 76
Figure 3.8: Satellite data of Arctic regions show
warming is taking place there at an accelerat-
ing rate. These two maps show temperature
anomalies in the Arctic in 1981 and in 2003.
The anomalies range from 7ºC (12.6ºF) below
normal to 7ºC (12.6ºF) above normal. Shades
of orange and red show areas of warming;
shades of blue shows areas of cooling; white
represents little or no change (map adapted
from Comiso). The data reveal that some re-
gions are warming faster than 2.5ºC (4.5ºF) per
decade (NASA 2003b).
Source: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a002800/
a002830/
8. 77
believe that much of this global tempera-
ture increase is due to increased use of
fossil fuels, which when burned, release
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere where
it absorbs infrared radiation that normally
would pass through the atmosphere and
travel out into space (Brehm 2003).
The planet is not as warm as it was ap-
proximately 1 000 years ago (Figure 3.10).
Nevertheless, CO2 currently accounts for
the greatest proportion of greenhouse gas
emissions. Much of the CO2 added to the
atmosphere comes from the burning of
fossil fuels in vehicles, for heating,
and for the production of electricity
(Figure 3.11).
In addition to carbon dioxide, ris-
ing levels of methane in the atmosphere
are also of concern. The relative rate of
increase of methane has greatly exceeded
that of carbon dioxide in the last several
decades. Methane is released into the
atmosphere in many ways: as a result of ag-
riculture and ranching activities; through
the decay of organic matter, including
waste dumps; through deforestation; and
as a by-product of the hydrocarbon econo-
my. None of these sources are anticipated
to decrease in the future. On the contrary,
methane emissions are expected to in-
crease, as each year an additional 100 mil-
lion people require food and fuel as world
population expands (Figure 3.12).
Most scientists believe that recent
global warming is mainly due to human
activities and related increases in concen-
trations of greenhouse gases (Figure 3.13),
primarily CO2, CH4, nitrous oxide (N2O),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluoro-
carbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6). These changes are driven by world-
wide population and economic growth,
and the underlying production and
consumption of fossil fuels, as well as by
the intensification of agricultural activity
and changes in land use and land cover.
Energy production and use, the largest
sole source of CO2 emissions and a large
contributor of CH4 and N2O emissions, ac-
counted for 81.7 per cent of emissions in
industrialised countries in 1998
(UNFCCC 2000).
From far out in space, instruments
carried aboard satellites, such as NASA’s
Figure 3.9: Human activities directly influence the abundance of greenhouse gases and aerosols in
the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and sulfur aerosols have all increased
significantly in the past 50 years. Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC (2001)
Figure 3.10: Variations in the Earth’s temperature for the past 140 years (global) and for the past
1 000 years (Northern Hemisphere). Source: IPCC (2001)
9. 78
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrora-
diometre (MODIS) sensor, are taking the
temperature of the Earth’s surface. Satel-
lite data confirm that the Earth’s average
surface temperature has been slowly rising
for the past few decades (Figure 3.14).
Satellite records are more detailed and
comprehensive than previously available
ground measurements, and are essential
for improving climate analyses and com-
puter modeling.
One of the more predictable effects of
global warming will be a rise in sea levels
(Figure 3.15). It is already under way at
a pace of about a millimetre a year—a
consequence of both melting land ice and
the thermal expansion of the oceans (Har-
rison and Pearce 2001). Predictions as to
how much global sea levels may rise over
the next century range from half a metre
(1.5 feet) (Houghton et al. 2001) to be-
tween 1 and 2 m (3 to 6 feet) (Nicholls et
al. 1999). Such an increase would drown
many coastal areas and atoll islands. Un-
less countries take action to address rising
sea levels, the resulting flooding is ex-
pected to impact some 200 million people
worldwide by the 2080s. In addition,
around 25 per cent of the world’s coastal
wetlands could be lost by this time due to
sea-level rise (DETR 1997).
Global warming may have some posi-
tive impacts. It could, for example, open
Figure 3.13: The role of different gases and aerosols in global warming. Source: IPCC (2001)
Figure 3.14: Global warming is an increase in
the Earth’s average surface temperature. These
graphs illustrate how a shift in the mean temper-
ature and its variance can affect weather. Source:
IPCC (2001)
Figure 3.12: Methane is the second largest contributor to global warming and its atmospheric
concentration has increased significantly over the last two decades. Methane emissions from
human-related activities now represent about 70 per cent of total emissions, as opposed to less
than 10 per cent 200 years ago. Source: IPCC (2001)
Figure 3.11: Between 1971 and 1998, energy use and carbon dioxide emissions both increased
significantly, contributing to the likelihood of global warming. Source: IPCC (2001)
10. 79
new lands for agriculture and forestry in
the far north. During the past 30 years in
Iceland, old farmlands have been exposed,
and are being used, as the Breidamerkur-
jökull Glacier has receded. All told,
however, the negative impacts of un-
checked global warming outweigh any
positive benefits.
Climate Change
Climate is the statistical description in
terms of the mean and variability of rel-
evant measures of the atmosphere-ocean
system over periods of time ranging from
weeks to thousands or millions of years.
Climate change is defined as a statistically
significant variation in either the mean
state of the climate or in its variability,
persisting for an extended period (typically
decades or longer). Climate change may be
due to natural internal processes or to ex-
ternal forcing (Figure 3.16). Volcanic gases
and dust, changes in ocean circulation,
fluctuations in solar output, and increased
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the
Figure 3.15: Reasons for sea level change Source: IPCC (2001)
European Heat Wave, July 2003 Credit: NASA—
Satellite Thermometers Show Earth Has a Fever (2004)
Case Study: European Heat Wave
July 2003
This image shows the differences
in daytime land surface temperatures
(temperature anomalies) collected over
Europe between July 2001 and July 2003
by the Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s
Terra satellite. A blanket of deep red across
southern and eastern France (left of im-
age center) reveals that temperatures in
this region were 10ºC (18ºF) hotter dur-
ing 2003 than in 2001. Temperatures were
similar in white areas and cooler in blue
areas. Although models predict an overall
increase in global average temperatures,
regional differences may be pronounced,
and some areas, such as mid-continental
zones in North America and Asia, may
actualy experience some degree of cooling
(NASA 2003c).
79
11. 80
atmosphere can all cause climate changes
(USCCSP 2003).
Global warming, whatever its underly-
ing causes, is expected to have adverse,
possibly irreversible effects on the Earth’s
climate, including changes in regional tem-
perature and rainfall patterns and more
frequent extreme weather events. Climate
change will affect the ecology of the planet
by impacting biodiversity, causing species
extinctions, altering migratory patterns,
and disturbing ecosystems in countless
ways. Climate change will impact human
societies by affecting agriculture, water
supplies, water quality, settlement patterns,
and health.
Overall, climate change is likely to in-
tensify the already increasing pressures on
various sectors. Although the impact of cli-
mate change may, in some cases, be smaller
than other stresses on the environment,
even relatively small changes can have seri-
ous adverse effects, especially where there
may be critical thresholds, where
development is already marginal, or where
a region is less able to implement adapta-
tion measures (DETR 1997).
For example, climate change is likely
to exacerbate already increasing pressure
being put on water resources by a growing
global population, particularly in Africa,
Central America, the Indian subcontinent,
and southern Europe. By the 2050s, mod-
els indicate that there may be an additional
100 million people living in countries with
extreme water stress due to climate change
alone (DETR 1997).
Figure 3.16: Climate change is the result of complex interactions among many factors. Source: IPCC (2001)
Credit: Topfoto
12. 81
Carbon dioxide, the gas largely blamed
for global warming, has reached record-
high levels in the atmosphere (Hanley
2004). Carbon dioxide levels have risen
by 30 per cent in the last 200 years as a
result of industrial emissions, automobiles,
and rapid forest burning, especially in the
tropics. Much of this increase has occurred
since 1960. This increase in CO2 is thought
to enhance the Earth’s natural greenhouse
effect and thus increase global tempera-
tures (Figure 3.17).
The Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
mate Change projects that, if unchecked,
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentra-
tions will range from 650 to 970 ppm by
2100. As a result, the panel estimates, aver-
age global temperature may rise by 1.4ºC
(2.5ºF) to 5.8ºC (10.4ºF) between 1990 and
2100 (Hanley 2004).
Interestingly, increased levels of atmo-
spheric CO2 may stimulate the growth of
some kinds of plants. Researchers in the
Amazon have noted increased growth rates
in several species of trees (Laurance et al.
2004). The forests are also becoming more
dynamic, with existing trees dying and be-
ing replaced by new trees at a more rapid
pace. In addition, the species composition
of the forest is changing. Rising atmospher-
ic CO2 concentrations may explain these
changes, although the effects of this and
other large-scale environmental alterations
remain uncertain.
Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence of contami-
nants or pollutant substances in the air that
interfere with human health or welfare
or produce other harmful environmental
effects (EEA 2004). The term “smog”—first
coined in London, England, to describe
a combination of smoke and fog—is now
used in reference to a specific combination
of airborne particles, gases, and chemicals
that together affect peoples’ health and
their natural environment (Health
Canada 2003).
Aerosols are tiny particles suspended
in the air. Some occur naturally, originat-
ing from volcanoes, dust storms, forest
and grassland fires, living vegetation, and
sea spray. Human activities, such as the
burning of fossil fuels and the alteration of
natural land cover, also generate aerosols.
Averaged over the globe, human-gener-
ated aerosols currently account for about
ten per cent of total atmospheric aerosols.
Most of those aerosols are concentrated
in the Northern Hemisphere, especially
downwind of industrial sites, slash-and-
burn agricultural regions, and overgrazed
grasslands (Figure 3.18).
As the composition of Earth’s atmo-
sphere changes, so does its ability to ab-
sorb, reflect and retain solar energy. Green-
house gases, including water vapor, trap
heat in the atmosphere. Airborne aerosols
from human and natural sources absorb or
reflect solar energy based on colour, shape,
size, and substance. The impact of aerosols,
tropospheric ozone, and upper tropospher-
ic water vapor on Earth’s climate remains
largely unquantified (NASA 1989).
About 25 per cent of the world’s popu-
lation is exposed to potentially harmful
amounts of SO2, O3, and particulate matter
in smog (Schwela 1995). Globally, some 50
per cent of cases of chronic respiratory ill-
ness are now thought to be associated with
air pollution (UNEP 1999b).
Some pollutants travel long distances
on the wind, causing acid deposition in
the surrounding countryside and even in
neighboring countries. In the 1980s, “acid
rain” was identified as a major internation-
al environmental problem, moving from
Figure 3.17: For more than 40 years, researchers at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, have tracked the steady
increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide (concentration expressed in parts per million, or ppm). Source: SIO
(2004) and SeaWiFS: NASA Carbon Cycle Initiative, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio (2004).
Source: NASA (2004b)
Figure 3.18: Aerosol particles larger than 1 mi-
crometre are composed primarily of windblown dust
and sea salt from sea spray. Aerosols smaller than
1 micrometre are mostly formed by condensation
processes, such as the conversion of SO2
gas released
by volcanic eruptions to sulfate particles and by for-
mation of soot and smoke during burning processes.
After aerosols form, they are mixed and transported
throughout the atmosphere by wind and weather; they
are removed from the atmosphere primarily through
cloud formation and precipitation. Source: http://earthob-
servatory.nasa.gov/Library/Aerosols/ (NASA 2004c)
13. 82
heavily industrialized areas of both Europe
and North America into prime agricultural
areas that lay downwind. Mountain regions
suffered the most because their higher
rainfall increased the volume of acid depo-
sition and their often thin soils could not
neutralize the acid. Lakes and streams in
pristine parts of Scandinavia and Scotland
became acidified, and fish populations
were decimated in some areas. The most
intense acid rain fallout occurred in the
so-called Black Triangle region bordered
by Germany, Czech Republic, and Poland
(Harrison and Pearce 2001) (Figure 3.19).
Acid precipitation decreased through-
out the 1980s and 1990s across large por-
tions of North America and Europe. Many
recent studies have attributed observed
reversals in surface-water acidification at
national and regional scales to this de-
cline (Stoddard et al. 1999; Larssen 2004).
Decreases in acid precipitation have been
achieved largely through improved flue gas
treatments, fuel switching, use of low-sulfur
fuels in power stations, and use of catalytic
converters in automobiles. Since 1985,
international treaties and heavy investment
in desulphurization equipment by power
station operators have cut sulfur pollution
in Europe and North America by as much
as 80 per cent (Harrison and Pearce 2001).
Although significant progress has been
made in controlling acid-forming emissions
in some countries, the global threat from
acid precipitation still remains. In fact, the
problem is growing rapidly in Asia, where
1990s-level SO2 emissions could triple by
2010 if current trends continue. Curtailing
the already substantial acid precipitation
damage in Asia, and avoiding much more
severe damage in the future, will require
investments in pollution control similiar to
those made in Europe and North America
over the past 20 years (Downing 1997;
WRI 1998).
Nitrogen dioxide is the orange gas that
is the most visible component of most air
pollution. In many cities, NO2 and other
pollutants are suspended in the air to form
a brownish haze commonly called smog.
Nitrogen dioxide is formed when oxygen
in the air combines with nitric oxide.
Nitric oxide comes from automobiles,
aerosols, and industrial emissions, and
contributes to the formation of acid rain.
In addition, this pollutant can cause a wide
range of environmental damage, including
eutrophication of water bodies—explosive
algae growth that can deplete oxygen and
kill aquatic organisms.
Fig.3.19: Aerosols affect climate both directly by reflecting and absorbing sunlight and indirectly by modifying clouds. The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
(TOMS) aerosol index is an indicator of smoke and dust absorption. This figure shows aerosols—the hazy green, yellow, and red patches—crossing the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans. Dust from the Sahara Desert is carried westward toward the Americas and provides nutrients for Amazon forests. Asian dust and pollution travel to
the Pacific Northwest. Source: NASA (http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/2004/0517aura.html) (NASA 2004a)
14. 83
Case Study: Emissions in Paris
1999-2003
Paris, France, lies on a relatively flat plain.
Most of the time, Paris benefits from a wet
and windswept oceanic climate that en-
courages the dispersal of air pollution and
thus cleans the air. However, under certain
meteorological conditions (anticyclones
and a lack of wind), pollutants can remain
trapped in the atmosphere above the city,
where they become concentrated, resulting
in significantly higher levels of pollution.
Thus, for equivalent pollutant emissions in
terms of location and intensity, the levels of
pollutants recorded in the atmosphere can
vary by a factor of 20 according to meteoro-
logical conditions.
This explains why peaks in secondary
pollutants often affect wider areas than
peaks in primary pollutants. For example,
when the wind blows from the city in a
certain direction, the rural area surround-
ing the Paris region is also subject to ozone
pollution. Indeed, ozone levels registered
in these areas are often much higher than
those in the centre of Paris itself.
In 1994, according to the Centre
Interprofessionnel Technique d’Etude
de la Pollution Atmosphérique (CITEPA,
Inter-professional Technical Centre for
Research into Air Pollution) SO2 emissions
in the Paris region corresponded to eight
per cent of national emissions (mainland
France and overseas territories), oxides
of nitrogen (NOx) emissions to 10
per cent, Volatile Organic Compound
(non-methane) (VOCNM) emissions to 12
per cent, carbon monoxide (CO) emis-
sions to 15 per cent, and CO2 emissions to
14 per cent. Given that 19 per cent of the
population lives in the Paris region, emis-
sions per inhabitant in this area are less
than the national average for all substances
(CITEPA 1994).
Existing air-quality-monitoring tools
in the greater region of Paris provide a
constant indication of air pollution levels
at specific background and roadside loca-
tions. In addition to standard monitoring,
specific modeling applications give ex-
tensive descriptions of air-quality patterns
for several significant pollutants. Despite
the involvement of the transport sector in
monitoring local atmospheric emissions,
there is no direct and constant traffic
data feed. Recently, a project known as
HEAVEN (Healthier Environment through
the Abatement of Vehicle Emissions and
Noise) was implemented in Paris. Its main
objective was to integrate real-time traffic
information with the air quality monitoring
tools. HEAVEN helped develop and dem-
onstrate new concepts and tools to allow
cities to estimate emissions from traffic in
near-real time. This enhanced the identifi-
cation and evaluation of the best strategies
for transport demand management.
Souce: http://heaven.rec.org
Concentrations of SO2
, NOx, CO, and VOC over Paris. Source: http://www.airparif.asso.fr/english/polluants/default.htm
Annual SO2 emmissions in the Paris region Annual NOx emmissions in the Paris region
Annual CO emmissions in the Paris region Annual VOC emmissions in the Paris region
Air quality dynamics over the region of Paris, France, from 1999 to 2003. Source: http://www.airparif.asso.fr/eng-
lish/polluants/default.htm
Annual averages of SO2 in Ile-de-France from
1999 to 2003
Regional cartography of the annual level of
benzene evaluated within the framework of the
European project LIFE “RESOLUTION”
83
15. 84
Northern Hemisphere seasonal variation in atmospheric carbon monoxide and its global distribution. Source: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a002100/
a002150/ (NASA 2004d)
Case Study: Pollution from Wild Fires
2003–2004
Whether started by people or natural
events, fires add large quantities of pollut-
ants to the atmosphere every year, primar-
ily in the form of CO and aerosols. Satellite
sensors can help researchers distinguish
between wildfires and urban or industrial
fires. Some can also distinguish different
types of fire-generated pollutants. For
instance, two sensors aboard NASA’s Terra
satellite—the Measurements of Pollution
in the Troposphere (MOPITT) instru-
ment and the Moderate Resolution Imag-
ing Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instru-
ment—gather data on CO and aerosols,
respectively.
Carbon monoxide is one of the more
easily mapped air pollutants. In the
MOPITT-generated series of maps shown
below, global seasonal variations in CO
concentration are clearly visible (high-
est concentrations of CO appear as red).
Major concentrations of CO during dif-
ferent seasons can be easily identified and
tracked over time on such images, leading
to better understanding of sources of CO
pollution and its transcontinental trans-
port (NASA 2004d). For example, in the
summer image of this series, a very high
concentration of CO appears over west
central Africa, largely due to forest fires.
Wildfires in southern Africa are a ma-
jor source of carbon monoxide pollution.
Every August in southern Africa, thou-
sands of people equipped with lighters or
torches travel out onto the savanna and
intentionally set the dry grasslands ablaze.
Burned grasses send up tender new growth
that is ideal for cattle consumption. The
fires typically scorch an area the size of
Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and the Dako-
tas combined. Long plumes of smoke rise
like hundreds of billowing smokestacks,
and herds of animals are sent scurrying
across open grassland.
During this fire season, a thick pall of
smoke clouds the sky for many weeks. The
smoke is laced with a number of pollut-
ants, including nitrogen oxides, carbon
monoxide, and hydrocarbons. Some of
these substances react with the intense
heat and sunlight to form ozone. Ground-
level ozone contributes to respiratory
diseases and can seriously damage crops.
At higher levels in the troposphere, ozone
molecules trap thermal radiation emanat-
ing from the Earth’s surface in the same
way as carbon dioxide and other green-
house gases do. In fact, up to 20 per cent
of the global warming experienced by the
Earth over the past 150 years is thought to
be from ozone.
In the spring of 2003, the MODIS and
MOPITT instruments were used to moni-
tor fires and fire-produced air pollutants
in Siberia, especially in the Baikal region.
These fires produced large amounts of fine
carbon aerosols that spread out over the
Pacific Ocean and remained suspended
in the atmosphere for a few days. Carbon
monoxide was also produced by the fires,
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16. 85
but unlike the aerosols, remained airborne
for a much longer period of time, allowing
it to cross the Pacific Ocean and reduce air
quality over North America before continu-
ing on around the globe.
Gas and particle emissions produced
as a result of fires in forests and other
vegetation impact the composition of the
atmosphere (WHO 2000). These gases and
particles interact with those generated by
fossil-fuel combustion or other technologi-
cal processes, and are major causes of ur-
ban air pollution. They also create ambient
pollution in rural areas. When biomass fuel
is burned, the process of combustion is not
complete and pollutants released include
particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ox-
ides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide and organic
compounds. Once emitted, the pollut-
ants may undergo physical and chemical
changes. Thus, vegetation fires are major
contributors of toxic gaseous and particle
air pollutants into the atmosphere. These
fires are also sources of “greenhouse” and
reactive gases. Particulate pollution affects
more people globally on a continuing
basis than any other type of air pollu-
tion. In 1997/98, forest fires in Southeast
Asia affected at least 70 million people in
Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
Thousands of people fled the fires and
smoke and the increase in the number of
emergency visits to hospitals demonstrated
the severity of the fires and pollution they
caused (WHO 2000).
Case Study: African Fires
2002
Wildfires—from forest fires and brush fires
to grass fires and slash-and-burn agricul-
ture—can be sweeping and destructive
conflagrations, especially in wilderness or
rural areas. As biomass burns, particulates,
black carbon, and gases including CO2,
CO, NOx, CH4, and CH3Cl are produced
in great quantities. All of these pollutants
can be lofted relatively high in the atmo-
sphere due to the convective heating of a
raging fire (Graedel and Crutzen 1993).
The image at right shows fire activity in
Africa from 1 January 2002 to 31 Decem-
ber 2002. The fires are shown as tiny dots
with each dot depicting the geographic re-
gion in which fire was detected. The color
of a dot represents the number of days
since a sizable amount of fire was detected
in that region, with red-orange represent-
ing less than 20 days, orange representing
20 to 40 days, yellow representing 40 to 60
days, and gray to black representing more
than 60 days. These data were gathered
by the MODIS instrument on the Terra
satellite. MODIS detects fires by measuring
the brightness temperature of a region in
several frequency bands and looking for
hot spots where this temperature is greater
than the surrounding region.
Global statistics on the amount of land
burned worldwide every year vary consid-
erably. It has been estimated that from
7.5 million to 8.2 million km2 (4.6 million
to 5.1 million square miles) are burned
and between 1 800 million and 10 000
million metric tonnes of dry biomass are
consumed in fires annually. Global change
scenarios predict an increase in total area
burned, with an increase in very large and
intense fires.
Pollution outflow from spring 2003 fires in Siberia can be seen in the top and middle image.
These fires produced large amounts of fine carbon aerosol detected by MODIS instrument
(bright colours) on the Terra satellite, which spread over the Pacific Ocean but lasted only a few
days. They also produced carbon monoxide, which was detected by the MOPITT instrument on
the Terra satellite (bottom image). This gas can last over a month, which allowed it to cross the
Pacific Ocean and reduce air quality over North America before continuing on around the globe.
Credit: David Edwards, The National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) (NASA 2004e)
African Fires during 2002 Credit: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.
gov/vis/a000000/a002800/a002890/index.html (NASA 2004f)
85
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Case Study: Pollution in China
2001 and 2004
During February 2004, a considerable out-
flow of pollution stemmed from China and
Southeast Asia. The image at right shows
atmospheric concentrations of carbon
monoxide at an altitude of roughly 3 km
(1.9 miles) over this region that were mov-
ing across the Pacific Ocean and at some
points reaching the western coast of the
United States.
Carbon monoxide is a good indicator
of air pollution since it is produced during
combustion processes, such as the burning
of fossil fuels in urban and industrial areas,
as well as by wildfires and biomass burn-
ing in more rural areas. Industrial emis-
sions were mainly
responsible for the
high levels of car-
bon monoxide over
China in this image,
whereas emissions in
Southeast Asia were
due primarily to agri-
cultural fires.
Natural pro-
cesses and events can
also be a source of
transcontinental air pollution. In 2001, a
large dust storm developed over China (see
below). Prevailing winds swept particulates
from this storm all the way to the eastern
coast of North America.
6 April 2001 normal aerosol levels are apparent on the first day of the dust storm. 7 April 2001 - Blue represents just slightly higher-than-normal aerosols and red repre-
sents the highest concentration of aerosols.
10 April 2001 - The aerosol impact from the dust storm can clearly be seen over
China, Mongolia, Russia, Korea, Japan, and the Pacific Ocean.
13 April 2001 - The aerosol impact from the dust storm can clearly be seen over
Japan, the Pacific Ocean, Alaska, and the United States.
14 April 2001 - The aerosol impact from the dust storm can clearly be seen in the
Pacific Ocean, and the United States.
17 April 2001 - High levels of aerosols are visible over the East Coast of the United
States, especially Maine.
A large dust storm developed over China on 6-7 April 2001. This series of images shows air-borne dust from the storm moving over China, Russia, Japan,
the Pacific Ocean, Canada, and ultimately over the United States on 17 April 2001 (NASA 2004g). Visualization Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific
Visualization Studio Source: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a002900/a002957/index.html
This image was developed from a composite of car-
bon monoxide data collected over China and South-
east Asia from 1-25 February 2004, by the Measure-
ments of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT)
instrument aboard NASA’s Terra satellite. The colors
represent the mixing ratios of carbon monoxide in
the air, given in parts per billion by volume. The
grey areas show where no data were collected due to
persistent cloud cover. Source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.
gov/Natural (NASA 2004g)
86