Allocating human resources toprojects and services in dynami.docxdaniahendric
Â
Allocating human resources to
projects and services in dynamic
project environments
Khadijeh Momeni and Miia Maarit Martinsuo
Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland
Abstract
Purpose â Resource allocation is challenged by dynamic environments where changes are frequent.
The purpose of this paper is to identify resource allocation challenges and practices in service units that
perform both project and non-project activities in dynamic environments. Its goal is to show that top-down
mechanisms of project resource allocation need to be replaced by or supplemented with mechanisms that are
more flexible.
Design/methodology/approach â A qualitative comparative case study was conducted in two service
units of two project-based firms. The main source of data consisted of semi-structured interviews with
17 service managers and staff members.
Findings â This study shows that resource allocation is not necessarily a top-down process at all, and the
practices are context-dependent. Two more flexible approaches are revealed â hybrid resource allocation and
bottom-up resource allocation â as examples of managing resource allocation in service units that engage in
projects under uncertain conditions. The results of the analysis highlight prioritisation and adapting to
change and delay as the main issues that managers face in allocating resources to different types of projects
and service activities in dynamic environments.
Research limitations/implications â The two target companies chosen for the qualitative research design
limit the analysis to project-based firms in a business-to-business context. Further, the viewpoint of the
service unit is central to the study. Studying project resource allocation in different organisational contexts
and uncovering the perspectives of product development and delivery units would offer promising directions
for future research.
Practical implications â The study reveals that in dynamic project settings such as service organisations,
top-down mechanisms of resource allocation need to be accompanied by other, more flexible approaches to
ensure the sufficient resourcing of projects and related services in dynamic environments. Companies need
to establish practices for resource allocation changes that are caused by re-prioritising tasks and
accommodating changes and delays in their project and service activities.
Originality/value â Compared to a top-down perspective taken in previous research, the study proposes a
more flexible approach for resource allocation in constantly changing environments with different project and
service activities. Previous studies have focussed on resource competition between projects, placing project
managers in the central role for resource allocation. By contrast, this study discusses hybrid and bottom-up
resource allocation, both of which involve broader personnel engagement in resource allocation tasks,
drawing on the experience of all employees.
Keywords Services, Activities, ...
Journal of Organizational Change ManagementIntegrating the o.docxtawnyataylor528
Â
Journal of Organizational Change Management
Integrating the organizational change literature: a model for successful change
Serina Al-Haddad Timothy Kotnour
Article information:
To cite this document:
Serina Al-Haddad Timothy Kotnour , (2015),"Integrating the organizational change literature: a model
for successful change", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 28 Iss 2 pp. 234 - 262
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-2013-0215
Downloaded on: 12 September 2016, At: 15:44 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 153 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 6849 times since 2015*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
(2011),"Managing successful change", Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 43 Iss 6 pp. 349-353
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00197851111160478
(2015),"Causes of stress before, during and after organizational change: a qualitative study",
Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 28 Iss 2 pp. 301-314 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
JOCM-03-2014-0055
(2015),"Diffusion of changes in organizations", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol.
28 Iss 1 pp. 134-152 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-04-2014-0081
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by All users group
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-2013-0215
Integrating the organizational
change literature: a model for
successful change
Serina Al-Haddad and Timothy Kotnour
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems,
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
Abstract
Purpose â The purpose of this paper is to contribute a roadmap to the change management literature,
and provide definitions for describing change types, change enablers and change methods. This paper
also proposes aligning the change type with the change method to find the effect on the chan ...
Allocating human resources toprojects and services in dynami.docxdaniahendric
Â
Allocating human resources to
projects and services in dynamic
project environments
Khadijeh Momeni and Miia Maarit Martinsuo
Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland
Abstract
Purpose â Resource allocation is challenged by dynamic environments where changes are frequent.
The purpose of this paper is to identify resource allocation challenges and practices in service units that
perform both project and non-project activities in dynamic environments. Its goal is to show that top-down
mechanisms of project resource allocation need to be replaced by or supplemented with mechanisms that are
more flexible.
Design/methodology/approach â A qualitative comparative case study was conducted in two service
units of two project-based firms. The main source of data consisted of semi-structured interviews with
17 service managers and staff members.
Findings â This study shows that resource allocation is not necessarily a top-down process at all, and the
practices are context-dependent. Two more flexible approaches are revealed â hybrid resource allocation and
bottom-up resource allocation â as examples of managing resource allocation in service units that engage in
projects under uncertain conditions. The results of the analysis highlight prioritisation and adapting to
change and delay as the main issues that managers face in allocating resources to different types of projects
and service activities in dynamic environments.
Research limitations/implications â The two target companies chosen for the qualitative research design
limit the analysis to project-based firms in a business-to-business context. Further, the viewpoint of the
service unit is central to the study. Studying project resource allocation in different organisational contexts
and uncovering the perspectives of product development and delivery units would offer promising directions
for future research.
Practical implications â The study reveals that in dynamic project settings such as service organisations,
top-down mechanisms of resource allocation need to be accompanied by other, more flexible approaches to
ensure the sufficient resourcing of projects and related services in dynamic environments. Companies need
to establish practices for resource allocation changes that are caused by re-prioritising tasks and
accommodating changes and delays in their project and service activities.
Originality/value â Compared to a top-down perspective taken in previous research, the study proposes a
more flexible approach for resource allocation in constantly changing environments with different project and
service activities. Previous studies have focussed on resource competition between projects, placing project
managers in the central role for resource allocation. By contrast, this study discusses hybrid and bottom-up
resource allocation, both of which involve broader personnel engagement in resource allocation tasks,
drawing on the experience of all employees.
Keywords Services, Activities, ...
Journal of Organizational Change ManagementIntegrating the o.docxtawnyataylor528
Â
Journal of Organizational Change Management
Integrating the organizational change literature: a model for successful change
Serina Al-Haddad Timothy Kotnour
Article information:
To cite this document:
Serina Al-Haddad Timothy Kotnour , (2015),"Integrating the organizational change literature: a model
for successful change", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 28 Iss 2 pp. 234 - 262
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-2013-0215
Downloaded on: 12 September 2016, At: 15:44 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 153 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 6849 times since 2015*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
(2011),"Managing successful change", Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 43 Iss 6 pp. 349-353
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00197851111160478
(2015),"Causes of stress before, during and after organizational change: a qualitative study",
Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 28 Iss 2 pp. 301-314 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
JOCM-03-2014-0055
(2015),"Diffusion of changes in organizations", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol.
28 Iss 1 pp. 134-152 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-04-2014-0081
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by All users group
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d
by
1
32
.1
34
.2
54
.2
A
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5:
44
1
2
Se
pt
em
be
r
20
16
(
PT
)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-2013-0215
Integrating the organizational
change literature: a model for
successful change
Serina Al-Haddad and Timothy Kotnour
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems,
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
Abstract
Purpose â The purpose of this paper is to contribute a roadmap to the change management literature,
and provide definitions for describing change types, change enablers and change methods. This paper
also proposes aligning the change type with the change method to find the effect on the chan ...
Governing Low Carbon Transitions Presentation given by Adrian Smith at the BSA Climate Change Study Group Conference on 17 January 2011 at the British Library Conference Centre, London, UK.
Presentation by Prof John Grin given at the ESRC-funded seminar on Sustainability Transitions held at the University of Liverpool on 30 June 2011. See http://sustainabilitytransitions.info/ for further details
Assignment ResourcesFrom Support to Mutiny.pdfFROM SUPPOR.docxrock73
Â
Assignment Resources/From Support to Mutiny.pdf
FROM SUPPORT TO MUTINY: SHIFTING LEGITIMACY
JUDGMENTS AND EMOTIONAL REACTIONS IMPACTING THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF RADICAL CHANGE
QUY NGUYEN HUY
INSEAD
KEVIN G. CORLEY
Arizona State University
MATTHEW S. KRAATZ
University of Illinois
Based on a three-year inductive study of one organizationâs implementation of radical
organizational change, we examine the critical role played by middle managersâ
judgments of the legitimacy of their top managers as change agents. Our analysis
revealed middle managersâ shifting judgments of the change agentsâ legitimacy that
arose with their emotional reactions and produced rising resistance to the change
effort. Our inductive model illustrates the dynamic, relational, and iterative relation-
ships among change recipientsâ legitimacy judgments of change agents and arising
emotional reactions in various phases of planned change, which explain recipientsâ
emergent resistance to the change effort. Our model allows us to contribute to theory
on radical organizational change, resistance to change, and legitimacy judgments.
Organizational scholars have long recognized the
severe challenges involved in organizational trans-
formation efforts and the necessary role that indi-
vidual agents play within them (Amis, Slack, &
Hinings, 2004; Hinings & Greenwood, 1996; Huy,
2002; Singh, House, & Tucker, 1986). Planned rad-
ical organizational change (PROC), which funda-
mentally alters the power structure, culture, rou-
tines, and strategy of the entire organization, often
appears to be the only option available in dire
circumstances (Miller & Friesen, 1980; Tushman &
Romanelli, 1985). As such, scholars have generally
treated radical change as an inherently volitional
phenomenon and placed change agents at the cen-
ter of their theories and empirical research (Bar-
tunek, 1984; Pettigrew, 1985). These agents can, in
principle, emerge from anywhere inside the organ-
ization (e.g., Plowman, Baker, Beck, Kulkarni, So-
lansky, & Travis, 2007); however, top managers
(TMs) have been the conventional focusâand for un-
derstandable reasons. These actors play a readily vis-
ible and public role in many change initiatives and
are often hired for the express purpose of transform-
ing failing organizations. In addition, they appear to
possess many of the resources that are most necessary
for this task, such as formal decision authority, con-
trol over resources, and centrality (e.g., Denis, Lang-
ley, & Cazale, 1996; Romanelli & Tushman, 1994).
Over the last two decades, scholars have exam-
ined many different instances of radical change and
presented ample evidence that supports an agentic
view of the process. They have also provided many
useful insights about change agentsâ role within
this process and some prescribed requirements for
success in the job (e.g., Tushman & Romanelli,
1985; Wiersema & Bantel, 1992). Despite its many
important contributions, a closer examination of
this ...
Journal Identification = OPEMAN Article Identification = 715 Date: May 16, 2011 Time: 5:11 pm
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Journal of Operations Management 29 (2011) 577â590
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Operations Management
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / j o m
alancing priorities: Decision-making in sustainable supply chain management
haohui Wu a,â, Mark Pagell b,1
Oregon State University, College of Business, 200 Bexell Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331-2603, United States
Schulich School of Business, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:
eceived 28 June 2008
eceived in revised form
7 September 2010
ccepted 25 October 2010
vailable online 3 November 2010
a b s t r a c t
The need for environmental protection and increasing demands for natural resources are forcing com-
panies to reconsider their business models and restructure their supply chain operations. Scholars and
proactive companies have begun to create more sustainable supply chains. What has not been fully
addressed is how organizations deal with short-term pressures to remain economically viable while
implementing these newly modeled supply chains. In this study, we use theory-building through case
eywords:
reen supply chain management
ecision-making
ustainability
studies to answer the question: how do organizations balance short-term profitability and long-term
environmental sustainability when making supply chain decisions under conditions of uncertainty? We
present five sets of propositions that explain how exemplars in green supply chain management make
decisions and balance short and long term objectives. We also identify four environmental postures
that help explain the decisions organizations make when dealing with strategic trade-offs among the
economic, environmental and social elements of the triple-bottom-line.
. Introduction
Organizations have begun to examine their supply chains in
esponse to numerous interrelated economic and environmental
hallenges such as fluctuations in commodity prices and climate
hange. Critics confront âbusiness as usualâ and demand sustain-
ble practices. Many organizations initially resist change, but some
ompanies have recently begun to transform their supply chains in
fforts to become more sustainable.
How difficult this transformation will be is debatable. There is
body of research which suggests that many organizations can
imultaneously achieve business goals and reduce their environ-
ental impacts (e.g. Russo and Fouts, 1997; Christmann, 2000;
elnyk et al., 2003). However, while waste and pollution reduction
re aligned with the traditional goals of operations management,
ot all environmental practices will bring cost savings and some
ill increase costs, especially in the short term. For instance, proac-
ive investment in green technology .
Whither policy innovation? Mapping conceptual engagement with public policy i...Araz Taeihagh
Â
Abstract
A transition to sustainable energy will require not only technological diffusion and behavioral change, but also policy innovation. While research on energy transitions has generated an extensive literature, the extent to which it has used the policy innovation perspective â entailing policy entrepreneurship or invention, policy diffusion, and policy success â remains unclear. This study analyzes over 8000 publications on energy transitions through a bibliometric review and computational text analysis to create an overview of the scholarship, map conceptual engagement with public policy, and identify the use of the policy innovation lens in the literature. We find that: (i) though the importance of public policy is frequently highlighted in the research, the public policy itself is analyzed only occasionally; (ii) studies focusing on public policy have primarily engaged with the concepts of policy mixes, policy change, and policy process; and (iii) the notions of policy entrepreneurship or invention, policy diffusion, and policy success are hardly employed to understand the sources, speed, spread, or successes of energy transitions. We conclude that the value of the policy innovation lens for energy transitions research remains untapped and propose avenues for scholars to harness this potential.
Experimental publicadministration from1992 to 2014A sy.docxrhetttrevannion
Â
Experimental public
administration from
1992 to 2014
A systematic literature review
and ways forward
Robin Bouwman
Public Administration Department, Institute for Management Research,
Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, and
Stephan Grimmelikhuijsen
Utrecht School of Governance, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Abstract
Purpose â Based on previous inventories, the purpose of this paper is to extend the knowledge on
public administration experiments by focusing on their experimental type, design, sample type
and realism levels and external validity. The aim is to provide an overview of experimental public
administration and formulate potential ways forward.
Design/methodology/approach â The authors examine the current state of experimental public
administration, by looking at a systematic selection of ISI ranked experimental publications in major
public administration journals (1992-2014) and recommend ways forward based on this review.
Findings â The review indicates a rise in experimentation in public administration in recent years, this
can be attributed mostly to some subfields of public administration. Furthermore, most experiments in
public administration tend to have relatively simple designs, high experimental realism and a focus on
external validity. Experimental public administration can be strengthened by increasing diversification in
terms of samples, experimental designs, experimental types and substantive scope. Finally, the authors
recommend to better utilize experiments to generate usable knowledge for practitioners and to replicate
experiments to improve scientific rigour.
Originality/value â This paper contributes to experimental public administration by drawing on a
systematic selection of papers and assessing them in depth. By means of a transparent and systematic
selection of publications, various venues or ways forward are presented.
Keywords Causality, Experiments, Literature review, Methodological innovation,
Public management research, Replication
Paper type Literature review
1. Introduction
In contrast with other social sciences, such as psychology, economy and more
recently political science, public administration research does not have a tradition of
experimentation. Various leading public administration scholars have called for
more experimentation in our field in addition to the current methodological toolkit
International Journal of Public
Sector Management
Vol. 29 No. 2, 2016
pp. 110-131
Š Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0951-3558
DOI 10.1108/IJPSM-07-2015-0129
Received 6 July 2015
Revised 15 November 2015
Accepted 15 December 2015
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0951-3558.htm
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the IRSPM conference 2014 in Ottawa, Canada.
The authors want to thank two anonymous reviewers and the editor-in-chief, Sandra van Thiel,
for their constructive feedb.
A theoretical framework oforganizational changeGabriele .docxstandfordabbot
Â
A theoretical framework of
organizational change
Gabriele Jacobs
Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
Arjen van Witteloostuijn
University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium, Tilburg University, Tilburg,
The Netherlands, and Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands, and
Jochen Christe-Zeyse
Fachhochschule der Polizei Brandenburg, Brandenburg, Germany
Abstract
Purpose â Organizational change is a risky endeavour. Most change initiatives fall short on their
goals and produce high opportunity and process costs, which at times outweigh the content benefits of
organizational change. This paper seeks to develop a framework, offering a theoretical toolbox to
analyze context-dependent barriers and enablers of organizational change. Starting from an
organizational identity perspective, it aims to link contingency-based approaches, such as
environmental scan, SWOT and stakeholder analysis, with insights from organizational behaviour
research, such as knowledge sharing and leadership.
Design/methodology/approach â The framework is informed by long-lasting field research into
organizational change in an international policing environment. The theories in the framework are
selected from the perspective of field validity in two ways; they were chosen because the topics
covered by these theories emerged as relevant during the field research and therefore it can be
expected they have applicability to the field. The authorsâ insights and suggestions are summarised in
13 propositions throughout the text.
Findings â The analysis provides a clear warning that organizational change is more risky and
multifaceted than change initiators typically assume. It is stressed that the external environment and
the internal dynamics of organizations co-determine the meaning of managerial practices. This implies
that cure-all recipes to organizational change are bound to fail.
Originality/value â This paper makes an ambitious attempt to cross disciplinary boundaries in the
field of organizational change research to contribute to a more comprehensive and holistic
understanding of change processes by integrating perspectives that focus on the internal context and
the external environment of organizations.
Keywords Organizational change, Contingency analysis, Culture, Leadership, Environmental scan,
Police, Public security, Public management, International environment, Costs of change, Policing
Paper type Research paper
Organizational change as a risky strategy
Organizational change is omnipresent, being the raison dâeĚtre of the consultancy
industry (Sorge and van Witteloostuijn, 2004). Modern organization sciences have
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0953-4814.htm
The authors would like to thank the project partners for their contribution to this work. This
research is partially funded by the European Commission in the context of the COMPOSITE
projec.
Governing Low Carbon Transitions Presentation given by Adrian Smith at the BSA Climate Change Study Group Conference on 17 January 2011 at the British Library Conference Centre, London, UK.
Presentation by Prof John Grin given at the ESRC-funded seminar on Sustainability Transitions held at the University of Liverpool on 30 June 2011. See http://sustainabilitytransitions.info/ for further details
Assignment ResourcesFrom Support to Mutiny.pdfFROM SUPPOR.docxrock73
Â
Assignment Resources/From Support to Mutiny.pdf
FROM SUPPORT TO MUTINY: SHIFTING LEGITIMACY
JUDGMENTS AND EMOTIONAL REACTIONS IMPACTING THE
IMPLEMENTATION OF RADICAL CHANGE
QUY NGUYEN HUY
INSEAD
KEVIN G. CORLEY
Arizona State University
MATTHEW S. KRAATZ
University of Illinois
Based on a three-year inductive study of one organizationâs implementation of radical
organizational change, we examine the critical role played by middle managersâ
judgments of the legitimacy of their top managers as change agents. Our analysis
revealed middle managersâ shifting judgments of the change agentsâ legitimacy that
arose with their emotional reactions and produced rising resistance to the change
effort. Our inductive model illustrates the dynamic, relational, and iterative relation-
ships among change recipientsâ legitimacy judgments of change agents and arising
emotional reactions in various phases of planned change, which explain recipientsâ
emergent resistance to the change effort. Our model allows us to contribute to theory
on radical organizational change, resistance to change, and legitimacy judgments.
Organizational scholars have long recognized the
severe challenges involved in organizational trans-
formation efforts and the necessary role that indi-
vidual agents play within them (Amis, Slack, &
Hinings, 2004; Hinings & Greenwood, 1996; Huy,
2002; Singh, House, & Tucker, 1986). Planned rad-
ical organizational change (PROC), which funda-
mentally alters the power structure, culture, rou-
tines, and strategy of the entire organization, often
appears to be the only option available in dire
circumstances (Miller & Friesen, 1980; Tushman &
Romanelli, 1985). As such, scholars have generally
treated radical change as an inherently volitional
phenomenon and placed change agents at the cen-
ter of their theories and empirical research (Bar-
tunek, 1984; Pettigrew, 1985). These agents can, in
principle, emerge from anywhere inside the organ-
ization (e.g., Plowman, Baker, Beck, Kulkarni, So-
lansky, & Travis, 2007); however, top managers
(TMs) have been the conventional focusâand for un-
derstandable reasons. These actors play a readily vis-
ible and public role in many change initiatives and
are often hired for the express purpose of transform-
ing failing organizations. In addition, they appear to
possess many of the resources that are most necessary
for this task, such as formal decision authority, con-
trol over resources, and centrality (e.g., Denis, Lang-
ley, & Cazale, 1996; Romanelli & Tushman, 1994).
Over the last two decades, scholars have exam-
ined many different instances of radical change and
presented ample evidence that supports an agentic
view of the process. They have also provided many
useful insights about change agentsâ role within
this process and some prescribed requirements for
success in the job (e.g., Tushman & Romanelli,
1985; Wiersema & Bantel, 1992). Despite its many
important contributions, a closer examination of
this ...
Journal Identification = OPEMAN Article Identification = 715 Date: May 16, 2011 Time: 5:11 pm
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Journal of Operations Management 29 (2011) 577â590
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Operations Management
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / j o m
alancing priorities: Decision-making in sustainable supply chain management
haohui Wu a,â, Mark Pagell b,1
Oregon State University, College of Business, 200 Bexell Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331-2603, United States
Schulich School of Business, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:
eceived 28 June 2008
eceived in revised form
7 September 2010
ccepted 25 October 2010
vailable online 3 November 2010
a b s t r a c t
The need for environmental protection and increasing demands for natural resources are forcing com-
panies to reconsider their business models and restructure their supply chain operations. Scholars and
proactive companies have begun to create more sustainable supply chains. What has not been fully
addressed is how organizations deal with short-term pressures to remain economically viable while
implementing these newly modeled supply chains. In this study, we use theory-building through case
eywords:
reen supply chain management
ecision-making
ustainability
studies to answer the question: how do organizations balance short-term profitability and long-term
environmental sustainability when making supply chain decisions under conditions of uncertainty? We
present five sets of propositions that explain how exemplars in green supply chain management make
decisions and balance short and long term objectives. We also identify four environmental postures
that help explain the decisions organizations make when dealing with strategic trade-offs among the
economic, environmental and social elements of the triple-bottom-line.
. Introduction
Organizations have begun to examine their supply chains in
esponse to numerous interrelated economic and environmental
hallenges such as fluctuations in commodity prices and climate
hange. Critics confront âbusiness as usualâ and demand sustain-
ble practices. Many organizations initially resist change, but some
ompanies have recently begun to transform their supply chains in
fforts to become more sustainable.
How difficult this transformation will be is debatable. There is
body of research which suggests that many organizations can
imultaneously achieve business goals and reduce their environ-
ental impacts (e.g. Russo and Fouts, 1997; Christmann, 2000;
elnyk et al., 2003). However, while waste and pollution reduction
re aligned with the traditional goals of operations management,
ot all environmental practices will bring cost savings and some
ill increase costs, especially in the short term. For instance, proac-
ive investment in green technology .
Whither policy innovation? Mapping conceptual engagement with public policy i...Araz Taeihagh
Â
Abstract
A transition to sustainable energy will require not only technological diffusion and behavioral change, but also policy innovation. While research on energy transitions has generated an extensive literature, the extent to which it has used the policy innovation perspective â entailing policy entrepreneurship or invention, policy diffusion, and policy success â remains unclear. This study analyzes over 8000 publications on energy transitions through a bibliometric review and computational text analysis to create an overview of the scholarship, map conceptual engagement with public policy, and identify the use of the policy innovation lens in the literature. We find that: (i) though the importance of public policy is frequently highlighted in the research, the public policy itself is analyzed only occasionally; (ii) studies focusing on public policy have primarily engaged with the concepts of policy mixes, policy change, and policy process; and (iii) the notions of policy entrepreneurship or invention, policy diffusion, and policy success are hardly employed to understand the sources, speed, spread, or successes of energy transitions. We conclude that the value of the policy innovation lens for energy transitions research remains untapped and propose avenues for scholars to harness this potential.
Experimental publicadministration from1992 to 2014A sy.docxrhetttrevannion
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Experimental public
administration from
1992 to 2014
A systematic literature review
and ways forward
Robin Bouwman
Public Administration Department, Institute for Management Research,
Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, and
Stephan Grimmelikhuijsen
Utrecht School of Governance, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Abstract
Purpose â Based on previous inventories, the purpose of this paper is to extend the knowledge on
public administration experiments by focusing on their experimental type, design, sample type
and realism levels and external validity. The aim is to provide an overview of experimental public
administration and formulate potential ways forward.
Design/methodology/approach â The authors examine the current state of experimental public
administration, by looking at a systematic selection of ISI ranked experimental publications in major
public administration journals (1992-2014) and recommend ways forward based on this review.
Findings â The review indicates a rise in experimentation in public administration in recent years, this
can be attributed mostly to some subfields of public administration. Furthermore, most experiments in
public administration tend to have relatively simple designs, high experimental realism and a focus on
external validity. Experimental public administration can be strengthened by increasing diversification in
terms of samples, experimental designs, experimental types and substantive scope. Finally, the authors
recommend to better utilize experiments to generate usable knowledge for practitioners and to replicate
experiments to improve scientific rigour.
Originality/value â This paper contributes to experimental public administration by drawing on a
systematic selection of papers and assessing them in depth. By means of a transparent and systematic
selection of publications, various venues or ways forward are presented.
Keywords Causality, Experiments, Literature review, Methodological innovation,
Public management research, Replication
Paper type Literature review
1. Introduction
In contrast with other social sciences, such as psychology, economy and more
recently political science, public administration research does not have a tradition of
experimentation. Various leading public administration scholars have called for
more experimentation in our field in addition to the current methodological toolkit
International Journal of Public
Sector Management
Vol. 29 No. 2, 2016
pp. 110-131
Š Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0951-3558
DOI 10.1108/IJPSM-07-2015-0129
Received 6 July 2015
Revised 15 November 2015
Accepted 15 December 2015
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0951-3558.htm
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the IRSPM conference 2014 in Ottawa, Canada.
The authors want to thank two anonymous reviewers and the editor-in-chief, Sandra van Thiel,
for their constructive feedb.
A theoretical framework oforganizational changeGabriele .docxstandfordabbot
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A theoretical framework of
organizational change
Gabriele Jacobs
Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
Arjen van Witteloostuijn
University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium, Tilburg University, Tilburg,
The Netherlands, and Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands, and
Jochen Christe-Zeyse
Fachhochschule der Polizei Brandenburg, Brandenburg, Germany
Abstract
Purpose â Organizational change is a risky endeavour. Most change initiatives fall short on their
goals and produce high opportunity and process costs, which at times outweigh the content benefits of
organizational change. This paper seeks to develop a framework, offering a theoretical toolbox to
analyze context-dependent barriers and enablers of organizational change. Starting from an
organizational identity perspective, it aims to link contingency-based approaches, such as
environmental scan, SWOT and stakeholder analysis, with insights from organizational behaviour
research, such as knowledge sharing and leadership.
Design/methodology/approach â The framework is informed by long-lasting field research into
organizational change in an international policing environment. The theories in the framework are
selected from the perspective of field validity in two ways; they were chosen because the topics
covered by these theories emerged as relevant during the field research and therefore it can be
expected they have applicability to the field. The authorsâ insights and suggestions are summarised in
13 propositions throughout the text.
Findings â The analysis provides a clear warning that organizational change is more risky and
multifaceted than change initiators typically assume. It is stressed that the external environment and
the internal dynamics of organizations co-determine the meaning of managerial practices. This implies
that cure-all recipes to organizational change are bound to fail.
Originality/value â This paper makes an ambitious attempt to cross disciplinary boundaries in the
field of organizational change research to contribute to a more comprehensive and holistic
understanding of change processes by integrating perspectives that focus on the internal context and
the external environment of organizations.
Keywords Organizational change, Contingency analysis, Culture, Leadership, Environmental scan,
Police, Public security, Public management, International environment, Costs of change, Policing
Paper type Research paper
Organizational change as a risky strategy
Organizational change is omnipresent, being the raison dâeĚtre of the consultancy
industry (Sorge and van Witteloostuijn, 2004). Modern organization sciences have
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0953-4814.htm
The authors would like to thank the project partners for their contribution to this work. This
research is partially funded by the European Commission in the context of the COMPOSITE
projec.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
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Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Â
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
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This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Â
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Operation âBlue Starâ is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Â
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
⢠The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
⢠The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate âany matterâ at âany timeâ under House Rule X.
⢠The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...
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Articulations Of Sustainability Transition Agency. Mundane Transition Work Among Consulting Engineers
1. 1
Articulations of Sustainability Transition Agency.
Mundane Transition Work among Consulting Engineers
Knut H. Sørensen, Vivian Anette Lagesen and Thea Sofie Melhuus Hojem, Department
of Interdisciplinary Studies of Culture, Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Published in Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 28: 70-78.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2018.02.003 Check with the journal for a final version of the
text.
Abstract
This paper analyses sustainability transition agency among consulting engineers, who
exercise considerable influence in a wide spectrum of environmental decision-making
through advice, calculations and design. They work in an ambiguous space of
governmental requirements, environmental politics, cost considerations, and professional
standards. Nevertheless, many consulting engineers engage with sustainability transitions
in a mundane and modest way. To a varying degree, they combine four kinds of transition
work: (1) sustainable technological problem solving, (2) persuasion work, (3) mediation
work, and (4) institutional work. On this basis, we propose a model of sustainability
transition agency where sustainable technological problem solving is the core activity as
a precondition of necessary sociotechnical change. The three latter kinds of transition
work may facilitate and support the core activity. The study also shows that
environmental regulations, rules and standards are important to sustainability transition
work among consulting engineers, guiding but also providing more space for such efforts.
Keywords
Sustainability transition agency, transition actors, transition work, environmental policy,
consulting engineers.
2. 2
Articulations of Sustainability Transition Agency.
Mundane Transition Work among Consulting Engineers
1. Introduction
Successful sustainable transitions require positive engagement from various professional
groups. Not the least, professionals in the private sector influence a wide spectrum of
environmental decision-making, while working in ambiguous spaces shaped by
governmental requirements, environmental politics, business considerations, and
professional standards. This paper explores how such spaces are navigated with a focus
on consulting engineers, asking about their exercise of sustainability transition agency
and the effects of governmental environmental policies, including standards and
regulations.
Transition actors are people or organisations who are, intentionally or not, agents of
change to make society more sustainable (Ă m, 2015). Since sustainability transitions also
include small steps and nudging, such actors may contribute in modest as well as radical
ways. The former may be the most realistic expectation with regard to private sector
professionals. Nevertheless, it is important to study the enactment of sustainability
transitions in professionalsâ everyday practices. In this manner, we may better understand
the scope and content of such sustainability transition agency and the measures that
influence professionalsâ latitude and choice of action.
We use the concepts of transition actors and transition agency to highlight
environmentally relevant strategies and activities of consulting engineers. Moreover, we
are concerned with the potentially complex distribution of transition agency, including
the varying degree of participation in sustainability transition efforts. We chose to study
consulting engineers for a number of reasons. First, they are a fairly large group of private
sector professionals (around 11 000 in Norway). Second, and more important, their work
has significant and wide-ranging environmental consequences. Consulting engineers
engage in projects that shape and reshape the physical qualities of nature and culture, of
3. 3
landscapes and the built environment. Consulting engineering companies contribute
importantly to physical planning, construction of buildings (including structural
engineering, electrical engineering, and heating, ventilation and sanitation engineering),
construction of infrastructure, transport planning, and water management. In such areas,
they provide technological advice, calculations and designs on a contractual basis, serving
builders, industrial companies, public institutions, etc.
Consulting engineering companies have to be competitive with regard to quality, costs,
and timely delivery as well as in responding to their customersâ needs and requirements.
According to previous research, these features tend to make consulting engineers
conservative in their problem solving (Hojem and Lagesen, 2012; Buch, 2016). We want
to reconsider such characteristics. Even modest efforts at more sustainable problem
solving may be important, including efforts like improved energy efficiency of buildings,
increased use of environmentally friendly materials, more sustainable building practices
and waste management, more environmentally friendly transport systems, and improved
sustainability of factories, marine installations, etc. Thus, consulting engineers are an
interesting case for analysing professionals that may contribute to sustainability
transitions and in different ways. Some may do this moderately and mundane, others in
more radical ways. We examine this by analysing how consulting engineers participate
in and/or modulate sustainability transition efforts.
We use interviews with employees in and managers of consulting engineering companies
to illuminate these issues and to contribute to sustainability transition studies by studying
the navigation of what we expect to be ambiguous spaces of such private sector
professionalsâ transitions agency. This includes the potentially configurational effects of
government environmental policy efforts, with an emphasis on how consulting engineers
interpret these efforts. The rest of the paper is structured as follows: we begin by outlining
the theoretical point of departure and the methods underlying the collection of data. Then
we present findings. In this part, we first give an overview of the practices of transition
agency among consulting engineers. Second, we discuss the role of environmental policy
in shaping these practices, before moving onto possible effects of environmental
governmentality and professionalism. Finally, we present our conclusions and propose a
model of sustainability transition agency.
4. 4
2. The making of transition actors: theoretical perspectives
The most prominent approaches within the fast-growing field of sustainability transitions
studies see innovation as a particularly critical activity for change, albeit in different ways
(Markard et al., 2012). For example, the highly influential multi-level perspective (MLP)
analyses transitions as the outcome of interaction between three levels: landscape, regime
and niche (Rip and Kemp, 1998; Geels, 2002; Schot and Geels, 2008). Socio-technical
regimes impose a logic of and provide direction to incremental socio-technical change
along established pathways of development, which makes socio-technical systems
difficult to transform (Markard et al., 2012). To achieve sustainability transitions, MLP
scholars argue, one needs to find ways of reorienting or producing radical changes in such
regimes. Many consider protecting and nurturing sustainable innovations through
strategic niche management to be the main strategy of change. MLP scholars also focus
on the landscape level since activities here may facilitate or prevent changes in the socio-
technical regime.
Governments are key actors with regard to sustainability transitions (e.g., Kemp et al.,
2005). Not the least, they set goals and timelines for improvements, using a mix of policy
instruments. Often, discussions of the effects of such instruments distinguish between
market-based instruments like taxes and non-market-based measures, which in the
environmental context may comprise direct environmental regulations, active technology
support, and public R&D support. In this paper, such classifications are not important.
Our concern has been to identify the environmental policy instruments and governmental
sustainability goals that the interviewed consulting engineers emphasised in their
accounts of their work. Furthermore, we explore what they say about the effects of these
policy efforts.
Fischer and Newig (2016) review the role of actors in sustainability transitions studies.
They present four different actor typologies: systemic, institutional, governance and
intermediaries. Moreover, actors may be supporters or opponents of transitions. As an
example of a systemic typology, Fischer and Newig propose an interpretation of MLP
where they distinguish between niche and regime actors. They argue that both categories
of actors have limited agency. Niche actors cater for technological innovation that the
regime may adopt, but they depend on government policy. According to Fischer and
5. 5
Newigâs review, regime actors tend to oppose transition, but they may become supportive
if they see the transition to be in their own interests.
Much of the literature that discuss agency with respect to sustainability transitions focuses
on the role of actors as builders or transformers of socio-technical systems (Farla et al.,
2012). Actorsâ interests and expectations may be important to such engagement (Bakker,
2014). Geels et al. (2016) provide a comprehensive analysis of system building strategies
in their study of low carbon energy transition pathways in German and the UK,
highlighting the importance of agency in shaping such pathways. Fuenfschilling and
Truffer (2016) helpfully suggest the concept of institutional work to describe agency in
developing socio-technical systems.
This paper also takes inspiration from Shove and Walkerâs (2007) call for greater
attention toward the actors that are involved in the everyday politics of transition
processes. Our focus on consulting engineers represents an attention to mundane,
potentially incremental acts of transition agency among professionals. This does not
imply that we dismiss the importance of institutional work (Fuenfschilling and Truffer
2016). While government policies influence professions, professions may participate in
the development as well as the enforcement of such policies (Abbott, 1988; Suddaby and
Viale, 2011).
As noted above, Fischer and Newig (2016) suggest studying niche and regime actors.
However, we find their system topology limiting. Instead, we pursue an interactional
approach, which emphasises sense making and actorsâ practices as the outcome of
relations to other humans and non-humans (e.g., Law 1994; Latour 2005). Thus, we
analyse what consulting engineers say they do, the meaning they attach to their work,
their accounts of the diversity, distribution and content of the involved agency, and how
they describe their interaction with other human and non-human actors. In the context of
this paper, other actors are primarily customers and other participants in construction
processes, the government, and new technologies.
6. 6
Thus, we consider the terrain of sustainability transitions as âflatâ, meaning that we study
interactions horizontally and without privileging a priori any actor (Jørgensen, 2012;
Sørensen, 2015; à m, 2015). Drawing on this perspective, we address three forms of
possible transition agency among consulting engineers: innovation, everyday activities,
and efforts to change the socio-technical conditions or context of their work. With respect
to innovation, we examine if the interviewed consulting engineers report such activities,
and, in case, what kind. This includes looking for accounts of governmental policies or
other initiatives that may provide shielding and nurturing of environmental innovations.
Regarding everyday activities of consulting engineers, we analyse how they say they
manage sustainability issues in mundane contexts. Previous research suggests that
consulting engineers tend to emphasise the advantages of re-using designs and the
importance of containing costs to be competitive (Koch, 2004; Ryghaug and Sørensen,
2009; Hojem and Lagesen, 2012; Buch, 2016). However, this does not mean that they
oppose sustainability transitions. By analysing their accounts more closely, we focus on
diversity as an indication of potential for change.
We also look for efforts of consulting engineers to change the conditions of their work:
their institutional work. Houmb (2012) show that The Association of Consulting
Engineers, Norway (RIF) is engaged in influencing policy-making and the setting of
standards. RIF is an industrial association with companies as members, not individuals.
In this paper, we examine if interviewees said that they had participated in initiatives to
influence standard setting and policy-making.
Transition agency may be a response to governmental policies but it may also emerge as
environmentally oriented self-governance among consulting engineers. We ask if
consulting engineers are so-to-speak self-made transition actors in the context of
governmental environmental discourses. This line of thought draws on Michel Foucaultâs
argument that modern societies indirectly discipline their citizens by internalizing
perceptions of ânormalâ behaviour (e.g., Foucault, 1977; Dean, 1999).
7. 7
We analyse possible effects of an environmental governmentality by studying how
interviewees argue with respect to their navigation of sustainability issues. We are
particularly interested in whether they explain actions to participate in or to modulate
sustainability transitions with or without reference to instruments of governance. Do they
consider such transition agency a ânormalâ practice? In this context, it is important to note
that professionals like consulting engineers are âtrusted workersâ (Whalley, 1986),
meaning that they have considerable â albeit varying (Abbott, 1988) â autonomy in their
work.
To summarise, the paper analyses the navigation of the assumed ambiguous space of
consulting engineersâ transition agency by using an interactional approach. In this
manner, the paper explores the concepts of transition actor and transition agency, also by
considering the configurational effects of government environmental policy efforts. This
includes environmental governmentality. We pursue four questions that may be
interrelated: (1) How do consulting engineers account for their everyday efforts with
respect to environmental concerns, and how does transition agency play out in these
accounts? (2) Do they report about engagement in innovation activities? (3) Do they
participate in efforts to influence governmental policy-making and standard setting that
may affect their work? (4) Is the transition agency of consulting engineers an effect of
governance instruments and/or environmental governmentality?
3. Method
We chose a qualitative approach to respond to our research questions since we needed
data about sense-making and concrete practices. First, we interviewed representatives,
usually CEOs or managers, of 40 consulting engineering companies in Norway about
how they and their companies engaged with environmental issues. We experienced the
interviewees as well placed to account for the practices of their companies. The
companies engaged with a wide range of environmentally relevant issues like physical
planning (like nature conservation or urban densification), construction of buildings
(energy efficiency, sustainable materials, sustainable building practices), transport
planning (sustainable transport), and water management (biodiversity, toxicity). The
majority of the employees of the companies held engineering degrees â building
8. 8
engineers, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) engineers, electrical
engineers â but there were also architects, biologists and planners.
We collected this set of data through structured telephone interviews, one interview per
company. The firms varied in size. Fourteen (35 %) had less than 10 employees, sixteen
(40 %) between 10 and 100 employees, while ten companies (25 %) had more than 100
employees. This distribution is reasonably representative of an industry with many small
enterprises, but also with some large firms. The majority of the companies worked with
construction and buildings, some specialised in HVAC, some in project management,
etc., while the large ones covered many areas.
There could be a bias stemming from interviewing people in management positions and
only one from each company. For example, there could have been disagreements about
these issues internally in the companies and conflict of interest between managers and
other employees. However, we interviewed people from quite many consulting
engineering companies and our impression is that the managers had a good overview of
relevant features of the company. Moreover, many of the questions we asked pertained
to company policies. Thus, the sample of interviewees seems appropriate to our inquiry.
Second, we did an in-depth investigation of four consulting engineering companies,
interviewing a total of 15 people. These interviews were done face to face and focused
on the same topics as the telephone interviews, but with a greater focus on details
regarding the practices of the companies. Third, to explore further how consulting
engineering companies try to influence government policies and standards, we have
explored relevant web sites, in particular the home page of the Directorate of Quality of
Buildings (https://dibk.no).
All interviews were taped and transcribed in verbatim. We have translated the quotes used
in the paper into English. The analysis of the data was inspired by grounded theory
methodology based on open coding (e.g., Strauss and Corbin 1990). Our coding focused
on identifying practices and points of view that could be included in the fairly open
concept of sustainability transition agency as well as observations pertaining to
9. 9
environmental policy instruments and their effects on the practices of consulting
engineers. We present the results in the rest of this paper, beginning with how the
interviewed consulting engineers accounted for their everyday practices and transition
agency with respect to sustainability.
4. Sustainability transition agency in the practices of consulting engineers
As noted, consulting engineers engage in a variety of tasks in their everyday practice, in
particular calculations and drawings related to planning, design, and construction. For
example, they may calculate fresh air requirements and energy consumption, or traffic: âI
did calculations of capacity in alternative designs of crossings with traffic lights,
roundabouts, estimates queue lengths ⌠that become input to [calculating] CO2 emissions
and such things. So this is a very typical taskâ (consulting engineer, large company). In
such ways, consulting engineers may engage in sustainable technological problem
solving. This was the most prominent form of transition agency that we observed in the
interviews.
Consulting engineers who worked explicitly with sustainability issues, like
environmental classification of buildings or building waste management, clearly engaged
in this form of transition agency. One interviewee from a small company provided an
example. She did environmental assessment according to the system of the Norwegian
foundation Eco-Lighthouse: âThen you get the number of tons of [CO2] emissions
because you put in square meters [of the building], you put in number of employees, you
put in kilometres driven, you put in diesel, you put in yearly consumption of petrol, you
put in air travel, waste â what you recycle in kilos, litres, and so onâ. In principle, all
interviewees recognised that sustainable technological problem solving was a relevant
form of transition agency. However, many found it challenging to realise this in their
everyday practices.
In the interviews, we found five issues that were important to understand the conditions
and practices of transition agency among consulting engineers: (1) the role of customers
and the interaction between them and the consulting engineers, including customersâ cost
concerns and their knowledge about environmental issues and regulations, (2) project
10. 10
management, (3) the effects of policy instruments like legal regulations, (4) innovation
or change practices, and (5) professional autonomy, the level of interest in environmental
issues, and institutional work to influence standards and regulations. We begin by
addressing the first two issues.
The most prominent aspect of the intervieweesâ accounts of their work was,
unsurprisingly perhaps, that their customers framed the contracts and thus the conditions
of calculation and design efforts. Most interviewees argued that they had limited
possibilities to go beyond what customers wanted, for example with regard to developing
greener designs: âThen it is the question of what we actually can do. We depend on our
customers, since we donât generate the projectsâ (CEO, medium-sized company). If
consulting engineers wanted more emphasis on sustainability, they had to persuade their
customers. Most interviewees found this to be challenging, since they thought that their
customers mainly were concerned with the cost of the assignment and the resulting
construction:
The challenge is in a way to persuade ⌠It all comes down to money, no
matter how you twist and turn it. It is about convincing actors in the building
industry or those who are going to pay the bill that it is sensible to use that
particular material because it pollutes the building site less or because it
causes minimal pollution during production. But itâs not easy. Because the
person commissioning a building wonders why he or she should spend
[substantially more money] per square meter to use that specific material.
Some might think about it, but it is still a small percentage of those who build
who do (CEO, medium-sized company).
In such ways, interviewees explained that the concern to keep costs as low as possible
hampered environmentally friendly problem solving. This does not mean that for example
greener designs always were more expensive, but that interviewees tended to see cost
issues in general as an obstacle to improved sustainability of their calculations and designs
beyond legal and functional requirements. Still, it is important to note, as the above quote
suggests, that many of them said that they really wanted to provide more sustainable
designs and thus to be sustainability transition actors. They would try to persuade their
11. 11
clients to allow them to engage in sustainable problem solving, for example by
considering less polluting materials or more energy efficient alternatives. We call this
second form of transition agency persuasion work. As expected, some also found such
work to be too difficult to do in a successful manner:
Of course, the budget is important, and then the environmental aspects fade
into the background. Itâs like â youâve to wrap up the project at the right time
and at the right cost. And then, the right cost often equals the lowest possible
costs. And environmental issues and costs are often, at least within our trade,
antagonistic (assistant manager, medium-sized company).
There were actually two cost issues; one related to the engagement of the consulting
engineers and the other to the total construction costs. The first encouraged re-use of
calculation procedures and designs, the other invited a focus on the economy of
alternative problem solving. In general, the interviewees described their customers as less
concerned with environmental issues, which was a challenge to their persuasion work.
Several also introduced their customersâ lack of competence in the environmental area as
a major obstacle, since this meant that the customers did not know what to ask for. One
interviewee reflected around this problem in the following way, while stating a clear
motivation to be a sustainability transition actor: âEnvironmental knowledge is not in
demand, but you know we do use it â when such issues are raised, illuminated. But, like,
there are few [customers] who are able to ask for or demand it. Among contractors, among
other actors â I think there is a very low level of competence, so the demand [for
environmental knowledge] is small, but it is welcome when it is expressed!â (project
manager, medium-sized company).
What Koch (2004) calls âthe tyranny of the projectâ represented another potential hurdle.
This concept emerges from consulting engineers experienced lack of ability to make
changes in a contract when it has been signed. The interviewees complained that they
entered construction projects at a stage when the main issues had already been decided
and were difficult to alter. However, on a more positive note, some interviewees claimed
to experience an increasing demand for environmental knowledge. One project manager
told that: âThere is a demand from our customers, so such issues become a natural part of
12. 12
projectsâ. These interviewees believed that there was a growing market for
environmentally focused services. This invited transition agency with respect to
sustainable problem solving, even if interviewees could be worried about deficiencies in
customersâ procurement competence and their strict cost focus.
Another manager, when asked if there was an increasing demand for environmental
knowledge among costumers, responded: âNo, I canât call it an increase. But thereâs more
focus on it today, especially from public clients. Within the private market, there is not
so much focus on it. (âŚ) They wonât pay for itâ (CEO, medium-sized company).
Actually, several interviewees claimed that there was a difference between public and
private customers with regard to environmental concern. A regional manager in a large
provider of services to the building industry told that âPublic clients are increasingly
aware [of environmental concerns], while private builders tend to emphasise economic
rather than environmental considerations.â
Another interviewee observed that: âMany of the public clients have environmental
requirements, while some of the private; they try to get away [with less sustainable
problem solving]â (CEO, large company). The finding that public customers were more
active than private ones in asking for sustainable problem solving could reflect political
signals that buildings owned by public authorities should be at the forefront with respect
to sustainability. However, Norwegian authorities have not launched clear policies to
such ends (Sørensen, 2017).
When we asked who typically would request environmentally friendly knowledge and
technology in a project, a common response was:
Thatâs usually the project manager. But the outcome depends on the
requirements made by our customer with respect to such issues. Yes, we
should take care of it [environmental issues], but there is no point in imposing
a Rolls Royce design on someone who isnât willing to pay for itâ (team
manager, medium-sized company).
13. 13
Many interviewees considered project management as important to their possibility to
exercise transition agency, but less so than customers. One of them explained that if the
project had an environmentally motivated project manager, it was easier to negotiate the
inclusion of environmental concerns:
(I)tâs related to the individual. It can make a big difference if the builder is
professional and employs a project manager who is concerned with
[environmental issues]. But if we meet a builder where the project manager
is a bit weak and they have hired a professional project management
company, then whatâs important is the budget (assistant manager, medium-
sized company).
Overall, we received a diversity of responses regarding the conditions of exercising
transition agency. Some were optimistic:
I feel weâve a great deal of influence, since itâs up to us to take the initiative
because the customer isnât familiar with all the options. Of course, you may
have a very concerned customer who knows what he wants, but most
customers, I think, are people who own a piece of land, or a builder who wants
to have something developed. He leaves a lot to the consultants, to the
architects and the planners (CEO of a large company offering physical
planning services).
Other interviewees, particularly from small companies, voiced more gloomy and
defensive attitudes: âThen there is the question of what we actually can do (âŚ). We donât
exercise any influence with respect to the attention given to environmental issues in the
project. So what we can do is keep track of ourselves. Weâre only humans, so ⌠Maybe
we donât have that much to contributeâ (CEO, small company).
As we have learnt, the interviewees considered customers to have a strong influence on
their practice and their options with respect to catering to environmental concerns. In
most cases, they saw this influence as constraining their transition agency due to
14. 14
customersâ cost concerns and their lack of environmental knowledge. Project
management and contractual issues were also important. Despite difficulties, many
interviewees were motivated to engage with sustainability transition activities and some
claimed to take initiatives to this effect, in particular by engaging in persuasion work. The
space of action was constrained but offered possibilities. What role did governmental
policy play to motivate consultant engineers and facilitate their transition agency?
5. Environmental policy and the space for transition agency
One might expect that customersâ cost concerns would make them sensitive to market-
based policy instruments aimed at promoting environmentally oriented problem solving.
However, the interviewed consulting engineers did not mention any such policy
instruments, like the Norwegian carbon tax, making their customers asking for more
sustainability-oriented services. However, a few mentioned a government programme
that offered economic support for âmodel buildingsâ.
The intervieweesâ accounts suggested so-called non-market based instruments to be more
effective. Such measures, above all building codes, made more sustainable technological
problem-solving mandatory. This helped them exercise transition agency like persuasion
work. It should be emphasised that in particular the building codes had become
considerably stricter just before we conducted the interviews. Many interviewees also
expected the codes soon to become even more exacting and include a requirement of so-
called passive house standard of energy efficiency. They considered such standards as
crucial and much more so than environmental concerns in general because they produced
a demand for improved sustainability of their deliverables: âIn the inquiries from our
customers, they include some demands with regard to the environment, where they want
such issues [regulations] to be taken care of. Whether itâs a road or a pipe-line project,
thereâll be some regulations regarding to the environmentâ (CEO, large company).
Environmental regulations modified cost concerns, since such requirements had to be
met.
Accordingly, if customers knew about relevant regulations, we were told that they were
concerned with fulfilling them, sometimes even willing to go beyond them. A consulting
15. 15
engineer in a small company put it this way: âWe recognize that [the demand for
environmental expertise] is on the increase now because it has become a requirement
from the authorities.â Accordingly, environmentally relevant regulations provided space
for sustainability transition agency. Moreover, meeting regulations and standards meant
that the consulting engineers had to sort out what were relevant requirements and find
ways to meet them.
Much of the work with respect to regulations involved calculation. Interviewees provided
several examples of this. One employee from a large company told about their work with
mapping polluted grounds: âYou do some environmental risk assessment related to
spreading [of toxins] and such things. Then you use calculation tools based on
hydrogeological principles and spreading to water and such. In other such environmental
risk assessments, you look at the risk of emissions and the danger regarding what may
become exposed, and then you use more general risk analysis and methodsâ.
To meet building code requirements regarding energy efficiency, several interviewees
told that they used a standard software package to calculate, for example, the effect of
alternatives regarding insulation, energy quality of windows, heating system, and air
change. A consulting engineer in a large company described his work like this: âI build
the body of the building visually, as you were to build it in reality. Then you calculate;
change the qualities of windows, doors, walls, roof, humans present, energy supply, and
ventilation. Then, one simulates different kinds of maintenance from expected use and
from what is supposed to be in the buildingsâ. In the end, the calculations would also
serve as proof that relevant requirements were met.
It is important to note that adherence to regulations and standards was not a
straightforward issue: âI believe it is very important to avoid spreading of environmental
toxins (âŚ). And of course, there are some laws, rules and guidelines that we shall adhere
to. But in practice, this is a rubber band. The control of the authorities is not always good
enoughâ (consulting engineer, large company). This interviewee also emphasized his
persuasion work, trying to make customers choosing alternatives that were
environmentally more ambitious.
16. 16
Furthermore, when customers lacked knowledge about relevant regulations and
standards, the interviewed consulting engineers said they would inform about the
requirements, making sure that they were met. Still, as we have already seen, the
interviewees had to act as mediators (Latour, 2005) because regulations and standards
need interpretation. Moreover, usually, there was more than one way to meet the
requirements. We consider mediation work as a third, important form of transition
agency.
One kind of mediation work was to clarify the meaning of relevant texts: âMany times,
we wonder what they [the authorities] really meant. What is the correct reading [of a
particular technical standard or a legal document]? And then, several of us may stand and
discuss, and then agree that in our company, we understand it like that. (âŚ) But you do
not always grasp that there is room for interpretation before you have plummeted out with
both legsâ (consulting engineer, large company).
Another kind of mediation work was to identify alternative ways of meeting the
requirements of relevant technical standards and legal regulations. This also provided
space for transition agency. For example, some interviewees told that when they mediated
standards and regulations, they used this as an opportunity to challenge their customers
to opt for more ambitious alternatives: âOne thing is that there are statutes and regulations
that you are supposed to follow. Because there are really a lot of them, right? But, there
are other matters, too, like to challenge them [the customers] with respect to available
options â simply to be a little pushyâ (consulting engineer, large company). He continued
by pointing to the potential importance of thinking long-term rather than short-term. This
could be relevant with respect to both economic and environmental considerations.
It is notable that the interviewees did not talk explicitly about innovation as part of their
work, possibly because they considered using this concept making too much of what they
thought of as modest and mundane efforts. Moreover, they tended to understand
innovation in the building area and other consulting engineering fields as developing new
technologies, like new materials. Rather, the consulting engineers described their
17. 17
mediation work in terms that we interpret to represent incremental inventions, since they
seldom shared the results outside the company.
The incremental feature of changes towards improved sustainability was also a backdrop
of intervieweesâ complaints that they found it difficult to be creative in their work when
re-use of existing designs was expected. One interviewee reflected that: âI believe that
itâs healthy to have a mix of copying and being innovative. But you donât need to invent
gunpowder every time. Then you lose the advantage of learning from experienceâ
(consulting engineer, large company).
Thus, when we suggest describing the practice of transition agency among consulting
engineers as mostly mundane, it is because they operated in a context where small-step
changes were most frequent. When we see the consulting engineers as engaged with
sustainability transition agency, their accounts emphasise incremental everyday efforts to
provide for improved environmental qualities, not radical change. While environmentally
oriented policy instruments were important to such mundane sustainability transition
agency, they did not result in much visible innovations among consulting engineers.
However, mediation work was widespread.
Thus, consulting engineers are vital to realise the policy goals underlying environmental
standards and regulations and we should recognise the positive effects of their transition
agency. In particular, their sustainable technological problem solving and their persuasion
and mediation work were important, even if it was mundane and the interviewees tended
to be modest about their achievements. When we asked about their engagement with
environmental concerns, their responses tended â as we have seen â to provide excuses
why they did not do more. Could this have been an effect of sustainability-oriented
governmentality, which suggested that they ought to have contributed more?
6. Governmentality, professionalism and transition agency
We suggested earlier that we might observe governmentality with regard to sustainability
through the interviewed consulting engineersâ accounts of issues pertinent to âproperâ
professional conduct. Was interest in and knowledge of sustainability an integrated part
18. 18
of the professional role of the interviewees? Were they self-governed sustainability
transition actors? We ask these questions also to reflect further about the conditions of
consulting engineers to exercise transition agency.
With respect to professional autonomy, our data suggest that the situation was ambiguous.
The importance of business considerations was evident. The interviewees emphasised
their professional responsibility to meet customersâ needs and requests but also to make
sure that their problem solving was technologically sound and in accordance with relevant
standards and legal frameworks. Such accounts suggest a modest if any effect of
environmental governmentality.
Still, clearly, the interviewees knew that environmental issues were important, even if
their emphasis varied. Notably, some told us that younger engineers were more
environmentally concerned: âYes, definitely, young engineers are much more interested
in this [environmental issues] and have a greater focus on it than those of us whoâve been
in the business for a while.â In response to a follow-up question about the reason for this,
the interviewee replied that: âI think that has to do with the fact that after a while, after
having done quite a few projects, you have acquired experience with designs that work,
and youâll want to continue using these instead of being maybe as innovative as one
should be.â In the long run, it might not be realistic to be an innovative transition actor,
give or take professional autonomy. To many interviewees, it appeared to be more
important to be good at the âtraditional stuffâ than to have advanced environmental
knowledge and skills in sustainable problem solving. They tended to present the
professional qualities of consulting engineers as being technologically knowledgeable,
legally skilful, and cost aware.
Nevertheless, a substantial number of the interviewees said that they personally were
concerned with environmental issues: âYes, I even think about it in my spare time!â,
exclaimed a team manager in a small company. Some also told that they felt a moral
responsibility to provide sustainable problem solving, which could be a source of
frustration:
19. 19
I try to be engaged in environmental issues generally, in relation to buildings.
And to the extent Iâm able to influence the customer to give attention to
environmental issues, I will. But usually, we get involved in projects that
already are decided with regard to environmental issues (consulting engineer,
small company).
In such manner, many interviewees made disclaimers with respect to being responsible
for providing environmentally friendly outcomes. They argued that it was their customers
or public authorities that should be held accountable:
Yes, I think, in a way, the politicians and the whole apparatus around them,
their advisors [carry the main responsibility]. They are the ones who need to
be focusing on doing something [âŚ]. Yes, thatâs what I think. [Politicians
should act on] the framework, the big picture, but thatâs not something we
can do anything about in our company, other than to observe and try to
provide our input where weâre able to do so (CEO, medium-sized company).
Overall, the majority seemed to find it easier to sway customers rather than politicians,
since, as one consulting engineer noted: âwe engineers donât have that much interaction
with politicians.â However, we were given a few examples of institutional work
(Fuenfschilling and Truffer, 2016), a fourth form of sustainability transition agency
aiming to influence technical standards and legal regulations. They came mainly from
interviewees in the large companies, who emphasised how they worked together with
consulting engineers from other companies through the previously mentioned
Association of Consulting Engineers, Norway (RIF) and its specialist committees. A
particular focus was building codes:
(B)ut I see that [the present energy in buildings] standard is insufficient with
respect to many areas related to equipment. And it does not bring on board
data processing centres, the cooling of data processing centres and outdoors,
20. 20
like melting of snow and such things. There are defects. And we work to
change that (consulting engineer, large company).
The same interviewee also told she had been on the national news arguing the need to
make building standards stricter to improve sustainability.
The interviewees engaged in institutional work told that hearings were a major channel
of influence, like with respect to building codes. When we looked at the organisations
that responded to the hearing about the most recent proposal for revising building codes
(TEK17), we found that 13 consulting engineering companies had provided comments
(https://dibk.no/byggereglene/horinger/hoyringar/forslag-ny-byggteknisk-forskrift). This
group included most of the large consulting engineering companies in Norway.
To summarise, many interviewees were concerned with environmental issues. All of them
were aware that addressing such issues were a relevant part of their work. We interpret
this as an effect of environmental governmentality â that it was ânormalâ to consider
sustainability as part of their job. The effect may be modest because the interviewees
tended to deny responsibility with respect to sustainable problem solving and many
questioned their own capacity to generate changes, due to what they considered their
limited professional autonomy.
Quite a few were not eager to engage in persuasion work to convince customers to choose
sustainable alternatives that went beyond legal requirements, in particular those working
in small companies. They voiced a very pragmatic approach, like the one expressed by a
self-employed consulting engineer: âIâm not rigid. Iâm more of a working guy. Iâm not a
politician [âŚ]. I donât try to sway my clients. If theyâve decided to go for a, so to speak,
traditional design, then thatâs fine by me.â Others appeared to be more proactive and
positive. Such differences reflect the ambiguity of the space of sustainability transition
agency as well as the diversity of practices.
21. 21
7. Conclusion: Sustainability transition agency and transition work among
consulting engineers
This paper has explored the concepts of sustainability transition actors and sustainability
agency with respect to a group of professionals working in the private sector: consulting
engineers. They play a vital role in the shaping of the physical structures of modern
society, contributing to the design of the built environment and other infrastructure.
Previous research suggests that this group tend to make conservative choices. Thus, we
expected them to exercise mundane and moderate sustainability transition agency. Our
findings confirmed this expectation and also suggested promising new ways of theorising
such agency.
Context was clearly important to the exercise of sustainability transition agency among
the interviewed consulting engineers, above all environmental policy articulated through
regulations, rules and standards. These measures shaped the engineersâ space of action
and facilitated sustainability transition agency but not in a uniquely defined manner. In
particular, customers introduced ambiguity in the way they framed enquiries and
assignments, putting varying emphasis on cost containment and presenting different
levels of ambition regarding sustainability.
We observed several levels of activity in dealing with sustainable issues, indicating
diversity with respect to professional standards regarding environmental issues. Quite a
few of the interviewees were clearly reactive in their approach, others were hesitant, and
some mentioned more pro-active strategies in response to our questions. Thus, the
sustainability transition agency of professionals like consulting engineers should not be
considered a matter of either-or. Rather, such agency is an assemblage of practices where
the engagement with environmental concerns and the actual pursuit of sustainable
problem solving vary substantially. At the same time, instead of focusing on such
differences, it is more fruitful to understand sustainability transition agency as exercised
through the four kinds of transition work that we observed in the accounts of our
interviewees: (1) sustainable technological problem solving, (2) persuasion work to
induce customers to go for more sustainable options, (3) mediation work to clarify the
ways in which regulations, rules and standards might be met, and (4) institutional work
(Fuenfschilling and Truffer, 2016) to influence governmental policies and regulations,
rules and standards to become stricter.
22. 22
Sustainable technological problem solving is the core activity in our proposed model of
sustainability transition agency; such problem solving is the key to necessary
sociotechnical changes. Persuasion, mediation and institutional work were potential
support actions that could help shaping the assignments and the contracts that the
consulting engineers negotiated, while experience from sustainable technological
problem solving were helpful to exercise the other kinds of transition work. Furthermore,
institutional work could facilitate persuasion and mediation work if it resulted in stricter
environmental regulations, rules and standards. A few interviewees also mentioned their
experiences from persuasion and/or mediation work as a resource to engage in
institutional work.
Thus, we may see sustainability transition agency as exercised through four potentially
reinforcing forms of transition work within a context where environmental governance
measures are very important but not the only feature of concern. From the accounts of the
interviewees we learn that the sustainability transition agency of consulting engineers
vary according to resources, competence, interpretation of professional standards, and
attitudes. For example, large companies seemed more pro-active than small ones, and a
high level of environmentally relevant knowledge was considered helpful to see
alternative ways of solving problems. While environmental governance through direct,
non-market based instruments was described to us as the most effective measures to
encourage and facilitate transition work, there are clearly additional possibilities like
improving the knowledge of and the motivation for engaging with environmental issues.
What about innovation, usually considered vital to sustainability transitions? Such work
was seldom mentioned. When interviewees talked about finding new ways to solve
problems in an environmentally friendly way, they usually described this as part of their
everyday activities and with incremental, not radical properties. There were rare mentions
of shielded spaces of creative problem solving, like a governmental programme
supporting so-called model buildings and instances where customers were interested in
sustainable designs on an unusually ambitious note. However, this seemed to have modest
if any effects outside the companies engaged in such projects; the outcomes were not
clearly mainstreamed (Sørensen, 2015). Still, in our proposed model of sustainability
23. 23
transitions agency, innovation work may be added as a sub-category of sustainable
technological problem solving.
Acknowledgements
Research Council of Norway has supported the research (grant no. 183575). We are
grateful for very useful comments from the editor and two anonymous reviewers.
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