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Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound structures like the nucleus that houses the genetic material. The defining feature of eukaryotic cells is the nucleus, which gives these cells their name meaning "good kernel". Eukaryotic cells also contain other structures like mitochondria, chloroplasts and the Golgi apparatus. Prokaryotic cells like bacteria and archaea lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound structures. DNA contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all living organisms and some viruses. It acts as the long-term storage of this information and can be compared to a blueprint or code.
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introduction to molecular biology
The document provides an overview of molecular biology, including its key components and history. It discusses three domains of life categorized based on cellular complexity. Molecular biology is defined as the study of gene structure and function at the molecular level, including DNA replication, RNA transcription, and protein translation. Major events outlined include discoveries of DNA and RNA structure, restriction enzymes, gene cloning, and the ongoing human genome project.
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This document summarizes the key concepts covered in a lecture on molecular and cellular biology:
1. The basic unit of life on Earth is the cell. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotes and eukaryotes - which differ in their structure and complexity.
2. All organisms on Earth evolved from a common ancestor that lived 3.5-4 billion years ago. Molecular evidence from comparative genetics supports the theory of evolution.
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The genetic material of a cell refers to materials like DNA, RNA, and proteins that play a fundamental role in determining cell structure and heredity. Early experiments suggested DNA, RNA, or proteins could be the genetic material. However, later experiments provided strong evidence that DNA is the primary genetic material:
1. Frederick Griffith's experiments in 1928 with pneumococcus bacteria showed that genetic information could be transferred between bacteria.
2. In 1944, Avery, Macleod, and McCarty proved that the transforming principle in pneumococcus was DNA, not RNA or proteins.
3. In 1952, Hershey and Chase's experiment with bacteriophage T2 virus showed that only DNA entered bacterial cells
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Three key experiments helped resolve the question of whether DNA or protein served as the genetic material. Griffith's transformation experiment showed that heat-killed bacteria could transform live bacteria, indicating a heritable factor. Avery, MacLeod and McCarty's experiments showed that the transforming principle was destroyed by DNAase, showing it was DNA. Hershey and Chase used radioactively labeled bacteriophage to infect bacteria, finding that only the label in the phage's DNA entered the bacterial cells, demonstrating that DNA rather than protein transfers genetic information. These experiments established DNA as the genetic material.
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The document provides a history of molecular biology, describing how it emerged from the union of biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, and virology in the 1930s. It summarizes several major discoveries and events, including identifying DNA as the genetic material in 1944, determining the double helix structure of DNA in 1953, cracking the genetic code in the 1960s, and using new technologies like X-ray crystallography to study macromolecules. The document traces how molecular biology aims to explain life at the molecular level starting from nucleic acids and proteins.
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1) The document discusses the mechanisms of damage from radiation and recovery in microorganisms. Radiation can directly damage DNA through energy transfer or indirectly by producing free radicals from radiolysis of water.
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3) G-quadruplex DNA structures may be less sensitive to radiation-induced breaks compared to single- and double-stranded DNA, protecting genomic regions abundant in G4-DNA. Accumulation of manganese facilitates recovery from radiation injury in resistant bacteria like D. radiodurans.
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- It is believed that RNA was the first genetic material and could self-replicate, in what is called the 'RNA world'. Later, DNA replaced RNA as the genetic material and protein synthesis evolved.
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2) Uric acid metabolism and chemical tests for kidney stone analysis.
3) The laser lithotripsy procedure for surgically removing kidney stones using medical laser technologies.
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DNA is made up of nucleotides that contain sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base groups. The order of the four nitrogen bases - adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine - forms the genetic code. Nucleotides bond together to form a double helix structure, with bases pairing between strands. DNA molecules are packaged into chromosomes inside cells. The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 by Watson, Crick, and Wilkins, revealing how genetic information is stored and passed down.
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The document discusses cells and cell theory. It states that cells are the basic unit of life and can replicate independently. All organisms are made up of one or more cells. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first observed cells under a microscope in the 1600s. In 1838, cell theory was established which states that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things, all living things are made of one or more cells, and new cells are produced from existing cells. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack organelles and are smaller, and eukaryotic cells which have membrane-bound organelles and DNA contained in a nucleus.
Cell
Cells are the basic unit of structure and function of all living organisms. They consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane and contain biomolecules like proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be either unicellular, consisting of a single cell, or multicellular, made of many cells. The first cells were discovered and described by Anton Von Leeuwenhoek and Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus. Cell theory states that cells are the fundamental unit of life, all living things are made of one or more cells, and new cells are produced from existing cells. Cells can be either prokaryotic, like bacteria, or eukaryotic, like plants and animals. Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organ
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
All living organism can be categorized as prokaryotes or eukaryotes according to their cell type. This article deals with detailed about prokaryotes and eukaryotes with examples and figures and their similarities and dissimilarities.
DNA and its DISCOVERY.pdf
DNA
its Discovery
Who Discovered DNA?
Credit for who first identified DNA is often mistakenly given to James Watson and Francis Crick, who just furthered Miescher’s discovery with their own groundbreaking research nearly 100 years later. Watson and Crick contributed largely to our understanding of DNA in terms of genetic inheritance, but much like Miescher, long before their work, others also made great advancements in and contributions to the field.
In 1866, before many significant discoveries and findings, Gregor Mendel was the first to suggest that characteristics are passed down from generation to generation. Mendel coined the terms as recessive and dominant.
In 1869, Friedrich Miescher identified the “nuclein” by isolating a molecule from a cell nucleus that would later become known as DNA.
In 1881, Nobel Prize winner and German biochemist Albrecht Kossel, who is credited with naming DNA, identified nuclein as a nucleic acid. He also isolated those five nitrogen bases that are now considered to be the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil (U) in case of RNA).
In 1882, Walther Fleming devoted research and time to cytology, which is the study of chromosomes. He discovered mitosis in 1882 when he was the first biologist to execute a wholly systematic study of the division of chromosomes. His observations that chromosomes double is significant to the later discovered theory of inheritance.
In Early 1900s, Theodor Boveri and Walter Sutton were independently working on what’s now known as the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory, or the chromosomal theory of inheritance. Their findings are fundamental in our understanding of how chromosomes carry genetic material and pass it down from one generation to the next.
In 1902, Mendel’s theories were finally associated with a human disease by Sir Archibald Edward Garrod, who published the first findings from a study on recessive inheritance in human beings in 1902. Garrod opened the door for our understanding of genetic disorders resulting from errors in chemical pathways in the body.
In 1944, Oswald Avery first outlined DNA as the transforming principle, which essentially means that DNA transform cell properties.
Were bacteria first form
Human cells may contain clues about the origin of life because:
1) While human cells are complex, they still retain molecular remnants from early life under layers of complexity.
2) Bacteria appear to have lost RNA and other molecular remnants of early life through simplification over time.
3) We know more about human cell biochemistry than simple bacteria, so human cells may harbor more insights into early life origins.
The document discusses how human cells, as eukaryotes, may provide insights into the origins of life despite their complexity. It notes that bacteria appear to have simplified over time, losing molecular remnants of early RNA-based life. However, as we understand human cell biochemistry extensively
195163005Prokaryotic-chromosomes-organization.pdf
Prokaryotic chromosomes are circular in shape and located in the nucleoid region of the cell. They contain a single set of genes and lack histone proteins. The Escherichia coli chromosome is composed of a single closed circular DNA molecule that is divided into 50-100 loop domains. The chromosome is highly condensed and negatively supercoiled through the action of nucleoid-associated proteins like HU, H-NS, and DNA gyrase. This supercoiling and the binding of proteins allows for the compact organization and maintenance of the prokaryotic genome.
Molecular different between Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell By KK Sahu Sir
SYNOPSIS
Introduction to cell
Historical Aspects
Cell Diversity
Types Of Cell Diversity
Cell Diversity In Origin
Cell Diversity In size
Cell Diversity In Shape
Some Other Types
5) Differentiation And Specialisation Of Cell Diversity
6) Conclusion
7) References
Supports cukaryotic cellsSolutionEukaryotes are the organisms h.pdf
Supports cukaryotic cells
Solution
Eukaryotes are the organisms having the cells with distinct nucleus. Both animal and plant cella
are eukaryotic cells. They are supported by many cell organeles and these are enclosed inside the
cell membrane
Cell organelles inside the eukaryotes:
1. Nucleus-
Which contain genetic material -DNA (Deoxy ribulose nucleic acid) and a nucleolus
2. Golgi complex
They help in protein transportation
3. ribosomes
They are helpful for protein sythesis
4. Endoplasmic reticulum
They are also used in protein sythesis and transportation
5. Lysosomes
These are called the scavengers of the cell
6. Food vacuole
Stores the food material
7. Gas vacuole
Have air inside them . They are mainly seen in aquatic plants.
8. Chloroplast
It is used for trapping the light enerygy from sun rays for the synthesis of food.
These organelles are present in the cytoplasm which is liquid in nature.It is surrounded by
Plasma membrane which is composed of phospholipids. In plants the cell wall is rigid and is
composed of cellulose and lignin..
Cell biology
This document provides definitions and details about cell biology. It begins by defining cell biology and its history. It describes the origin of life and cells, including theories about abiogenesis and the endosymbiotic theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells. It discusses cell theory and the two main types of cells - prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Further, it provides information about key cellular structures like the cell membrane, nucleus, and their structure and functions. The document is a comprehensive overview of foundational concepts in cell biology.
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Current Trends in Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
Current Trends in Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
Molecular different between Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell By KK Sahu Sir
Molecular different between Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell By KK Sahu Sir
Supports cukaryotic cellsSolutionEukaryotes are the organisms h.pdf
Supports cukaryotic cellsSolutionEukaryotes are the organisms h.pdf
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【我们承诺采用的是学校原版纸张（纸质、底色、纹路）我们拥有全套进口原装设备，特殊工艺都是采用不同机器制作，仿真度基本可以达到100%，所有工艺效果都可提前给客户展示，不满意可以根据客户要求进行调整，直到满意为止！】
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一、工作未确定，回国需先给父母、亲戚朋友看下文凭的情况，办理一份就读学校的毕业证【微信号:176555708】文凭即可
二、回国进私企、外企、自己做生意的情况，这些单位是不查询毕业证真伪的，而且国内没有渠道去查询国外文凭的真假，也不需要提供真实教育部认证。鉴于此，办理一份毕业证【微信号:176555708】即可
三、进国企，银行，事业单位，考公务员等等，这些单位是必需要提供真实教育部认证的，办理教育部认证所需资料众多且烦琐，所有材料您都必须提供原件，我们凭借丰富的经验，快捷的绿色通道帮您快速整合材料，让您少走弯路。
留信网认证的作用:
1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
6:个人职称评审加20分
7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
留信网服务项目：
1、留学生专业人才库服务（留信分析）
2、国（境）学习人员提供就业推荐信服务
3、留学人员区块链存储服务
【关于价格问题（保证一手价格）】
我们所定的价格是非常合理的，而且我们现在做得单子大多数都是代理和回头客户介绍的所以一般现在有新的单子 我给客户的都是第一手的代理价格，因为我想坦诚对待大家 不想跟大家在价格方面浪费时间
对于老客户或者被老客户介绍过来的朋友，我们都会适当给一些优惠。
选择实体注册公司办理，更放心，更安全！我们的承诺：客户在留信官方认证查询网站查询到认证通过结果后付款，不成功不收费！
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Arisha's cells movie
- 1. Welcome to see presentation on cells
- 5. Eukaryotic cell A eukaryote (pronounced /juːˈkæriɒt/ or /juːˈkærioʊt/ ) is an organism whose cells contain complex structures inside the membranes . The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus , or nuclear envelope , within which the genetic material is carried. [1] [2] [3] The presence of a nucleus gives eukaryotes their name, which comes from the Greek ευ (eu, "good", "noble" & "true") and κάρυον (karyon, "nut" & "kernel"). Most eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria , chloroplasts and the Golgi apparatus . Almost all species of large organisms are eukaryotes, including animals , plants and fungi , although most species of eukaryotic protists are microorganisms .
- 6. Prokaryotic cell The prokaryotes are divided into two domains: the bacteria and the archaea . Archaea were recognized as a domain of life in 1990. These organisms were originally thought to live only in inhospitable conditions such as extremes of temperature , pH , and radiation but have since been found in all types of habitats .
- 10. DNA
- 11. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses . The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information . DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, or a code , since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells , such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes , but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.