The document discusses revegetation efforts on Tiritiri Matangi Island to restore the native forest ecosystem. Dense plantings of pohutukawa were found to support low levels of plant regeneration and bird diversity compared to thinned pohutukawa stands and mixed species plantings. Thinning dense pohutukawa stands increased light availability and appeared to better meet restoration goals of encouraging indigenous diversity. However, thinning may reduce habitat for species dependent on dense pohutukawa. The study assessed differences in vegetation and birds across revegetation approaches to inform future island restoration.
This study examined the relationship between seagrass coverage and invertebrate abundance on the island of South Caicos. Researchers measured seagrass coverage using transects and quadrats at six sites and recorded observed invertebrate species. The data analysis found no significant correlations between seagrass density and invertebrate abundance. While previous studies found such correlations, the researchers believe methodological issues and environmental conditions affected their results. Further research with improved methods is needed to better understand these relationships and inform plans to remove seagrass beds.
This study examined the diversity and abundance of fruit-feeding butterflies across four habitat types in a Costa Rican cloud forest: primary forest, natural secondary regrowth forest, planted secondary regrowth forest, and pastureland. The researchers trapped 174 butterflies of 27 species over six weeks. They found that planted secondary regrowth forest had the highest species richness, diversity, and evenness, indicating reforestation efforts were improving diversity. Climate change may be causing butterflies to move to new elevations.
This document summarizes a study measuring the success of reforestation efforts in abandoned pastures in the Cerro Candelaria Reserve in Ecuador. The study collected data on tree diameter, height, location and species from 16 reforestation plots established between 2008-2010. Diversity indices were calculated to analyze the data and assess the progress of the reforestation project over time. The results showed general progress in reforesting the abandoned pastures and increasing tree diversity compared to when the project first began.
Diversity of Soil Fauna and Ecosystem Function tariqulmasud12
Soils are natural resources of utmost. Importance for a number of ecosystem and biosphere processes such as plant production, cycling of organic matter and nutrients, storage of C and water, and release of nitrous oxides, CO2 and methane. Soil degradation, through various processes, is a matter of great concern, since their integrity is absolutely critical to increasing food production (FAO, 1995), and regulating atmospheric fluxes of greenhouse gases (Jenkinson, 199 1 ; Wallace, 1994).
This document summarizes two field studies that evaluated how well different invertebrate taxa performed as environmental or biodiversity indicators compared to plants, vertebrates, and each other. The studies were conducted on restored bauxite and mineral sand mines in Western Australia. At both sites, ant assemblage composition reflected trends in other taxa to a greater degree than plants, vertebrates, or birds. Taking into account data yield per unit effort, ants performed moderately well as environmental indicators and extremely well as biodiversity indicators. Overall, most invertebrate groups provided a better return on effort than vertebrates as bioindicators.
The document discusses the importance of biodiversity. It states that biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth at all levels, from genes to ecosystems. Biodiversity is important as it provides humans with food and materials, and plays a key role in ecological processes that sustain life. However, human activities like habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change are reducing biodiversity at an alarming rate. While some species may benefit in the short term from these activities, long term there will be no benefits to humanity or other species from a loss of biodiversity.
Dive into Ghana's crucial mission of safeguarding sea turtles with this enlightening PowerPoint presentation. Explore the intricate web of challenges these magnificent creatures face and discover their pivotal role in maintaining marine ecosystems. From the impact of climate change to the threats posed by human activities, each slide unveils a facet of the journey toward conservation. Gain insights into ongoing initiatives, community involvement, and innovative approaches to ensure a harmonious coexistence between humans and sea turtles. Together, let's embark on a visual journey to understand the importance of protecting these ancient mariners and fostering a sustainable future for Ghana's coastal biodiversity.
Trends in Macrophyte Diversity in Anthropogenic Perturbed Lentic Ecosystems w...Premier Publishers
Aquatic macrophytes hold several niches within the ecosystem, including inter alia water purification, carbon sequestration and serve as microhabitats for aquatic insects. These dynamic roles make macrophytes good indicators of current environmental conditions. Hence assessing their abundance in line with wetland ecosystem dynamics and function is essential. Frequency of occurrence and density values were estimated, using twenty (20) 2 m x 2 m quadrats for each macrophyte encountered. The results of the study revealed twenty-one (21) macrophytes belonging to 16 families. These ponds varied markedly in terms of species composition and in numerical strength such that Polygonum lanigerum (1143+175st/ha), Setaria verticillata (337.5+ 32.8st/ha), Azolla pinnata (337.7+ 16.4 st/ha) recorded high density values while Lagenaria breviflora (18.7±2.19), Sida acuta (18.75±5.30), Ludwigia erecta (18.7±0.15) and Milletia aboensis (18.7±0.03) were the least abundant species. Pond A and D with 11 taxa each had the higher Shannon-Wiener (2.192, 2.214) and Simpson (0.8699, 0.8787) diversity indices respectively when compared to the other ponds. On the contrary, pond C with four taxa had the least Shannon-Wiener and Simpson diversity indices (1.253, 0.6782) respectively. Equitability and evenness ranged between 0.914 - 0. 952 and 0.814 - 0.900 respectively. Bray and Curtis cluster analysis showed that pond B was the most dissimilar compared to other ponds in terms of the taxa composition.
This study examined the relationship between seagrass coverage and invertebrate abundance on the island of South Caicos. Researchers measured seagrass coverage using transects and quadrats at six sites and recorded observed invertebrate species. The data analysis found no significant correlations between seagrass density and invertebrate abundance. While previous studies found such correlations, the researchers believe methodological issues and environmental conditions affected their results. Further research with improved methods is needed to better understand these relationships and inform plans to remove seagrass beds.
This study examined the diversity and abundance of fruit-feeding butterflies across four habitat types in a Costa Rican cloud forest: primary forest, natural secondary regrowth forest, planted secondary regrowth forest, and pastureland. The researchers trapped 174 butterflies of 27 species over six weeks. They found that planted secondary regrowth forest had the highest species richness, diversity, and evenness, indicating reforestation efforts were improving diversity. Climate change may be causing butterflies to move to new elevations.
This document summarizes a study measuring the success of reforestation efforts in abandoned pastures in the Cerro Candelaria Reserve in Ecuador. The study collected data on tree diameter, height, location and species from 16 reforestation plots established between 2008-2010. Diversity indices were calculated to analyze the data and assess the progress of the reforestation project over time. The results showed general progress in reforesting the abandoned pastures and increasing tree diversity compared to when the project first began.
Diversity of Soil Fauna and Ecosystem Function tariqulmasud12
Soils are natural resources of utmost. Importance for a number of ecosystem and biosphere processes such as plant production, cycling of organic matter and nutrients, storage of C and water, and release of nitrous oxides, CO2 and methane. Soil degradation, through various processes, is a matter of great concern, since their integrity is absolutely critical to increasing food production (FAO, 1995), and regulating atmospheric fluxes of greenhouse gases (Jenkinson, 199 1 ; Wallace, 1994).
This document summarizes two field studies that evaluated how well different invertebrate taxa performed as environmental or biodiversity indicators compared to plants, vertebrates, and each other. The studies were conducted on restored bauxite and mineral sand mines in Western Australia. At both sites, ant assemblage composition reflected trends in other taxa to a greater degree than plants, vertebrates, or birds. Taking into account data yield per unit effort, ants performed moderately well as environmental indicators and extremely well as biodiversity indicators. Overall, most invertebrate groups provided a better return on effort than vertebrates as bioindicators.
The document discusses the importance of biodiversity. It states that biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth at all levels, from genes to ecosystems. Biodiversity is important as it provides humans with food and materials, and plays a key role in ecological processes that sustain life. However, human activities like habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change are reducing biodiversity at an alarming rate. While some species may benefit in the short term from these activities, long term there will be no benefits to humanity or other species from a loss of biodiversity.
Dive into Ghana's crucial mission of safeguarding sea turtles with this enlightening PowerPoint presentation. Explore the intricate web of challenges these magnificent creatures face and discover their pivotal role in maintaining marine ecosystems. From the impact of climate change to the threats posed by human activities, each slide unveils a facet of the journey toward conservation. Gain insights into ongoing initiatives, community involvement, and innovative approaches to ensure a harmonious coexistence between humans and sea turtles. Together, let's embark on a visual journey to understand the importance of protecting these ancient mariners and fostering a sustainable future for Ghana's coastal biodiversity.
Trends in Macrophyte Diversity in Anthropogenic Perturbed Lentic Ecosystems w...Premier Publishers
Aquatic macrophytes hold several niches within the ecosystem, including inter alia water purification, carbon sequestration and serve as microhabitats for aquatic insects. These dynamic roles make macrophytes good indicators of current environmental conditions. Hence assessing their abundance in line with wetland ecosystem dynamics and function is essential. Frequency of occurrence and density values were estimated, using twenty (20) 2 m x 2 m quadrats for each macrophyte encountered. The results of the study revealed twenty-one (21) macrophytes belonging to 16 families. These ponds varied markedly in terms of species composition and in numerical strength such that Polygonum lanigerum (1143+175st/ha), Setaria verticillata (337.5+ 32.8st/ha), Azolla pinnata (337.7+ 16.4 st/ha) recorded high density values while Lagenaria breviflora (18.7±2.19), Sida acuta (18.75±5.30), Ludwigia erecta (18.7±0.15) and Milletia aboensis (18.7±0.03) were the least abundant species. Pond A and D with 11 taxa each had the higher Shannon-Wiener (2.192, 2.214) and Simpson (0.8699, 0.8787) diversity indices respectively when compared to the other ponds. On the contrary, pond C with four taxa had the least Shannon-Wiener and Simpson diversity indices (1.253, 0.6782) respectively. Equitability and evenness ranged between 0.914 - 0. 952 and 0.814 - 0.900 respectively. Bray and Curtis cluster analysis showed that pond B was the most dissimilar compared to other ponds in terms of the taxa composition.
The document discusses several topics related to endangered species conservation, including:
1) The main causes of species endangerment are habitat loss, pollution, overexploitation, disease, and climate change due to human activity.
2) Efforts to conserve biodiversity and endangered species include creating protected areas, environmental education, captive breeding programs, and international agreements.
3) While captive breeding and private farming have helped some species recover, they also pose risks like inbreeding from small populations and providing incentives for poaching wild animals. Overall conservation requires balancing human and wildlife needs.
Wildlife conservation efforts aim to protect endangered species around the world. In the US, there are nearly 1,000 endangered animal and plant species. Habitat destruction is the primary cause of endangerment, as human activity rapidly destroys habitats. Other threats include invasive species, overexploitation, disease, and pollution. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 and establishment of wildlife refuges help protect species. Specific conservation successes include the recovery of the American bald eagle from pesticide poisoning and international whaling regulations helping whale populations rebound.
Dan Metcalfe_Long-term monitoring of tropical rainforests of eastern AustraliaTERN Australia
Long-term monitoring of tropical rainforests in eastern Australia has provided key insights into the maintenance of biodiversity, role of natural disturbances, and dynamics of vertebrate populations over decades. This research has informed management of invasive species and climate change scenarios. While only covering 0.2% of Australia, these rainforests harbor significant biodiversity and are culturally important. Ongoing threats include fragmentation, weeds, feral animals, and climate change. Long-term local investment in monitoring is critical to understanding community change over time.
Approaches To Conservation And Sustainable Use Of Biodiversity- A ReviewBrandi Gonzales
This document reviews different approaches for conserving biodiversity and maintaining its sustainable use. It discusses both in-situ conservation approaches, which focus on conserving species within their natural habitats through protected areas and reserves, as well as ex-situ approaches that involve conserving species outside their natural environments in facilities like zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks, and field gene banks. The document concludes that while in-situ conservation has advantages in coverage and viability, ex-situ approaches are important backups when in-situ conservation is not sufficient. Of all the approaches discussed, ecosystem-based conservation is highlighted as having the most potential due to its holistic nature in mainstreaming conservation.
This document discusses the ecology and evolution of interactions between seaweeds and their herbivores on coral reefs. It finds that herbivory, primarily from fishes and sea urchins, is the dominant force controlling the distribution and abundance of seaweeds. Seaweeds have evolved various defensive traits, such as chemical deterrents, to escape or reduce herbivory. These defenses also indirectly affect smaller grazers that live on the seaweeds and receive protection from predators. The strong herbivore pressure on coral reefs has selected for more potent chemical defenses in tropical seaweeds compared to temperate ones.
This paper examines fish species that have disappeared from catches around Bohol Island, Philippines over the period 1950-2007 based on interviews with local fishers. Generalized least squares tests showed steep declines to zero in catch for many species. Twenty of the 21 disappeared species were moderate to large bodied fish, including giant grouper and African pompano. Six were slow growing and four were late maturing. Species with large body size and high fishing pressure may be particularly vulnerable to overexploitation. Traditional ecological knowledge from fishers can provide long term catch data and inform conservation priorities when scientific data is limited.
This research article examines how two endangered plant species in coastal sand dunes, Layia carnosa and Lupinus tidestromii, persist in different successional microhabitats (early vs. late stages). The researchers found both species had higher frequencies in early successional habitats. For L. tidestromii, plants in early successional microhabitats had higher projected population growth rates than those in late successional habitats, primarily due to higher recruitment rates in early successional microhabitats. The results support restoring natural disturbance regimes to allow persistence of endemic plant species in these ecosystems.
Wildlife plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of our ecosystems. Each species, no matter how big or small, contributes to the intricate web of life.
Importance
Intrinsic Value
Extinctions
What is Biodiversity?
Genetic Biodiversity
Species Biodiversity
Ecosystem Biodiversity
Ecosystem Function
Marine Biodiversity
Caribbean Diversity
Extinctions
Threats to Biodiversity
Protection & MPA’s
The document discusses biodiversity, which refers to genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity within a region. It notes that biodiversity has declined rapidly due to human activities like habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species, pollution, and climate change. This is resulting in high extinction rates, with amphibians being particularly threatened. The document outlines some strategies for biodiversity conservation, including protected areas, ex situ conservation methods, and international agreements like CITES.
Biodiversity and Land Quality Essay
Why Is Ocean Biodiversity Important
Essay On Endangered Plants
Big Idea Biodiversity
biodiversity Essay
Biodiversity Loss And Loss Of Habitat Loss
Biodiversity And Biodiversity
Biodiversity And Its Effects On Biodiversity
Reflection Essay On Biodiversity
Biodiversity And Its Impact On Biodiversity
Biodiversity, Or Biological Diversity
Essay on Biodiversity
Biodiversity, Or Biological Diversity
Paragraph On Conservation Of Biodiversity
Marine Biodiversity : A Global Pattern Essay
Biodiversity In Australia
Persuasive Essay On Biodiversity Conservation
Biodiversity
Essay about The Importance of Biodiversity
Lab Report Biodiversity
Despite the numerous benefits and advantages gotten from biodiversity, it is under serious threat as a result of human activities. The main dangers worldwide are population growth and resource consumption, climate change and global warming, habitat conversion and urbanization, invasive alien species, over-exploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation.
Coastal marsh. Wetlands in the Atchafalaya National Wil.docxmonicafrancis71118
Coastal marsh.
'Wetlands in the
Atchafalaya National
Wildlife Refuge in
Louisiana provide valuable
ecosystem services.
2 Communities and Ecosystems
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Fourth Edition, by Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, and Jane B. Reece. Published by Benjamin Cummings.
Copyright CD, 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER CONTENTS
The Loss of Biodiversity 426
Community Ecology 428
Ecosystem Ecology 437
Conservation and Restoration Biology 444
CHAPTER THREAD
Biodiversity in Decline
BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY
Why Biodiversity Matters 425
THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE
How Does Tropical Forest Fragmentation
Affect Biodiversity? 446
EVOLUTION CONNECTION
Can Biophilia Save Biodiversity? 448
Biodiversity in Decline BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY
Why Biodiversity Matters
As the human population has expanded, hundreds of species have become extinct and thou-
sands more are threatened with extinction. These changes represent a loss in biological di-
versity, or biodiversity. Biodiversity loss goes hand in hand with the disappearance of natural
ecosystems. Only about a quarter of Earth's land surfaces remain untouched by human altera-
tions. We see the evidence of our impact on natural ecosystems every day. We live and work
in altered landscapes. And though we may be less aware of it, our impact on the oceans is also
extensive.
What is the value of biodiversity? Most people appreciate the direct benefits provided by
certain ecosystems. For example, you probably know that we use resources—such as water,
wood, and fish—that come from natural or near-natural ecosystems. These resources have
economic value, as the massive 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico dramatically demonstrated.
Billions of dollars were lost by fishing, recreation, and other industries as a result of the di-
saster. But human well-being also depends on less obvious services that healthy ecosystems
provide. The coastal wetlands affected by the Gulf oil spill normally act as a buffer against hur-
ricanes, reduce the impact of flooding, and filter pollutants. The wetlands also furnish nesting
sites for birds and marine turtles and breeding areas and nurseries for a wide variety of fish
and shellfish. Natural ecosystems provide other services as well—such as recycling nutrients,
preventing erosion and mudslides, controlling agricultural pests, and pollinating crops. Some
scientists have attempted to assign an economic value to these benefits. They arrived at an
average annual value of ecosystem services of $33 trillion, almost twice the global gross
national product for the year they published their results. Although rough, these estimates
make the important point that we cannot afford to take biodiversity for granted.
In this chapter, we'll examine the interactions among organisms and how those relation-
ships determine the features of communities. On a larger scale, we'll explore the dynamics
of ecosystems. Finally, we'll consi.
Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in th...AI Publications
The study titled “Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the North and South Eastern parts of the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (K-FNP) of the North West Region of Cameroon” was carried out in the rainy season from 1st May to 31st July 2015. The general objective was to contribute to the conservation of bushbuck and Buffalo in the K-FNP through the establishment of status of mammals which will serve as a guide for management decisions. The methodology employed was the “recce-walk”. Twenty seven (27) lines transects of 2 km long each were walked making a total effort of 53km. One hundred and fifty six (156) questionnaires were administered to the local population, twenty one (21) semi-structured interviews to households and seven (7) focus group discussions with local chiefs and notables were used to get local people’s perceptions about wildlife conservation in the NP. Results revealed a total of 13 species of mammals within the NP belonging to 6 families. The Bovidae family had the highest number of species represented by the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the red duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis). The buffalo and the bushbuck recorded encounter rates of 0.85 and 0.34sign/km respectively. The Buffalo had a higher density in the North East of the South East compartment of the park while the bushbuck had a higher density in the south west of the north east compartment. There was a strong relationship (R2=0.792) between the encounter rate of mammals and anthropogenic activities. Ninety two (92.31%) of respondents recognized the importance of the NP because they depended on it for collection of NTFP’s (34.60%), hunting of Bushmeat (12.80%), fuel wood gathering (7.70%), religious activities (6.40%), agricultural land (5.10%), harvesting of medicinal plants(5.10%), source of clean water (5.10%), traditional rituals (3.80%) and traditional medicine harvesting (2.6%). Ninety seven percent (97.2%) supported wildlife conservation because of its touristic, aesthetic and for sustainability. Thirty four percent (34.60%) of the respondents were aware of community implication in managing the NP. K-FNP is poor in species abundance, species richness and flagship species. Associated benefits from ecotourism are far-fetched coupled with encroachment by grazers. We therefore recommend that the government, councils, NGOs and the local communities should step up conservation efforts.
Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in th...AI Publications
The study titled “Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the North and South Eastern parts of the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (K-FNP) of the North West Region of Cameroon” was carried out in the rainy season from 1st May to 31st July 2015. The general objective was to contribute to the conservation of bushbuck and Buffalo in the K-FNP through the establishment of status of mammals which will serve as a guide for management decisions. The methodology employed was the “recce-walk”. Twenty seven (27) lines transects of 2 km long each were walked making a total effort of 53km. One hundred and fifty six (156) questionnaires were administered to the local population, twenty one (21) semi-structured interviews to households and seven (7) focus group discussions with local chiefs and notables were used to get local people’s perceptions about wildlife conservation in the NP. Results revealed a total of 13 species of mammals within the NP belonging to 6 families. The Bovidae family had the highest number of species represented by the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the red duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis). The buffalo and the bushbuck recorded encounter rates of 0.85 and 0.34sign/km respectively. The Buffalo had a higher density in the North East of the South East compartment of the park while the bushbuck had a higher density in the south west of the north east compartment. There was a strong relationship (R2=0.792) between the encounter rate of mammals and anthropogenic activities. Ninety two (92.31%) of respondents recognized the importance of the NP because they depended on it for collection of NTFP’s (34.60%), hunting of Bushmeat (12.80%), fuel wood gathering (7.70%), religious activities (6.40%), agricultural land (5.10%), harvesting of medicinal plants(5.10%), source of clean water (5.10%), traditional rituals (3.80%) and traditional medicine harvesting (2.6%). Ninety seven percent (97.2%) supported wildlife conservation because of its touristic, aesthetic and for sustainability. Thirty four percent (34.60%) of the respondents were aware of community implication in managing the NP. K-FNP is poor in species abundance, species richness and flagship species. Associated benefits from ecotourism are far-fetched coupled with encroachment by grazers. We therefore recommend that the government, councils, NGOs and the local communities should step up conservation efforts.
This document presents information on biodiversity conservation. It begins with an introduction that defines biodiversity as the variety of life on Earth, including genetic, ecosystem, and species variation. It then discusses literature on conservation of northwest Atlantic harp seals, dynamics of ant biodiversity patterns, and using recycled sugar factory effluent for fish cultivation. The methodology section notes that over 1.4 million species have been identified but many remain unknown, and discusses biodiversity hotspots. Major Indian legislation related to biodiversity is also mentioned. Results discuss benefits of biodiversity like oxygen, food, water, and medicine. Threats include habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation. The document estimates there are over 8 million terrestrial
This document provides information on biodiversity and the environment. It defines biodiversity as the variability among living organisms, including diversity within and between species and ecosystems. It describes the main types of biodiversity as genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity. Facts about biodiversity globally and in India are presented, such as estimates of the total number of species worldwide and percentages of forest cover. Threats to biodiversity like deforestation and overexploitation are outlined. The value of biodiversity is explained in terms of providing resources and maintaining ecosystem services. Conservation measures like protected areas and restoration are recommended.
The document discusses several topics related to endangered species conservation, including:
1) The main causes of species endangerment are habitat loss, pollution, overexploitation, disease, and climate change due to human activity.
2) Efforts to conserve biodiversity and endangered species include creating protected areas, environmental education, captive breeding programs, and international agreements.
3) While captive breeding and private farming have helped some species recover, they also pose risks like inbreeding from small populations and providing incentives for poaching wild animals. Overall conservation requires balancing human and wildlife needs.
Wildlife conservation efforts aim to protect endangered species around the world. In the US, there are nearly 1,000 endangered animal and plant species. Habitat destruction is the primary cause of endangerment, as human activity rapidly destroys habitats. Other threats include invasive species, overexploitation, disease, and pollution. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 and establishment of wildlife refuges help protect species. Specific conservation successes include the recovery of the American bald eagle from pesticide poisoning and international whaling regulations helping whale populations rebound.
Dan Metcalfe_Long-term monitoring of tropical rainforests of eastern AustraliaTERN Australia
Long-term monitoring of tropical rainforests in eastern Australia has provided key insights into the maintenance of biodiversity, role of natural disturbances, and dynamics of vertebrate populations over decades. This research has informed management of invasive species and climate change scenarios. While only covering 0.2% of Australia, these rainforests harbor significant biodiversity and are culturally important. Ongoing threats include fragmentation, weeds, feral animals, and climate change. Long-term local investment in monitoring is critical to understanding community change over time.
Approaches To Conservation And Sustainable Use Of Biodiversity- A ReviewBrandi Gonzales
This document reviews different approaches for conserving biodiversity and maintaining its sustainable use. It discusses both in-situ conservation approaches, which focus on conserving species within their natural habitats through protected areas and reserves, as well as ex-situ approaches that involve conserving species outside their natural environments in facilities like zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks, and field gene banks. The document concludes that while in-situ conservation has advantages in coverage and viability, ex-situ approaches are important backups when in-situ conservation is not sufficient. Of all the approaches discussed, ecosystem-based conservation is highlighted as having the most potential due to its holistic nature in mainstreaming conservation.
This document discusses the ecology and evolution of interactions between seaweeds and their herbivores on coral reefs. It finds that herbivory, primarily from fishes and sea urchins, is the dominant force controlling the distribution and abundance of seaweeds. Seaweeds have evolved various defensive traits, such as chemical deterrents, to escape or reduce herbivory. These defenses also indirectly affect smaller grazers that live on the seaweeds and receive protection from predators. The strong herbivore pressure on coral reefs has selected for more potent chemical defenses in tropical seaweeds compared to temperate ones.
This paper examines fish species that have disappeared from catches around Bohol Island, Philippines over the period 1950-2007 based on interviews with local fishers. Generalized least squares tests showed steep declines to zero in catch for many species. Twenty of the 21 disappeared species were moderate to large bodied fish, including giant grouper and African pompano. Six were slow growing and four were late maturing. Species with large body size and high fishing pressure may be particularly vulnerable to overexploitation. Traditional ecological knowledge from fishers can provide long term catch data and inform conservation priorities when scientific data is limited.
This research article examines how two endangered plant species in coastal sand dunes, Layia carnosa and Lupinus tidestromii, persist in different successional microhabitats (early vs. late stages). The researchers found both species had higher frequencies in early successional habitats. For L. tidestromii, plants in early successional microhabitats had higher projected population growth rates than those in late successional habitats, primarily due to higher recruitment rates in early successional microhabitats. The results support restoring natural disturbance regimes to allow persistence of endemic plant species in these ecosystems.
Wildlife plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of our ecosystems. Each species, no matter how big or small, contributes to the intricate web of life.
Importance
Intrinsic Value
Extinctions
What is Biodiversity?
Genetic Biodiversity
Species Biodiversity
Ecosystem Biodiversity
Ecosystem Function
Marine Biodiversity
Caribbean Diversity
Extinctions
Threats to Biodiversity
Protection & MPA’s
The document discusses biodiversity, which refers to genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity within a region. It notes that biodiversity has declined rapidly due to human activities like habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species, pollution, and climate change. This is resulting in high extinction rates, with amphibians being particularly threatened. The document outlines some strategies for biodiversity conservation, including protected areas, ex situ conservation methods, and international agreements like CITES.
Biodiversity and Land Quality Essay
Why Is Ocean Biodiversity Important
Essay On Endangered Plants
Big Idea Biodiversity
biodiversity Essay
Biodiversity Loss And Loss Of Habitat Loss
Biodiversity And Biodiversity
Biodiversity And Its Effects On Biodiversity
Reflection Essay On Biodiversity
Biodiversity And Its Impact On Biodiversity
Biodiversity, Or Biological Diversity
Essay on Biodiversity
Biodiversity, Or Biological Diversity
Paragraph On Conservation Of Biodiversity
Marine Biodiversity : A Global Pattern Essay
Biodiversity In Australia
Persuasive Essay On Biodiversity Conservation
Biodiversity
Essay about The Importance of Biodiversity
Lab Report Biodiversity
Despite the numerous benefits and advantages gotten from biodiversity, it is under serious threat as a result of human activities. The main dangers worldwide are population growth and resource consumption, climate change and global warming, habitat conversion and urbanization, invasive alien species, over-exploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation.
Coastal marsh. Wetlands in the Atchafalaya National Wil.docxmonicafrancis71118
Coastal marsh.
'Wetlands in the
Atchafalaya National
Wildlife Refuge in
Louisiana provide valuable
ecosystem services.
2 Communities and Ecosystems
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Fourth Edition, by Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, and Jane B. Reece. Published by Benjamin Cummings.
Copyright CD, 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER CONTENTS
The Loss of Biodiversity 426
Community Ecology 428
Ecosystem Ecology 437
Conservation and Restoration Biology 444
CHAPTER THREAD
Biodiversity in Decline
BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY
Why Biodiversity Matters 425
THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE
How Does Tropical Forest Fragmentation
Affect Biodiversity? 446
EVOLUTION CONNECTION
Can Biophilia Save Biodiversity? 448
Biodiversity in Decline BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY
Why Biodiversity Matters
As the human population has expanded, hundreds of species have become extinct and thou-
sands more are threatened with extinction. These changes represent a loss in biological di-
versity, or biodiversity. Biodiversity loss goes hand in hand with the disappearance of natural
ecosystems. Only about a quarter of Earth's land surfaces remain untouched by human altera-
tions. We see the evidence of our impact on natural ecosystems every day. We live and work
in altered landscapes. And though we may be less aware of it, our impact on the oceans is also
extensive.
What is the value of biodiversity? Most people appreciate the direct benefits provided by
certain ecosystems. For example, you probably know that we use resources—such as water,
wood, and fish—that come from natural or near-natural ecosystems. These resources have
economic value, as the massive 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico dramatically demonstrated.
Billions of dollars were lost by fishing, recreation, and other industries as a result of the di-
saster. But human well-being also depends on less obvious services that healthy ecosystems
provide. The coastal wetlands affected by the Gulf oil spill normally act as a buffer against hur-
ricanes, reduce the impact of flooding, and filter pollutants. The wetlands also furnish nesting
sites for birds and marine turtles and breeding areas and nurseries for a wide variety of fish
and shellfish. Natural ecosystems provide other services as well—such as recycling nutrients,
preventing erosion and mudslides, controlling agricultural pests, and pollinating crops. Some
scientists have attempted to assign an economic value to these benefits. They arrived at an
average annual value of ecosystem services of $33 trillion, almost twice the global gross
national product for the year they published their results. Although rough, these estimates
make the important point that we cannot afford to take biodiversity for granted.
In this chapter, we'll examine the interactions among organisms and how those relation-
ships determine the features of communities. On a larger scale, we'll explore the dynamics
of ecosystems. Finally, we'll consi.
Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in th...AI Publications
The study titled “Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the North and South Eastern parts of the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (K-FNP) of the North West Region of Cameroon” was carried out in the rainy season from 1st May to 31st July 2015. The general objective was to contribute to the conservation of bushbuck and Buffalo in the K-FNP through the establishment of status of mammals which will serve as a guide for management decisions. The methodology employed was the “recce-walk”. Twenty seven (27) lines transects of 2 km long each were walked making a total effort of 53km. One hundred and fifty six (156) questionnaires were administered to the local population, twenty one (21) semi-structured interviews to households and seven (7) focus group discussions with local chiefs and notables were used to get local people’s perceptions about wildlife conservation in the NP. Results revealed a total of 13 species of mammals within the NP belonging to 6 families. The Bovidae family had the highest number of species represented by the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the red duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis). The buffalo and the bushbuck recorded encounter rates of 0.85 and 0.34sign/km respectively. The Buffalo had a higher density in the North East of the South East compartment of the park while the bushbuck had a higher density in the south west of the north east compartment. There was a strong relationship (R2=0.792) between the encounter rate of mammals and anthropogenic activities. Ninety two (92.31%) of respondents recognized the importance of the NP because they depended on it for collection of NTFP’s (34.60%), hunting of Bushmeat (12.80%), fuel wood gathering (7.70%), religious activities (6.40%), agricultural land (5.10%), harvesting of medicinal plants(5.10%), source of clean water (5.10%), traditional rituals (3.80%) and traditional medicine harvesting (2.6%). Ninety seven percent (97.2%) supported wildlife conservation because of its touristic, aesthetic and for sustainability. Thirty four percent (34.60%) of the respondents were aware of community implication in managing the NP. K-FNP is poor in species abundance, species richness and flagship species. Associated benefits from ecotourism are far-fetched coupled with encroachment by grazers. We therefore recommend that the government, councils, NGOs and the local communities should step up conservation efforts.
Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in th...AI Publications
The study titled “Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the North and South Eastern parts of the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (K-FNP) of the North West Region of Cameroon” was carried out in the rainy season from 1st May to 31st July 2015. The general objective was to contribute to the conservation of bushbuck and Buffalo in the K-FNP through the establishment of status of mammals which will serve as a guide for management decisions. The methodology employed was the “recce-walk”. Twenty seven (27) lines transects of 2 km long each were walked making a total effort of 53km. One hundred and fifty six (156) questionnaires were administered to the local population, twenty one (21) semi-structured interviews to households and seven (7) focus group discussions with local chiefs and notables were used to get local people’s perceptions about wildlife conservation in the NP. Results revealed a total of 13 species of mammals within the NP belonging to 6 families. The Bovidae family had the highest number of species represented by the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the red duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis). The buffalo and the bushbuck recorded encounter rates of 0.85 and 0.34sign/km respectively. The Buffalo had a higher density in the North East of the South East compartment of the park while the bushbuck had a higher density in the south west of the north east compartment. There was a strong relationship (R2=0.792) between the encounter rate of mammals and anthropogenic activities. Ninety two (92.31%) of respondents recognized the importance of the NP because they depended on it for collection of NTFP’s (34.60%), hunting of Bushmeat (12.80%), fuel wood gathering (7.70%), religious activities (6.40%), agricultural land (5.10%), harvesting of medicinal plants(5.10%), source of clean water (5.10%), traditional rituals (3.80%) and traditional medicine harvesting (2.6%). Ninety seven percent (97.2%) supported wildlife conservation because of its touristic, aesthetic and for sustainability. Thirty four percent (34.60%) of the respondents were aware of community implication in managing the NP. K-FNP is poor in species abundance, species richness and flagship species. Associated benefits from ecotourism are far-fetched coupled with encroachment by grazers. We therefore recommend that the government, councils, NGOs and the local communities should step up conservation efforts.
This document presents information on biodiversity conservation. It begins with an introduction that defines biodiversity as the variety of life on Earth, including genetic, ecosystem, and species variation. It then discusses literature on conservation of northwest Atlantic harp seals, dynamics of ant biodiversity patterns, and using recycled sugar factory effluent for fish cultivation. The methodology section notes that over 1.4 million species have been identified but many remain unknown, and discusses biodiversity hotspots. Major Indian legislation related to biodiversity is also mentioned. Results discuss benefits of biodiversity like oxygen, food, water, and medicine. Threats include habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation. The document estimates there are over 8 million terrestrial
This document provides information on biodiversity and the environment. It defines biodiversity as the variability among living organisms, including diversity within and between species and ecosystems. It describes the main types of biodiversity as genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity. Facts about biodiversity globally and in India are presented, such as estimates of the total number of species worldwide and percentages of forest cover. Threats to biodiversity like deforestation and overexploitation are outlined. The value of biodiversity is explained in terms of providing resources and maintaining ecosystem services. Conservation measures like protected areas and restoration are recommended.
Similar to Assessing_the_role_of_revegetation_in_achieving_restoration_goals_on.pdf (20)
This document discusses plant physiology and the relationship between plants and water. It specifically mentions transport of water and transpiration as key topics. The document was prepared by a group of 4 students: Alvenaya Hindayageni, Fadhila Humaira, Fira Wahyuni Putri, and Bilu Priscilia.
This document discusses plant taxonomy and classification. It describes the three subkingdoms that make up the plant kingdom: Protophyta, Thallophyta, and Embryophyta. Key characteristics and examples are provided for each subkingdom and their constituent phyla. The document also examines the class Angiospermae in depth, describing the distinguishing features of monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Common medicinal plant families from each group are listed. The structure of flowers and systems used to diagram and describe their parts are also summarized.
Signatures of wave erosion in Titan’s coastsSérgio Sacani
The shorelines of Titan’s hydrocarbon seas trace flooded erosional landforms such as river valleys; however, it isunclear whether coastal erosion has subsequently altered these shorelines. Spacecraft observations and theo-retical models suggest that wind may cause waves to form on Titan’s seas, potentially driving coastal erosion,but the observational evidence of waves is indirect, and the processes affecting shoreline evolution on Titanremain unknown. No widely accepted framework exists for using shoreline morphology to quantitatively dis-cern coastal erosion mechanisms, even on Earth, where the dominant mechanisms are known. We combinelandscape evolution models with measurements of shoreline shape on Earth to characterize how differentcoastal erosion mechanisms affect shoreline morphology. Applying this framework to Titan, we find that theshorelines of Titan’s seas are most consistent with flooded landscapes that subsequently have been eroded bywaves, rather than a uniform erosional process or no coastal erosion, particularly if wave growth saturates atfetch lengths of tens of kilometers.
ESA/ACT Science Coffee: Diego Blas - Gravitational wave detection with orbita...Advanced-Concepts-Team
Presentation in the Science Coffee of the Advanced Concepts Team of the European Space Agency on the 07.06.2024.
Speaker: Diego Blas (IFAE/ICREA)
Title: Gravitational wave detection with orbital motion of Moon and artificial
Abstract:
In this talk I will describe some recent ideas to find gravitational waves from supermassive black holes or of primordial origin by studying their secular effect on the orbital motion of the Moon or satellites that are laser ranged.
Discovery of An Apparent Red, High-Velocity Type Ia Supernova at 𝐳 = 2.9 wi...Sérgio Sacani
We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
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Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
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cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
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CDM. Therefore unlike low-
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Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
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counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
TOPIC OF DISCUSSION: CENTRIFUGATION SLIDESHARE.pptxshubhijain836
Centrifugation is a powerful technique used in laboratories to separate components of a heterogeneous mixture based on their density. This process utilizes centrifugal force to rapidly spin samples, causing denser particles to migrate outward more quickly than lighter ones. As a result, distinct layers form within the sample tube, allowing for easy isolation and purification of target substances.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
Mechanisms and Applications of Antiviral Neutralizing Antibodies - Creative B...Creative-Biolabs
Neutralizing antibodies, pivotal in immune defense, specifically bind and inhibit viral pathogens, thereby playing a crucial role in protecting against and mitigating infectious diseases. In this slide, we will introduce what antibodies and neutralizing antibodies are, the production and regulation of neutralizing antibodies, their mechanisms of action, classification and applications, as well as the challenges they face.
SDSS1335+0728: The awakening of a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole⋆Sérgio Sacani
Context. The early-type galaxy SDSS J133519.91+072807.4 (hereafter SDSS1335+0728), which had exhibited no prior optical variations during the preceding two decades, began showing significant nuclear variability in the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) alert stream from December 2019 (as ZTF19acnskyy). This variability behaviour, coupled with the host-galaxy properties, suggests that SDSS1335+0728 hosts a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole (BH) that is currently in the process of ‘turning on’. Aims. We present a multi-wavelength photometric analysis and spectroscopic follow-up performed with the aim of better understanding the origin of the nuclear variations detected in SDSS1335+0728. Methods. We used archival photometry (from WISE, 2MASS, SDSS, GALEX, eROSITA) and spectroscopic data (from SDSS and LAMOST) to study the state of SDSS1335+0728 prior to December 2019, and new observations from Swift, SOAR/Goodman, VLT/X-shooter, and Keck/LRIS taken after its turn-on to characterise its current state. We analysed the variability of SDSS1335+0728 in the X-ray/UV/optical/mid-infrared range, modelled its spectral energy distribution prior to and after December 2019, and studied the evolution of its UV/optical spectra. Results. From our multi-wavelength photometric analysis, we find that: (a) since 2021, the UV flux (from Swift/UVOT observations) is four times brighter than the flux reported by GALEX in 2004; (b) since June 2022, the mid-infrared flux has risen more than two times, and the W1−W2 WISE colour has become redder; and (c) since February 2024, the source has begun showing X-ray emission. From our spectroscopic follow-up, we see that (i) the narrow emission line ratios are now consistent with a more energetic ionising continuum; (ii) broad emission lines are not detected; and (iii) the [OIII] line increased its flux ∼ 3.6 years after the first ZTF alert, which implies a relatively compact narrow-line-emitting region. Conclusions. We conclude that the variations observed in SDSS1335+0728 could be either explained by a ∼ 106M⊙ AGN that is just turning on or by an exotic tidal disruption event (TDE). If the former is true, SDSS1335+0728 is one of the strongest cases of an AGNobserved in the process of activating. If the latter were found to be the case, it would correspond to the longest and faintest TDE ever observed (or another class of still unknown nuclear transient). Future observations of SDSS1335+0728 are crucial to further understand its behaviour. Key words. galaxies: active– accretion, accretion discs– galaxies: individual: SDSS J133519.91+072807.4
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
JAMES WEBB STUDY THE MASSIVE BLACK HOLE SEEDSSérgio Sacani
The pathway(s) to seeding the massive black holes (MBHs) that exist at the heart of galaxies in the present and distant Universe remains an unsolved problem. Here we categorise, describe and quantitatively discuss the formation pathways of both light and heavy seeds. We emphasise that the most recent computational models suggest that rather than a bimodal-like mass spectrum between light and heavy seeds with light at one end and heavy at the other that instead a continuum exists. Light seeds being more ubiquitous and the heavier seeds becoming less and less abundant due the rarer environmental conditions required for their formation. We therefore examine the different mechanisms that give rise to different seed mass spectrums. We show how and why the mechanisms that produce the heaviest seeds are also among the rarest events in the Universe and are hence extremely unlikely to be the seeds for the vast majority of the MBH population. We quantify, within the limits of the current large uncertainties in the seeding processes, the expected number densities of the seed mass spectrum. We argue that light seeds must be at least 103 to 105 times more numerous than heavy seeds to explain the MBH population as a whole. Based on our current understanding of the seed population this makes heavy seeds (Mseed > 103 M⊙) a significantly more likely pathway given that heavy seeds have an abundance pattern than is close to and likely in excess of 10−4 compared to light seeds. Finally, we examine the current state-of-the-art in numerical calculations and recent observations and plot a path forward for near-future advances in both domains.
2. 344 New Zealand Journal of Ecology, Vol. 37, No. 3, 2013
number and diversity of indigenous birds, invertebrates, reptiles
and some marsupials (Kanowski et al. 2005; Munro et al.2008;
Munroetal.2010). Generally,increasingplantdiversityleadsto
anoverallincreaseinbiodiversityandcarryingcapacity(Reay
& Norton 1999;Verberk et al.2006). In addition, revegetation
provides ecosystem services such as water filtration, erosion
control and nutrient recycling; processes which in turn lead
to ecosystem resilience (Holling 1986; Daily & Ellison 2002;
O’Connor 2003). However, revegetation projects are often
ad-hoc, not following a systematic process or aiming for a
defined goal. Choice of plant species, planting methodology,
and post-planting management are all-crucial in achieving
desired outcomes.
The revegetation of Tiritiri was planned in the late 1970s
whentherewerefewmodelsforrestorationofnorthernindigenous
coastal forest (Mitchell 1985). Thus, revegetation of the island
served as a working experiment that provided insight into the
successes and failures of island restoration techniques, as well as
unique opportunities for research and monitoring. The Tiritiri
revegetationprogrammebeganin1982withtheaimofrestoring
the island to its pre-European condition. It was hoped this
would provide habitat for indigenous biodiversity, including
nationally threatened species (Mitchell 1985; Craig 1990).
With few existing revegetation projects to serve as reference
sites, several options including both natural regeneration and
active restoration were considered. Natural regeneration was
ruled out because it was determined that succession might not
occur or at least take a very long time in the dense rank grass
and bracken habitats (West 1980) which dominated the island.
Moreover, a key objective of the restoration initiative was to
provide habitat for indigenous birds in as short a timeframe
as possible. Given the above, earlier successional stages were
by-passedandtheaimoftherevegetationprogrammebecameto
plant“climax”species(Mitchell1985;Atkinson1990;Hawley
1997). As a result, the majority of trees planted were late
successional species, e.g. kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile),
rewarewa (Knightia excelsa), pohutukawa (Metrosideros
excelsa)andsometaraire(Beilschmiediatarairi). Shrubspecies
were interspersed to provide food for birds; a move often
criticized,asmanyseerestorationforbirdsandbirdtranslocations
specifically as ad hoc since it suggests that minimal thought
has been given to other existing animal and plant communities
(Atkinson1990;Craig&Veitch1990;Meurk&Blaschke1990).
Revegetation of the majority of the island was completed by
1995, with 250,000 trees and shrubs planted in total (Cashmore
1995). Aportion of the northwestern end of the island was left to
regenerate naturally.
Problemswithsomespeciesusedintherevegetationbecame
apparent early on. Survival rates by 1995 were estimated to be
as low as 37% (Cashmore 1995). The early successional species
including pohutukawa, ngaio (Myoporum laetum), cabbage
tree (Cordyline australis), karo (Pittosporum crassifolium) and
taupata (Coprosma repens) were the most successful. Late
canopy species such as kohekohe, taraire, karaka (Corynocarpus
laevigatus),tawapou(Planchonellacostata)andrewarewa,showed
poor growth and survival, presumably because they were planted
in inappropriate or suboptimal environments. Planting primary
shrub species initially for revegetation shades out grass and
weeds,andquicklyprovidessheltertofostertheregenerationof
canopy species (Cashmore 1995). In addition, where primary
successional species are used, mistakes can be addressed in
the short term, whereas those made with canopy plantings may
takemanyyearstorecogniseandrectify(Cashmore 1995). This
aspect was particularly relevant in relation to the pohutukawa
plantings on Tiritiri. Concern about salt spray led to dense
plantings of pohutukawa on the east coast of the island.
Seventy-thousand trees were closely planted to provide shade
and shelter for future canopy species. Survival was better than
expected (60–80%) resulting in a pohutukawa-dominated forest
with almost no regeneration of other species. This was possibly
due to low light levels coupled with poor seed dispersal by birds,
as suggested by Clout and Craig (1998). In addition, in many of
these areas of planted pohutukawa trees have never flowered.
Pohutukawaflowersusuallyprovideanimportantsourceofnectar
between December and February (May 2000) for nectivorous
birds, invertebrates and lizards (Wotherspoon 1993; Eifler 1995;
Anderson 1997;Anderson 2003; Bergin & Hosking 2006). It is
possible the lack of flowering is due to the poor development of
the crown as a result of the high density of planting (Bergin &
Hosking 2006). Consequently, successional processes via both
natural regeneration and pollination are severely limited, and a
gap in food resources exists for a range of nectivorous fauna.
The purpose of this study was to quantify aspects of
biodiversity in revegetated habitats on Tiritiri to determine
whether differences exist and to examine the causes of those
differences. Specifically, we examined whether aspects of
indigenous vegetation communities (plant species richness,
relative abundance and regeneration dynamics), and richness
andrelativeconspicuousnessofindigenousbirdcommunities,
differed among various revegetated habitats. These included
a) dense single-species pohutukawa plantings, b) thinned
pohutukawa (where pohutukawa had been thinned to create
light gaps), and c) mixed species plantings with minimal
pohutukawa.
Little is known about regeneration and plant species
diversity in pohutukawa forest and almost nothing is known
about successional pathways in planted pohutukawa. It
was expected that areas planted in only pohutukawa would
exhibit little evidence of succession and have low bird use
compared with thinned pohutukawa areas and mixed species
plantings. Thinning planted pohutukawa was expected to
increase biodiversity, as diversity in natural systems is often
facilitated by disturbance (Ogden et al. 1997; Hardy 2002;
Esler 2006). The findings of this study have implications
for the future management of the dense pohutukawa stands
on Tiritiri Matangi and they will also be useful in the wider
context for restoration managers elsewhere. The results of
this study also demonstrate to conservation managers the
risks associated with planting strategies. Some plantings may
require substantial management in the future, thus resulting
in additional costs to stakeholders involved in such projects.
Methods
Study area
Tiritiri Matangi lies 3.5 km off the Whangaparaoa Peninsula
north of Auckland (Mitchell 1985). The island is classified as a
Scientific Reserve under the Reserves Act 1977. It is owned by
the Crown and administered by the Department of Conservation
(TiritiriMatangiWorkingPlanHawley1997). The 220-ha island
rises to 80 m asl (Cashmore 1995), the main north-south ridge
has numerous secondary ridges which slope gently to the coast
on either side. (Mitchell 1985). The east coast of the island is
rockywithsteepcliffs,whereasthewesternsidehasseveralsandy
beaches. Tiritiri Matangi is composed of greywacke overlain
with soils derived from the upper strata Waitemata Series silty-
sandstones and siltstones. These soils are free draining and of
3. 345
Forbes, Craig: Role of revegetation in restoration
quite high natural fertility (Mitchell 1985; Cashmore 1995).
The temperature is generally mild throughout the year and the
island has a moderate rainfall, although summer droughts can
occur(Mitchell1985). Theisland’shistoryoffarminguntil1971
led to much of the forest cover being removed (Mitchell 1985;
Anderson 1997). In 1975, grassland covered 52% of the island,
fernland and bracken 27%, with the remainder in regenerating
forest and scrub. Broadleaf coastal forest survived in several
gullies along with a fringe of coastal pohutukawa, mature in
places. Intotal,339vascularplantspeciesandvarietieshavebeen
recorded, 186 of them natives (Esler 1978). Before restoration
began, at least 30 species of bird (19 native and 11 exotic) were
breeding on the island (West 1980). A number of seabirds were
also regular visitors (Mitchell 1985), and grey face petrels
(Pterodroma macroptera) were breeding on the south side of the
island. TheonlyintroducedpredatorymammalpresentonTiritiri
Matangi was the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) since eradicated in
1993 (Rimmer 2004).
Site selection
Three main vegetation types were selected for the study;
dense pohutukawa, mixed-species vegetation and thinned
pohutukawa. Dense pohutukawa and mixed vegetation
sites were selected for vegetation type, vegetation age, size,
topography and aspect. The choice of thinned pohutukawa
Figure 1. Location of study sites on Tiritiri
Matangi Island. (Base map sourced from the
Department of Conservation 2006.)
sites was already determined, as thinning had been carried out
before this study began. At these sites densely planted 20-
year old pohutukawa stands had been selectively thinned by
DepartmentofConservationstaffthreeyearspreviously. Where
possible, sites were chosen with a north-easterly or easterly
aspect, on slopes varying from 5° to 9°. The locations of the
study sites are shown in Figure 1. All of the study sites were
located on the east coast of the island in either the Emergency
Landing or Fisherman’s Bay areas. The thinned sites were
areas where some pohutukawa trees had been removed from
densely-planted stands, creating light gaps. The criteria for
the selection as dense pohutukawa sites were that they must
be areas where pohutukawa existed as a monoculture with
few, or no other planted species. Mixed vegetation sites were
selected based on their greater diversity of planted species.
Nine sites were selected overall, three in each vegetation type.
Data collection
Vegetation sampling
Point-Centered-Quarter method
Two vegetation sampling methods were used in this study,
the Point-Centered-Quarter (PCQ) technique and Sampling
at Known Intersects Along a Transect. The PCQ technique is
4. 346 New Zealand Journal of Ecology, Vol. 37, No. 3, 2013
used to assess vegetation composition and structure across the
landscapeandfollowsthatdescribedbyCottam&Curtis(1956).
The PCQ is a plot-less sampling method which usually does
not involve the use of a specified area such as a quadrat (Mark
& Esler 1970; Causton 1988). Instead, it involves individual
samplingpoints,locatedalongtransectlines. Ateachsampling
point the area around that point is divided into quarters. In
each quarter, the distance from the point to the nearest tree
with diameter at breast height (dbh) > 5 cm, is recorded. The
individual tree’s size (dbh) and species is also recorded. The
distance measurement provides an estimate of density. To
determine patterns of regeneration, the vascular flora within a
radiusof1misrecorded. Aspohutukawacanbemulti-stemmed
near the ground, diameter measurements were taken just above
groundleveltoprovideconsistency(seeClarke2002). Canopy
cover (%) and canopy height (m) were also estimated. At each
of the nine sampling sites a total of four PCQs were taken, at
20-m intervals along a 60-m transect, the first at 0 m. The gap
of 20 m was chosen to avoid any overlap in sampling. Transect
placement was influenced by topography, slope and aspect, as
wewantedthesethreevariablestoremainconsistentacrosssites.
The PCQ method is the most widely used of the original
distancemethods(Causton1988;Bryantetal.2004). Compared
with other vegetation community analysis methods, PCQ
has been criticized for its biases, particularly in estimating
vegetation species richness (Risser & Zedler 1968; Korb et al.
2003; Bryant et al. 2004). However, it is still accepted as an
efficientandrobusttechniquewhenusedappropriately(Lindsey
et al. 1958; Causton 1988; Brady et al. 1995; White et al. 2008;
Perry et al.2010).
Sampling along a transect
To better understand regeneration between sites, we employed
a second method. It also involved sampling at known intervals
along a transect (Kershaw & Looney 1985). Seedling presence
or absence within a 10-cm radius of a point was recorded, with
points at 1-m intervals along the same 60-m transect used in the
PCQmethod. Thismethodgivesaclearindicationofvegetation
change along an environmental gradient (Kershaw & Looney
1985). This is particularly important in non-uniform sites,
such as thinned pohutukawa, where changes in regeneration
patterns may be patchy.
Bird counts
Afive-minutecountmethodsimilartothatdescribedbyDawson
& Bull (1975) was used to determine bird conspicuousness at
each of the nine sites. Two sampling points were established
along transects within each study site. The first point was 5
m from the beginning of the transect, the second point 5m
from the end of the transect. The sampling area was within
a 20-m radius of each point, with a gap of 10 m left between
the two sampling areas to minimize duplication of sightings.
A radius of 20 m was chosen to ensure that most birds within
the type of forest being surveyed would be detected. Some
sites were in low, dense scrubland, with visibility beyond
20 m difficult. The observer waited for one minute after arrival
at the sampling point before starting the count (Reynolds et
al. 1980), to minimize the effects of disturbance caused by
the observer’s arrival at the count site. Each count site was
sampledtwicedailyinrandomorderforthreeconsecutivedays.
Sampling was carried out in hours of dawn and dusk (actual
times varied during the year). This was repeated each month
for five months from April to August. In total, 24 counts were
carried out at each study site providing a total of 72 sets of data
for each vegetation type. Methods were designed to minimize
any biases that may have been introduced due to the time of
day or peaks in bird activity (Dawson 1981; Alexander et al.
2007). TheApriltoAugustperiodwaschosenasthebestperiod
for sampling (Elliott 1998) as this is outside the mating and
nestingseasonwhenbirdconspicuousnessvaries. Asobservers
differ in their ability to see, hear and identify birds (Dawson
& Bull 1975), all counts were carried out by the authors. Bird
conspicuousness rather than abundance was chosen as the
term to describe the five-minute counts in this study because,
as with most bird counting methods, five-minute counts do not
necessarily detect all birds that may be presenting in the count
area (Gibb 1996).
There are many different methods of investigating bird
abundance and species composition (Dawson & Bull 1975;
Scott et al. 1981; Pyke 1983; Ralph et al. 1993). Since this
study only required a relative estimate of bird conspicuousness
to compare between treatments the five minute method was
deemed most appropriate. The aim of the bird counts was to
estimate bird conspicuousness in the three vegetation types to
determinewhetherdenselyplantedpohutukawawaslessfavored
habitat. Five-minute bird counts, which are quick and easily
repeatable, have been used in many studies to estimate relative
abundance (Clout & Gaze 1984; Ralph et al. 1993; Elliott 1998
Alexander et al. 2007). Since only a small sampling radius
(20 m) was used in the counts, distance estimation (Scott et al.
1981) was unnecessary.
Analysis
Vegetation
To quantify habitat characteristics of each vegetation type,
we calculated the relative density (number of individuals of a
species / total number of individuals), relative dominance of
all tree species (mean basal area x density of tree species), and
absolute density (all species combined) of all vegetation types
(see Causton 1988). The data were not normally distributed so
non-parametric tests were used to test for differences between
the three vegetation types. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used
to test for differences in canopy height, canopy cover, sub-
canopy/sapling cover and seedling cover. For indicators that
showed significant differences among vegetation types, we
used Mann-Whitney U tests to test for pairwise comparisons
between vegetation types. Where Kruskal-Wallis tests did not
detectsignificantdifferencesbetweengroups,meanandstandard
errorvalueswerecalculatedandgraphedtoshowanysignificant
differences between means (McArdle 1987).
Birds
Indigenousbirdconspicuousnessandspeciesrichnessdatawere
pooled across months and sites for comparison. Because of
the small sample size (i.e. small number of site replicates), and
non-normal distribution of the data, mean and standard error
values were calculated and graphed to show any significant
differences between means (McArdle 1987).
Results
Vegetation composition
Forest characteristics
Vegetation richness and composition differed among sites
(Fig. 2). Dense pohutukawa sites had low species richness,
5. 347
Forbes, Craig: Role of revegetation in restoration
whereas thinned pohutukawa and mixed species plantings
had higher but similar species richness. Mixed plantings and
thinned pohutukawa areas had similar densities.
Pohutukawa was the dominant tree species in dense and
thinned pohutukawa sites (Fig. 3). Pohutukawa was also the
dominantspeciesinthemixedspeciessitesasindicatedbybasal
area. As relative dominance is a direct result of basal area, it
essentially calculates the absolute area covered by each tree
species. As a result, the proportion contributed by each tree
speciesdiffersbetweenrelativedensityandrelativedominance.
This is particularly clear in mixed plantings. Absolute density
of canopy trees was highest in dense pohutukawa plantings
(Fig. 4).
There were clear differences in canopy cover between
vegetation types (Table 1). Percent canopy cover in dense
pohutukawaplantingswassignificantlyhighercomparedwith
both thinned and mixed plantings (Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-
WhitneyUnon-parametrictwo-tailedtests,P<0.05). Canopy
height, and sub-canopy/sapling cover between vegetation
types showed no significant differences (Kruskal-Wallis non-
parametric two-tailed tests, P < 0.05).
Overall, the densely planted pohutukawa sites had the
highest values for pohutukawa contribution (95%) and
canopy cover (85%), and the lowest values for sub-canopy/
sapling (12.5%) and seedling cover (1.8%). Conversely,
mixed vegetation sites had low values in pohutukawa density
(19%) and canopy cover (56%) and higher values for sub-
canopy/sapling (25%) and seedling cover (11%). Thinned
pohutukawa sites had lower values for pohutukawa density
(82%) and canopy cover (56%) than dense sites. Seedling
percent cover in thinned pohutukawa was the highest of all
three sites (13%). This percentage was slightly higher than
that recorded for mixed vegetation.
Regeneration
Densepohutukawahadlowernumbersofseedlingscompared
withtheothertwovegetationtypes,whichhadsimilarnumbers
of seedlings. These differences in seedling occurrence
between both dense and thinned sites, and dense and mixed
sites, were significant (Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U
non-parametric two-tailed tests, P < 0.05) (Table 2). Dense
pohutukawa sites showed much lower frequency of seedling
occurrence along each transect at two out of the three sites,
comparedwithothervegetationtypes,withseedlingspresentat
only1and2pointsrespectivelyofthe60pointssampled(Fig.6).
The highest frequency of seedlings was at one of the mixed
species sites (22 of 60 points sampled). Both thinned and
mixed sites showed a higher occurrence of seedlings than
dense pohutukawa in two out of three sites. Seedling numbers
in thinned sites were only slightly lower than in mixed sites.
Figure 2. Relative density (No. of
individuals of each species/total number
of species) of canopy trees in each of the
three vegetation types (where “mixed”
is mixed planted vegetation, “dense”
is densely planted pohutukawa, and
“thinned” is thinned pohutukawa) on
Tiritiri Matangi Island, determined using
the point-centered-quarter method.
Figure 3. Relative dominance (mean
basal area x density of tree species) of
each canopy tree species in the three
vegetation types (as in Fig. 2).
6. 348 New Zealand Journal of Ecology, Vol. 37, No. 3, 2013
Figure 4. Absolute density of canopy trees in the three vegetation
types (as in Fig. 2).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Mixed Dense Thinned
Vegetation Type
Absolute
Density
of
Canopy
Trees/80m(sq)
+/-
s.e.
Table 1. Differences in canopy cover between forest
types (where “mixed” is mixed species planted vegetation,
“dense” is densely planted pohutukawa, and “thinned” is
thinned pohutukawa) as determined by Mann-Whitney U
non-parametric t-test (two-tailed) (P < 0.05). Significant
P-values denoted with *.
____________________________________________________________________________
Canopy cover Mann-Whitney U statistic P-value
____________________________________________________________________________
Dense vs mixed 34.5 *0.033
Thinned vs dense 34.5 *0.032
Thinned vs mixed 71.5 1.0
____________________________________________________________________________
Table 2. Differences in seedling numbers between forest
types (where “mixed” is mixed species planted vegetation,
“dense” is densely planted pohutukawa, and “thinned” is
thinned pohutukawa) determined by Mann-Whitney U
non-parametric t-test (two-tailed) (P <0.05). Significant
P-values denoted with *.
____________________________________________________________________________
Seedling cover Mann-Whitney U statistic P-value
____________________________________________________________________________
Dense vs mixed 31 *0.019
Thinned vs dense 37 *0.045
Thinned vs mixed 70.5 0.953
____________________________________________________________________________
Bird conspicuousness and species richness
Relative conspicuousness of indigenous birds differed among
the three vegetation types (Fig. 7.) Indigenous birds were less
abundantindensepohutukawaandnumbersweresignificantly
lower than in the other two vegetation types. Bird numbers
were highest in the mixed plantings. Indigenous bird species
richness (McArdle 1987) was significantly lower in dense
pohutukawasitescomparedwiththeothertwovegetationtypes.
Figure 6. Frequency of seedling occurrence at three sites along a
60-m transect in three vegetation types (where “mixed” is mixed
speciesplantedvegetation,“dense”isdenselyplantedpohutukawa,
and “thinned” is thinned pohutukawa) on Tiritiri Matangi Island.
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 1 2 3
Forest Type
Frequency
of
Seedling
Occurance
Mixed
Dense
Thinned
Figure 5. Forest characteristics in the three vegetation types (as
in Fig. 1).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Mixed Dense Thinned
Vegetation Type
%
Seedling
SubCan
Canopy
Met exc D
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Mixed Dense Thinned
Vegetation Type
%
Seedling cover
SubCanopy/Sapling cover
Canopy cover
Met exc Density
There were no apparent differences in bird species richness
between the mixed plantings and thinned pohutukawa sites.
Discussion
The structure, diversity and species occupation of revegetated
habitats can be influenced by the composition and density
of initial plantings. In this study, we found that tree species
7. 349
Forbes, Craig: Role of revegetation in restoration
a)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Mixed Dense Thinned
Vegetation Type
Pooled
Mean
Bird
Conspicuousness
b)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mixed Dense Thinned
Vegetation Type
Pooled
Mean
Bird
Species
Richness
Figure 7. a) Pooled mean indigenous
bird conspicuousness, and b) Pooled
mean indigenous bird species richness
in three forest types (Dense = Dense
pohutukawa plantings, Thinned =
Thinned pohutukawa plantings, Mixed
= Mixed species plantings) on Tiritiri
Matangi Island.
richness and the amount of regeneration were greater in
both thinned and mixed sites than in dense pohutukawa
sites. Moreover, dense pohutukawa appeared to suppress the
establishment of other plant species and presumably failed to
attractawiderangeofbirdspecies. Twoattributes,lowspecies
diversityandpoorregenerationindenselyplantedpohutukawa
stands are most likely to be the result of a combination of
factors including tree density, low light levels, and leaf litter
density (Atkinson 2004). In addition, in the case of Tiritiri
Matangi, these attributes have resulted from large areas of
single species plantings (Clout & Craig 1998). Our results
are in accordance with other studies that show that highest
seedlingsurvivaloccursunderwidely-spacedtreesandinlight
gaps,anddeclineswithcloserspacingsandlowlightintensities
(Brokaw & Busing 2000; Mason et al. 2004).
There was lower bird conspicuousness and fewer species
in the dense pohutukawa stands compared with thinned or
mixed sites. This finding supports several previous studies
of bird numbers in regenerating forest areas (Parker et al.
1994; Robertson & Hackwell 1995) which found that birds
preferred habitats with higher plant diversity and lower stem
density. Other similar studies have found that bird visitation
rates are higher on forest edges and in gaps compared with
the forest interior (Montgomery et al. 2003; Burgess et al.
2005). This may be because flowers are more visible and
accessible for nectivorous species. For similar reasons, Vitz
and Rodewald (2006) concluded that regenerating clear cuts
provided important benefits for frugivorous birds. Thinning
thepohutukawamonoculturesdidappeartoincreasediversity.
This reflects similar studies on regeneration in monoculture
forests at different light intensities; research by Ogden et al.
(1997) and Brockerhoff et al. (2003) indicated that an increase
in light and tree spacing led to a more diverse understorey.
Other research on thinned plantations found that thinning
facilitated diversity, regeneration and succession (Mason et
al. 2004; Cummings et al. 2007). Cummings et al. (2007)
found that thinning could initiate succession. Factors known
to positively influence plant species abundance and diversity
include light-creating disturbances such as tree mortality, and
edge creation (Hardy 2002).
Results of this study support previous findings that
revegetation using a diverse range of species is more likely to
result in a more diverse ecosystem. In contrast, monoculture
plantings, particularly when planted densely, may have the
opposite effect. However, using diversity as a measure of
successfulrevegetationmaynotfitwithallprojectgoalsormay
excludeotherimportantbutsimplerecosystemstypes. Bergin
and Hosking (2006) suggest that pohutukawa-dominated
habitats are sufficiently distinct to be considered a specific
habitat type, and therefore may contribute positively to the
overall biodiversity of a given area. For instance, nectivorous
birdsfeedseasonallyonpohutukawanectar,andinsectscanbe
abundantonthebark,rottenwoodandfoliage,attractingarange
of indigenous insectivorous birds. However, observations by
the Island’s DOC staff and volunteers suggest that the planted
pohutukawa surveyed in this study are still yet to flower,
> 20 years after planting. This may be causing a gap in food
availability for some fauna (Craig et al. 1981; Stewart & Craig
1985;Abbott 1998; Wotherspoon 1993). Bellbird (Anthornis
melanura), tui (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) and kereru
(Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) are all key species in forest
regenerationduetotheirrolesaspollinatorsandseeddispersers
(Castro & Robertson 1997; Anderson 2003; Atkinson 2004).
Thesebirdsalsomoveseedintoplantings,enhancingtheoverall
restoration process (Reay & Norton 1999; Jansen 2005). The
densestandsofnon-floweringpohutukawaonTiritiriMatangi
probably have limited value for nectivorous or frugivorous
birds, or pollinating invertebrates. The absence of these
species from dense pohutukawa forest on Tiritiri may mean
regeneration processes within these planted areas is slowed.
Weed suppression is commonly a goal of revegetation
(Stanley2009)andinsuchcircumstancesestablishingcanopy
coverisapriority. PohutukawaonTiritiriMatangiwasplanted
as it could withstand harsh coastal conditions, shade out dense
grass areas, and provide canopy cover for regeneration; the
first two of which were successfully achieved. Manuka and
kanuka-dominated revegetation projects are commonly used
for the same reason and in mainland situations they often
mimic natural successional processes. There, diversity may
be the long-term goal but allowing natural sucession to take
place is the priority. That may mean lower diversity initially;
however, there are threatened species that rely on these scrub
habitats,(sotheyshouldnotberegardedaslowvaluehabitats).
Threatened species found in scrub include theAuckland green
gecko (Naultinus elegans) and green mistletoe (Ileostylus
micranthus). Similarly,densepohutukawaplantingsonTiritiri
8. 350 New Zealand Journal of Ecology, Vol. 37, No. 3, 2013
Matangiareoflowdiversitybuthighhabitatvalue;theyprovide
habitat for the little spotted kiwi, and these places offer easy
viewing by visiting public because of the lack of understorey.
Manipulating pohutukawa plantings would help to raise
landscape heterogeneity, which generally leads to a high
species diversity (Ogden et al. 1997; Verberk et al. 2006) as
differenthabitatsprovideforspecialistspecies. However,while
thinning of pohutukawa throughout the island would increase
vegetation diversity, it might also result in negative effects on
other values. Regardless of future pohutukawa management
choices, the experimental approaches to revegetation on
Tiritiri Matangi have, and will continue to, provide important
opportunities for monitoring and research.
Conclusions
The revegetation of Tiritiri was carried out in the absence
of a successful template and much of the planting was
experimental. Ecosystems are dynamic and complex, with
multiplecomponentsinteractingthroughavarietyofprocesses
(Hobbs1998). Thismakesecologicalrestorationexceptionally
complicated because of the need to rebuild lost, possibly
complex processes and trophic interactions (Manning et al.
2006). TherestorationofTiritirihasbeenverysuccessfulinits
goal of providing habitat for threatened species and the island
has become an international icon for ecological restoration.
However, the results of this study suggest that the island’s
ability to return to a more diverse and functioning ecosystem
maybeinhibitedbylargeareasofdensely-plantedpohutukawa.
Our study indicates that thinning of pohutukawa has been
beneficial, resulting in the development of a more abundant
and species-rich flora and fauna. However the requirements
of some fauna, such as little spotted kiwi, are also as important
(but these were not addressed in our study).
Our results support predictions that dense pohutukawa
plantings onTiritiri Matangi would inhibit forest regeneration
and the restoration of plant species diversity and habitat for
indigenous birds. The limited number of thinned sites, their
ad-hoc placement, and the minimal time between treatment
and data collection placed some limitations on this study.
Further studies with longer timeframes post-treatment and/or
a larger data set would clearly be useful to monitor ongoing
trends in regeneration on the island. Studies are also needed
on how various fauna species use different vegetation types.
It also needs to be recognized that Tiritiri Matangi is a
community-based restoration project. The aspirations and
values of stakeholders have been important in this restoration
project and have influenced the ecological outcomes of the
island. Given this, data were collected on Tiritiri Matangi
stakeholder values as part of this study; those findings are
reported separately (Forbes 2007).
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge Supporters of Tiritiri Matangi
Inc. for providing funding towards this research, Kawau Kats
forprovidingdiscountedferryservices,andtheDepartmentof
Conservation and Tiritiri Rangers for permission to conduct
fieldwork on the Island. Thank you to George Perry, John
Ogden, Neil Mitchell and Mick Clout for assistance in
methodologyanddataanalysis. ThanksalsotoNickVelychko,
Stephen Thorpe, and Sandra Anderson for lab and technical
assistance,andtoJaneAndrews,NoraLeuschnerandMonique
Van Rensberg for assistance in the field. Thank you also to
MattBaber,TimLovegrove,andanonymousreviewerswhose
constructive criticism greatly improved this paper.
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