Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is regulated by intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. The intrinsic pathway involves mitochondria releasing cytochrome c which activates caspase proteases, leading to DNA fragmentation and cell death. The extrinsic pathway involves death receptors activating caspase-8 through adaptor proteins. Caspases are cysteine proteases that cleave other proteins and dismantle the cell in apoptosis. The Bcl-2 family and inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins also regulate apoptosis. Dysregulation of apoptosis contributes to diseases like cancer and neurodegeneration.
Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death.
Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death.
Apoptosis also known as cell suicide. Difference between necrosis and apoptosis. Changes in apoptosis. Mechanism of apoptosis. Functional significance of apoptosis. Applied aspects of apoptosis
Cell death, particularly apoptosis, is probably one of the
most widely-studied subjects among cell biologists.
Understanding apoptosis in disease conditions is very
important as it not only gives insights into the pathogenesis
of a disease but may also leaves clues on how
the disease can be treated. In cancer, there is a loss of
balance between cell division and cell death and cells
that should have died did not receive the signals to do
so. The problem can arise in any one step along the way
of apoptosis.Apoptosis is an ordered and orchestrated cellular process that occurs in physiological and pathological conditions.
It is also one of the most studied topics among cell biologists. An understanding of the underlying mechanism of
apoptosis is important as it plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of many diseases. In some, the problem is due
to too much apoptosis, such as in the case of degenerative diseases while in others, too little apoptosis is the
culprit. Cancer is one of the scenarios where too little apoptosis occurs, resulting in malignant cells that will not
die. The mechanism of apoptosis is complex and involves many pathways. Defects can occur at any point along
these pathways, leading to malignant transformation of the affected cells, tumour metastasis and resistance to
anticancer drugs. Despite being the cause of problem, apoptosis plays an important role in the treatment of
cancer as it is a popular target of many treatment strategies. The abundance of literature suggests that targeting
apoptosis in cancer is feasible. However, many troubling questions arise with the use of new drugs or treatment
strategies that are designed to enhance apoptosis and critical tests must be passed before they can be used safely
in human subjects.. It is used,
in contrast to necrosis, to describe the situation in
which a cell actively pursues a course toward death
upon receiving certain stimule
Introduction
Definition
History
Evolution and origin of apoptosis
Significance
Purpose of apoptosis
Steps /process
Morphological and biochemical changes
Mechanism of apoptosis
Caspases
Regulation of apoptosis
Disorders of apoptosis
Application
Conclusion
Referances
Hi! I am Komal Sankaran, M.Sc. Biotechnology (Pune University Gold Medalist, 2013), CSIR-NET SPM fellow (Jun- 2014, 4th rank), CSIR-NET- LS (Dec 2013, 2nd rank), DBT JRF category- I. Please contact if anyone is interested in Life Sciences CSIR-NET coaching in Pune (Khadki area).
Email- komalsan91@gmail.com
Content-
1. Background
2. Introduction
3. Difference between apoptosis and necrosis
4. Apoptosis in biologic processes
5. Apoptosis in pathologic processes
6. Morphologic features
7. Techniques to identify and count apoptotic cells
8. Biochemical changes
9. Molecular mechanism of apoptosis
10. Recent advancement and emerging trends in apoptosis
11. References
A detailed description of programmed cell death mechanism also called Apoptosis.
It explains about the factors, mechanism and pathways involved in the apoptosis.
Apoptosis also known as cell suicide. Difference between necrosis and apoptosis. Changes in apoptosis. Mechanism of apoptosis. Functional significance of apoptosis. Applied aspects of apoptosis
Cell death, particularly apoptosis, is probably one of the
most widely-studied subjects among cell biologists.
Understanding apoptosis in disease conditions is very
important as it not only gives insights into the pathogenesis
of a disease but may also leaves clues on how
the disease can be treated. In cancer, there is a loss of
balance between cell division and cell death and cells
that should have died did not receive the signals to do
so. The problem can arise in any one step along the way
of apoptosis.Apoptosis is an ordered and orchestrated cellular process that occurs in physiological and pathological conditions.
It is also one of the most studied topics among cell biologists. An understanding of the underlying mechanism of
apoptosis is important as it plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of many diseases. In some, the problem is due
to too much apoptosis, such as in the case of degenerative diseases while in others, too little apoptosis is the
culprit. Cancer is one of the scenarios where too little apoptosis occurs, resulting in malignant cells that will not
die. The mechanism of apoptosis is complex and involves many pathways. Defects can occur at any point along
these pathways, leading to malignant transformation of the affected cells, tumour metastasis and resistance to
anticancer drugs. Despite being the cause of problem, apoptosis plays an important role in the treatment of
cancer as it is a popular target of many treatment strategies. The abundance of literature suggests that targeting
apoptosis in cancer is feasible. However, many troubling questions arise with the use of new drugs or treatment
strategies that are designed to enhance apoptosis and critical tests must be passed before they can be used safely
in human subjects.. It is used,
in contrast to necrosis, to describe the situation in
which a cell actively pursues a course toward death
upon receiving certain stimule
Introduction
Definition
History
Evolution and origin of apoptosis
Significance
Purpose of apoptosis
Steps /process
Morphological and biochemical changes
Mechanism of apoptosis
Caspases
Regulation of apoptosis
Disorders of apoptosis
Application
Conclusion
Referances
Hi! I am Komal Sankaran, M.Sc. Biotechnology (Pune University Gold Medalist, 2013), CSIR-NET SPM fellow (Jun- 2014, 4th rank), CSIR-NET- LS (Dec 2013, 2nd rank), DBT JRF category- I. Please contact if anyone is interested in Life Sciences CSIR-NET coaching in Pune (Khadki area).
Email- komalsan91@gmail.com
Content-
1. Background
2. Introduction
3. Difference between apoptosis and necrosis
4. Apoptosis in biologic processes
5. Apoptosis in pathologic processes
6. Morphologic features
7. Techniques to identify and count apoptotic cells
8. Biochemical changes
9. Molecular mechanism of apoptosis
10. Recent advancement and emerging trends in apoptosis
11. References
A detailed description of programmed cell death mechanism also called Apoptosis.
It explains about the factors, mechanism and pathways involved in the apoptosis.
Apoptosis is the process of Programmed cell death. Many genes involved in the controlling of the Life of A Cell. Different Caspase (Protease Enzyme) involved in the process of Apoptosis.
Apoptosis is a
-pathway of cell death that is
-induced by an internally regulated program
-in which cells destined to die activate intrinsic enzymes that --degrade the cells’ own nuclear DNA and also nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins
-With minimal host reaction.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
1. Apoptosis: Influence of the
Xenobiotics and Diseases conditions
Dr. Naveen Kumar
PhD Scholar
Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology
College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,
G.B.P.U.A. & T., Pantnagar-263145,
Uttarakhand, INDIA
Email: knaveen7v@gmail.com
2. Apoptosis derived from Greek "falling off" (as for autumn leaves)
A distinct reaction pattern which represents programmed single-cell
suicide
Cells actually expend energy in order to die
The physiological way for a cell to die
What is Apoptosis
3. A peculiar well controlled individual cell death that is
caspase mediated
Fragmentation of the cell and organelles
Engulfed by macrophages
4. The Nobel prize in physiology or medicine 2002 was awarded jointly- for
their discoveries concerning “genetic regulation of organ development and
programmed cell death” .
PRIZED
Sydney Brenner H. Robert Horvitz John E. Sulston
5. Importance of ApoptosisImportance of Apoptosis
1) Crucial for embryonic development
Errors in Apoptosis can lead to Birth Defects
2) Important for maintaining homeostasis
Cell death is balanced with mitosis to regulate cell number.
3) Improper regulation contributes to human disease
- Neurodegenerative diseases
Parkinson’s
Alzheimer’s
- Cancer
- Autoimmune diseases e.g. (diabetes type I)
- Viral diseases
7. Morphology
• Cell shrinkage (condensation of cytoplasm)
Breakdown of mitochondria; release of cytochrome C
Nuclear condensation
Nuclear fragmentation
Cell membrane blebbing
Fragmentation; apoptotic body formation: membrane-bound
cellular fragments, which often lack nuclei
Phagocytosis
8. APOPTOSIS: important in embryogenesis
Morphogenesis (eliminates excess cells):
Selection (eliminates non-functional cells):
9. APOPTOSIS: important in adults
Tissue remodeling (eliminates cells no longer needed):
Virgin mammary gland Late pregnancy, lactation Involution
(non-pregnant, non-lactating)
Apoptosis
Apoptosis
- Testosterone
Prostate gland
10. Programmed Cell Death in Neuronal DevelopmentProgrammed Cell Death in Neuronal Development
The cells in the tadpole tail are induced to undergo apoptosis stimulated by
the increases in thyroid hormone that occurs during metamorphosis
Apoptosis during the metamorphosis of a tadpole into a frog
12. STAGES OF CLASSIC APOPTOSISSTAGES OF CLASSIC APOPTOSIS
Healthy cell
DEATH SIGNAL (extrinsic or intrinsic)
Commitment to die (reversible)
EXECUTION (irreversible)
Dead cell (condensed, crosslinked)
ENGULFMENT (macrophages, neighboring cells)
DEGRADATION
16. Normal white blood cell Apoptotic white blood cell
During apoptosis (programmed cell death) cells bleb
and eventually break apart without releasing contents.
17. Stimuli for Apoptotic Cell DeathStimuli for Apoptotic Cell Death
(in Mammals)(in Mammals)
I. Growth factor deficiencies
II. Ionizing radiation and anticancer drugs damage DNA and
apoptosis follows ( p53 expression)
i. Viral infection (eg.-HIV- infected cells make high levels of
FasL which will induce apoptosis in HIV-uninfected T cells)
ii. Free radical toxicity
18. i. Hypoxia- apoptosis (if mild) or necrosis if the hypoxia is severe
or prolonged
ii. Death receptor activation (such as Fas or CD95
triggering)
iii. Metabolic or cell cycle perturbation
iv. Misfolded proteins
20. Biochemical Events in ApoptosisBiochemical Events in Apoptosis
Caspases (cysteine proteases) cleave the cytoskeleton and
activate DNAses and other enzymes
DNA breaks into 50- to 300-kilobase pieces; further broken
into multiples of 200 base pairs by endonucleases (Ca++
and Mg++)- demonstrated as a “ladder pattern” on agarose
gel; also proteases.
Phosphatidylserine is exposed and attracts macrophages
with little “collateral damage””
21. Apoptosis - mechanismsApoptosis - mechanisms
Four stages of apoptosis:
i. Committment to death by extracellular or intracellular
triggers/signals
ii. Cell killing (execution) by activation of intracellular
proteases (caspases)
iii. Engulfment of cell corpse by other cells
iv. Degradation of the cell corpse within the lysosomes of
phagocytic cells
22.
23. Extrinsic factors
E.g. by members of
the TNF family
Intrinsic
mechanisms
E.g. hormone
withdrawal
The two major pathways for caspase activation in
mammalian cells
24. Maniati et al. 2008. The molecular basis of apoptosis in mammals. Simplified overview
There are two
major pathways
of apoptosis
intrinsic
pathway
extrinsic
pathway
25. Engulfment of apoptotic cellsEngulfment of apoptotic cells
Binding
Recognition
Phagocytosis
Internalization
Stages of
engulfment of
apoptotic cells can
be divided into 4
stages
26. DNA-damage and Apoptosis
Radiation or chemotherapy damages DNA
p53 accumulates
Cell cycle arrested at G1 (allows repair)
If repair fails, p53 triggers apoptosis
28. Tumor Necrosis Factor and Cytotoxic Lymphocytes
in Apoptosis
Fas (CD95) –FasL induces apoptosis in lymphocytes that recognize
“self”; Fas/FasL mutations may cause autoimmune disease
TNF/TNFR1-TRADD-FADD causes caspase activation and
APOPTOSIS; TNF also activates NF-kB which aids cell SURVIVAL and
is antiapoptotic
Foreign Ag-CTLs- lymphocytes produce PERFORMIN which allows
entry of GRANZYME which activates caspases; CTLs kill target cells
30. Intrinsic pathway (damage):
Mitochondria
Cytochrome c release
Pro-caspase 9 cleavage
Pro-execution caspase (3) cleavage
Caspase (3) cleavage of cellular proteins,
nuclease activation,
etc.
Death
BAX
BAK
BOK
BCL-Xs
BAD
BID
B IK
BIM
NIP3
BNIP3
BCL-2
BCL-XL
BCL-W
MCL1
BFL1
DIVA
NR-13
Several
viral
proteins
31. Physiological Intrinsic
receptor pathway damage pathway
MITOCHONDRIAL SIGNALS
Caspase cleavage cascade
Orderly cleavage of proteins and DNA
CROSSLINKING OF CELL CORPSES; ENGULFMENT
(no inflammation)
33. Apoptosis in model systems
Molecular mechanisms of apoptosis in
mammalian cells
mitochondrial pathway (intrinsic)
& cell death receptor pathway (extrinsic).
bcl-2 gene family.
Caspases.
34. bcl-2 gene family
Bcl-2 Family & IAP Family (Inhibitor of Apoptosis)
are critical regulators of cell death
Bcl-2 Family – Regulate whether MOMPs Occurs
Anti-Apoptotic Factors - Death Inhibitors
Function to Inhibit MOMPs
by Pro Apoptotic Factors
Pro-Apoptotic Factors- Death Activators
Bind and inhibit Death Inhibitors
Directly cause Permeabilization of MOM to Stimulate
Release of Cytochrome C ( BAX and BAK)
35. The translocated bcl-2 gene is under the control of an active
immunoglobulin promoter that drives high levels of constitutive
expression
The oncogenic version is formed through a reciprocal chromosomal
translocation in which parts of the chromosome 14 and chromosome 18
are exchanged
We now know that there are at least 24 Bcl-2-related proteins, 6 are
anti-apoptotic and 18 are pro-apoptotic.
36. Conformational changes in BCL-2 familyConformational changes in BCL-2 family
members during apoptosismembers during apoptosis
o BAX undergoes extensive conformational changes during the
mitochondrial translocation process
o BAX is a member of the Bcl-2 gene family
Youle and Strasser (2008) The BCL-2 protein family: opposing activities that mediate cell death. Nature Reviews
Molecular Cell Biology, 9, 47-59
37. Active site: Cysteine
Cleavage site: Asparatic
acid
Cysteine Asparatic
acid specific
protease
Aps-Xxx
caspase - a proteolytic system
Caspase?
38. Single chain of pro-enzymes
Contains an N-terminal domain, a small subunit and
a large subunit (similar to a ribosome)
Apoptotic stimulus Activation Substrate
Cleavage Enzyme
40. Caspases involved in apoptosis
3 Types of Caspases
Inflammatory Caspases: -1, -4, and -5
Initiator Caspases: -2, -8, -9, and -10
Long N-terminal domain
Interact with effector caspases
Effector Caspases: -3, -6, and -7
Little to no N-terminal domain
Initiate cell death
41. Main Pathways Regulating Caspase Activation
During Apoptosis
Two Caspase Pathways:
Intrinsic Pathway & Extrinsic Pathway
I. Intrinsic Pathway-
Mitochondrial mediated major pathway in mammalian
cells
o Outer Mitochondrial Membrane Permeabilization (MOMP)
o Release of cytochrome C from mitochondrial intermembrane
space into cytosol
o Apoptosome Formation- Activation of Initiator Caspase
o Effector Caspases activated
43. II. Extrinsic Pathway-
Signaling through Death Receptors
o Ligand bound death receptors
o Adaptor protein association
o Initiator caspase recruitment and activation
o Effector caspases activated
46. IAPs
Inhibitor of Apoptosis
Proteins (IAPs)
Bind Pro-caspases
prevent activation of
apoptosis
Bind Caspases
and inhibit Activity
Inhibit one part in the
cascade = failure to
apoptose
47. Natural phenolic compounds , in herbs and diet play an
important role in cancer prevention and treatment.
Eg., phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, stilbenes, curcuminoids,
coumarins, lignans, quinones, etc.
They are responsible for their chemopreventive properties
like
anticarcinogenic
antimutagenic
antioxidant &
anti-inflammatory effects
Herbs and Dietary FactorsHerbs and Dietary Factors
48. Phenolic compounds inducing apoptosis
arresting cell cycle
regulating carcinogen metabolism and ontogenesis
expression
inhibiting DNA binding
cell adhesion, migration, proliferation or
differentiation &
blocking signalling pathways.
Wu-Yang Huang and Yi-Zhong Cai .(2010).Natural Phenolic Compounds From Medicinal Herbs and Dietary Plants: Potential Use for
Cancer Prevention. Nutrition and Cancer, 62(1), 1–20
49. The majority of polyphenols present in food are flavonoids and phenolic
acids that are an integral part of the human diet
Flavonoids (such as epigallocatechin-3-gallete (EGCG), quercetin, and
curcumin) act by induction of apoptosis
Certain natural products have been shown to inhibit the activation of nuclear
factor kappa B (NF-κB) and Akt signaling pathways, both of which are known
to maintain a homeostatic balance between cell survival and apoptosis
Dietary factors affecting apoptosis can influence carcinogenesis
Activation of apoptosis in pre-cancerous cells is one of the most
important mechanisms of cancer chemoprevention by dietary factors*
* Martin, K.R. (2006) Targeting apoptosis with dietary bioactive agents. Experimental Biolology and Medicine (Maywood), 231, 117-129.
50. Induction of apoptosis by combining natural compounds and anticancer
drugs/radiation (through NF-κB or PI3K/ Akt pathway) in vivo
Epigallocatechin gallete (EGCG)
51. A partial list of the agents that have been reported to
induce or inhibit apoptosis
53. Chemicals that induced apoptosis
Most of the environmental toxin induce apoptosis by oxidative stress
(OS) mediated
Compound Genes/ Proteins Involved Proposed Mechanisms
Bisphenol
↑Fas, ↑FasL, ↑caspase-3
Fas-signaling pathway triggers
Leydig cell apoptosis that then
induces germ cell apoptosis
↑Degradation of late spermatids
and seminiferous tubules,
↔testosterone
Direct cell damage
Ethanol
↓pAkt, ↓pErk1/2, ↓Bad
Suppression of survival-signaling
pathway
↑FasL Fas-signaling pathway
Methoxychlor ↑Fas, FasL, caspase-3, NF-↑ ↑ ↓
κB
Mitochondria and FasL-
mediated signaling pathway
1,3-Dinitrobenzene ↑Bax, ↓Bcl-2
Alteration of Bcl-2/Bax ratio
triggers mitochondrial pathway
Lindane
↑cyt c, ↑caspase-9, ↑caspase-3,
↑Fas, ↑FasL
Mitochondrial pathway, Fas-
signaling pathway
Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons
↑Bax, ↑PARP cleveage Mitochondrial pathway
Mathur et al. (2011). Environmental Toxicants and Testicular Apoptosis . The Open Reproductive Science Journal, Volume 3
54. Role in Diseases:Role in Diseases:
TOO MUCH: Tissue atrophy
Neurodegeneration
Thin skin
etc
TOO LITTLE: Hyperplasia
Cancer
Athersclerosis
etc
55. Problem can be solved:
Activate apoptosis in cancer cells
- if apoptosis is improperly activated or regulated, result may cause
cancer
Finding useful mechanisms
Needs to be selective pathways (trail)
Treatment OptionsTreatment Options
Editor's Notes
In the human body about 100,000 cells are produced every second by mitosis and a similar number die by apoptosis !!!
Leads to fragmentation of the cell and organelles into numerous small buds, which are then engulfed by macrophages without surrounding inflammation
It is an active cytological process in which energy is consumed (ATP dependent). It is programmed or controlled by genetic protocol or program (control of enzymes, cell membrane surface proteins & cytoplasmic molecules, signal transduction, gene expression). It occurs in almost all living creatures since their early stages of embryological development.
There are a number of mechanisms through which apoptosis can be induced in cells. The sensitivity of cells to any of these stimuli can vary depending on a number of factors such as the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins (eg. the Bcl-2 proteins or the Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins), the severity of the stimulus and the stage of the cell cycle. Some of the major stimuli that can induce apoptosis are outlined in the illustration below.
Also, in adult multicellular organisms cell death is a regular occurrence. In humans EACH HOUR we lose many many BILLIONS of cells via apoptosis. Most of these are healthy cells which have no defects. WHY?
Development and regulation controls.
The two major pathways for caspase activation in mammalian cells are outlined. The extrinsic pathway (left) can be induced by members of the TNF family of cytokine receptors that are present at the surface of many cells. Upon activation, these receptors recruit adapter proteins to their cytosolic "death domains" (DD), including Fadd, which then bind and cleave pro-caspases, particularly pro-caspase-8. The intrinsic pathway (right) can be induced by various stimuli (discussed below), resulting in the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. In the cytosol, cytochrome c binds and activates Apaf-1, allowing it to bind and activate pro-caspase-9. Active caspase-9 (intrinsic pathway) and caspase-8 (extrinsic pathway) have each been shown to directly cleave and activate the effector protease, caspase-3. Other caspases can also become involved in these pathways. The two pathways are not mutually exclusive; both may become activated in response to an insult. Thus, this schematic represents an oversimplification of the events that occur in vivo.
Extrinsic pathway
BAX undergoes extensive conformational changes during the mitochondrial translocation process.
The protein changes from a soluble cytoplasmic protein in healthy cells to one that appears to have at least 3 helices inserted in the mitochondrial membrane in apoptotic cells.
(1) Why called caspase?, Apoptosis is carried out by a proteolytic system