ANTIGEN, HAPTEN, ALL TYPES OF ANTIGENS, IMMUNOGEN , ATTRIBUTES OF ANTIGENICITY, DETERMINANTS OF ANTIGENICITY,
IMMUNOLOGY KUBY, MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY & IMMUNOLOGY OF PANIKER , LIPPINCOTT'S IMMUNOLOGY, OTHER SOURCES.
ANTIGEN, HAPTEN, ALL TYPES OF ANTIGENS, IMMUNOGEN , ATTRIBUTES OF ANTIGENICITY, DETERMINANTS OF ANTIGENICITY,
IMMUNOLOGY KUBY, MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY & IMMUNOLOGY OF PANIKER , LIPPINCOTT'S IMMUNOLOGY, OTHER SOURCES.
Difference between innate and adaptive immunitykamilKhan63
Adaptive Immunity : it is the immune response against a specific antigen.
Innate Immunity : it is the immediate protective response of the immune system that does not require previous exposure to the antigen.
Humoral immunity is defined as the immunity mediated by antibodies, which are secreted by B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes secrete the antibodies into the blood and lymph
1. What are hypersensitivity reactions
2. Types of hypersensitivity reactions
3. Type 1 Hypersensitivity reaction
4. Type 2 Hypersensitivity reaction
5. Type 3 Hypersensitivity reaction
6. Type 4 Hypersensitivity reaction
7. Summary
Antigen-antibody interaction, or antigen-antibody reaction, is a specific chemical interaction between antibodies produced by B cells of the white blood cells and antigens during immune reaction. It is the fundamental reaction in the body by which the body is protected from complex foreign molecules, such as pathogens and their chemical toxins. In the blood, the antigens are specifically and with high affinity bound by antibodies to form an antigen-antibody complex. The immune complex is then transported to cellular systems where it can be destroyed or deactivated.
Antibody(Ab) or immunoglobulin(Ig) is the large Y shaped glycoprotein produced by the body’s immune system when it detects harmful substances are called antigens.
They are synthesized by B lymphocytes and secreted by plasma cells.
Depending on the electrophoretic migration, 3 types of globulins are present in the blood, namely α, β and γ
So antibodies are gamma (γ) globulin.
Difference between innate and adaptive immunitykamilKhan63
Adaptive Immunity : it is the immune response against a specific antigen.
Innate Immunity : it is the immediate protective response of the immune system that does not require previous exposure to the antigen.
Humoral immunity is defined as the immunity mediated by antibodies, which are secreted by B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes secrete the antibodies into the blood and lymph
1. What are hypersensitivity reactions
2. Types of hypersensitivity reactions
3. Type 1 Hypersensitivity reaction
4. Type 2 Hypersensitivity reaction
5. Type 3 Hypersensitivity reaction
6. Type 4 Hypersensitivity reaction
7. Summary
Antigen-antibody interaction, or antigen-antibody reaction, is a specific chemical interaction between antibodies produced by B cells of the white blood cells and antigens during immune reaction. It is the fundamental reaction in the body by which the body is protected from complex foreign molecules, such as pathogens and their chemical toxins. In the blood, the antigens are specifically and with high affinity bound by antibodies to form an antigen-antibody complex. The immune complex is then transported to cellular systems where it can be destroyed or deactivated.
Antibody(Ab) or immunoglobulin(Ig) is the large Y shaped glycoprotein produced by the body’s immune system when it detects harmful substances are called antigens.
They are synthesized by B lymphocytes and secreted by plasma cells.
Depending on the electrophoretic migration, 3 types of globulins are present in the blood, namely α, β and γ
So antibodies are gamma (γ) globulin.
Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a very important branch of the medical and biological sciences. The immune system protects us from infection through
Why drosophila is called as Cindrella of Genetics and why it takes away huge attention within the scietific community, along with its life cycle, all the developmental growth stages, tools for culturing them, what are the requirement and precautions should be taken while maintaing its stock are mentioned very well in this presentation.
Presentation include the brief historical description of old English periods. It includes all the periods which describes the timeline of events that occurred in each periods
This presentation describes the role of hypothalamus on Adenohypophysis reproductive hormones. Also you will be learned about the functions of reproductive hormone released by anterior pituitary.
cytokines play a key role in controlling the immune system. It facilitate other cells and organs to work, with this presentation you will be able to learn about what are cytokines, their types, & their biological roles along with diseases related to cytokines and cytokines based therapies.
This presentation gives you the detailed description of various cells & organs of immune systems that participates (particularly, in combination), make communication between themselves to regulate the whole immune system very precisely.
Through this presentation you will be able to learn detailed information about hypersensitivity reactions, its type and clinical manifestation of all types of hypersensitivity reactions and related diseases.
Through this presentation you will be able to learn about the detailed knowledge of complement system and its functions along with the complement activation pathways [classical, alternative, lectin pathway ]
This ppt gives you the information under the broad topic "willife conservation and management". It includes the brief knowledge about 'cover construction' along with it here also discussed about
'genetic diversity' and it's preservation. Also I added a few slides about strategies to restore the degraded biodiversity.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2. CONTENTS
2
What are antibodies?
Characteristic's of antibody
Structure of antibody
L-chain
H-chain
Domain structure of antibody
Fab, Fc, and hinge region
Classification of antibody
1.IgG
2.IgM
3.IgA
4.IgD
5.IgE
Biological functions of antibodies
3. What are antibodies?
3
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins.
Y-shaped proteins that are produced by the immune system
to help stop intruders from harming the body.
When an intruder enters the body, the immune system
springs into action. These invaders, which are called
antigens, can be viruses, bacteria, or other chemicals. When
an antigen is found in the body, the immune system will
create antibodies to mark the antigen for the body to destroy.
Three types of globulins are presented in the body.
1) Alpha globulin
2) Beta globulin
3) Gamma globulin (antibodies)
Antibodies (Ab) are present on the B-cell membrane and also
are secreted by plasma cells
4. Contd…
4
Antibody molecules have a common structure of four peptide chains.
This structure consists of two identical light (L) chain polypeptide of
about 22000 Da and two identical heavy (H) chain of larger polypeptide of
about 55000 Da or more.
Each light chain is bound to a heavy chain by a disulphide bond and by
non-covelent interactions such as salt bride, hydrogen bonds and
hydrophobic interaction to form a heterodimer (H-L).
Similarly non-covalent interaction and disulphide linkage link the two
identical heterodimer (H-L) to each other to from basic structure of
antibody i.e. Dimer of dimer.
5. Characteristics of antibody
5
1. Antibodies are immunoglobulin (Ig) molecules
2. Antibodies are antigen specific and binds to
foreign molecules to host.
3. They are produced by activated B-cells
4. Antibodies are first molecules participating in
specific immune response.
5. They mediate effector function to neutralize or
eliminate foreign invaders.
7. 1. L- Chain
7
• L- chain of antibody is composed of about 220 amino acids.
• Around 100-110 amino acids are located at N-terminal
(amino-terminal) and the amino acids sequences varies
among antibodies. This region of L-chain is known as
variable (V) region.
• Remaining 110 amino acids located at C-terminal (carboxyl-
terminal) of L-chain are almost constant among antibodies.
This region of L-chain is known as constant (C) region. Two
types of constant region sequences are found i.e. Lambda
(λ) and Kappa (κ). In a particular antibody either 2 lambda or
2 kappa chains are present but not 1 lambda and kappa.
• In human 60% light chain are kappa and 40% are lambda
whereas in mice 95% of light chain are kappa and 5% are
lambda.
8. 2. H- Chain
8
• In H-chain about 110 amino acids are located at N-terminal
which shows great variation among antibody. This region is
known as Variable (V) region.
• Remaining amino acid sequences of H-chain is somewhat
constant but reveals five different types of constant (C) heavy
chain region i.e.. µ, α, δ, ε and γ.
• The length of constant region of H-chain is 330 amino acids
for α, γ and δ and 440 amino acids for µ and ε.
9. Domain structure of antibody
9
The overall structure of immunoglobulin molecule is determined by primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary organization of amino acid molecules.
• The primary structure is sequence of amino acids that comprises variable and
constant region of heavy and light chain.
• The secondary structure is formed by folding of polypeptide chain into series of
beta (β) pleated sheets.
• The secondary structure is then folded into tertiary structure of compact globular
domains.
• Finally these globular domains of adjacent heavy and light chain interacts in
quaternary structure forming functional domains that enables binding site for antigen
and the same time performs a number of biological functions.
10. Contd…
10
• Finally these globular domains of adjacent heavy and light chain
interacts in quaternary structure forming functional domains that
enables binding site for antigen and the same time performs a
number of biological functions
• Two domains are found in L-chain i.e. one in variable region (VL)
and other in constant region (CL).
• In H-chain, one domain is found in Variable region (VH). In IgA, IgG
and IgD three domains are found in constant region (CH1, CH2 and
CH3) whereas in IgE and IgM four domains are found in constant
region of H-chain (CH1, CH2, CH3 and CH4.
11. Fab, Fc and Hinge region of antibody:
11
1. Fab region
• Antigen binding is accomplished by amino-terminal (N-terminal) region and
effector functions by carboxyl terminal (C-terminal) region of antibody.
• In an antibody molecule two Fab regions are found and they binds
antigens.
• Hyper variable region on L-chain (VL domain) and H-chain (VH domain)
form antigen binding site.
• Detailed comparison of amino acids sequences of large number of VL and
VH domain reveals that the sequence variation is concentrated in few
discrete region of these domains. The variability plot of VH and VL domains
shows maximum variation in certain region which is known as hyper
variable region and this forms antigen binding site.
• Antigen binding site is complementary to epitope of antigen, so it is also
known as complementary determining regions (CDRs).
12. 2. Fc region
12
• Fc region of immunoglobulin allows for interaction of
immune complex with other phagocytic cells and
complement.
• Take parts in various biological functions that are
determined by amino acid sequences of each
domains of constant region.
• Many different form of Fc receptors exists.
13. 3. Hinge region
13
• The γ, δ and α heavy chain contains an extended peptide
sequence between CH1 and CH2 domain that has no
homology with other domain, this region is known as hinge
region.
• Hinge region is rich in proline residue and is flexible.
Therefore IgG, IgD and IgA are flexible.
• The flexibility given by hinge region enable Fab region to
assume various angle to bind antigen.
15. Antibodies are classified into five classes on the basis
of constant region of H-chain
15
Constant region
of H-chain
Antibody class Sub-class
Mue (µ)
IgM –
Gamma (γ)
IgG 4 sub classes (IgG1,
IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4)
Alpha (α) IgA
2 sub class (IgA1 and
IgA2)
Delta (δ) IgD –
Epsilon (ε) IgE –
16. 1. IgG
16
• Molecular weight: 150,000 Da
• H-chain type: gamma (53,000 Da)
• IgG is the most abundant class of Immunoglobulin in serum and
constitute of about 80% of total serum immunoglobulin.
• IgG molecule consists of two gamma (γ) heavy chains and two
kappa (k) or two lambda (λ) light chains.
• There are four sub class of IgG ( IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4) on
the basis of decreasing serum concentration.
• It has longest half-life among other antibodies. Half-life is about 23
days.
• IgG is the only antibody that can cross placenta. It cross placenta
and provide immunity to fetus upto 6 month of age. The
immunity is known as natural passive immunity.
• It can also activate complement.
17. Biological functions of IgG
17
• IgG is the major antibody produced in secondary
immune response.
• IgG1, IgG3 and IgG4 readily cross the placenta and
play important role in protecting the fetus.
• IgG3 is the most effective complement activator
followed by IgG1 and IgG2. IgG4 is not able to
activate complement at all.
• IgG1 and IgG3 binds with high affinity to Fc receptor
on phagocytic cell and thus mediate opsonization.
• IgG helps in bacterial immobilization.
• IgG neutralize toxin and viruses.
18. 2. IgM
18
• Molecular weight: 900,000 Da
• H-chain type: mu (65,000 Da)
• IgM accounts for 5-10% of total serum Immunoglobulin with an
average serum concentration of 1.5mg/dl.
• IgM is secreted by plasma cell and it exists in pentameric form in
which five IgM mononers are linked together by disulphide bond (J-
chain).
• Due to large size, IgM is also known as millionaire molecule.
• There are 10 antigen binding site (Fab) in pentameric IgM molecule
but it cannot bind to 10 complete antigen due to steric hindrance.
• It is the major antibody produced during primary immune response.
• Monomeric form IgM (180000 Da) is also expressed as membrane
bound receptor on B-cell.
19. Biological functions of IgM
19
• IgM is the first antibody produced in primary immune
response and it is also the first Ig produced by neonate.
• IgM has higher valency (antigen binding site) due to its
pentameric form.
• Due to pentameric form, IgG is very effective in agglutination
reaction.
• IgM is more efficient than IgG in complement activation.
• IgM plays important accessory role as secretory
immunoglobulin due to J-chain.
20. 3. IgA
20
• Molecular weight: 320,000 Da
• H- chain type: Alpha (55000 Da)
• IgA constitute 10-15% of total serum immunoglobulin.
• It is the predominant Immunoglobulin and external secretions such as
breast milk, saliva, tears and mucus of bronchial, genitourinary and
digestive tracts.
• IgA primarily exists as dimeric form.
• IgA in blood occurs in monomeric form whereas those in body secretion
occurs in dimeric or multimeric forms.
• Dimeric form of IgA contains J-chain and secretory chain. Secretory chains
helps in transcytosis.
• IgA can cross epithelial layer and enter into body secretion. The process of
crossing epithelial layer by IgA is known as transcytosis.
• There are two sub-class of IgA ie. IgA1 and IgA2.
21. Biological functions of IgA
21
• IgA can cross the epithelial layer and enter into
body secretion and provides local immunity in
GI tracts, respiratory tract, genital tract etc.
• In body secretion IgA neutralize viruses and
prevent attachment on host surface.
22. 4. IgD
22
• Molecular weight: 180,000 Da
• H-chain type: Delta (70000 Da)
• IgD is present in extremely low concentration and it constitute
0.2% of total serum immunoglobulin.
• IgD together with IgM is the major membrane bound
immunoglobulin expressed by mature B-cell.
• There are two sub-classes of IgD (IgD1 and IgD2)
• It is thought to function in the activation of B-cell by Ag
• No biological effecter function has been identified for IgD
23. 5. IgE
23
• Molecular weight: 200,000 Da
• H-chain type: epsilon (73,000Da)
• IgE accounts for 0.3% of total serum Immunoglobulin.
• IgE is also known as reagenic antibody due to its involvement
in allergic reaction. IgE mediate immediate hypersensitivity
reaction and responsible for symptoms like hey fever,
asthma, anaphylactic shocks, etc.
• Fc region of IgE binds on blood basophils and tissue mast
cells. The cross reaction with antigen to Fc region bound IgE
causes degranulation of mast cell and basophils releasing
histamine. Histamine is responsible for symptoms of allergy.
25. Biological functions of IgE
25
• IgE provides immunity against parasite by
Antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity
(ADCC).
• Level of IgE antibody in blood of normal
individual is very low and its level increases
during parasitic infection and in allergic
reactions.
26. FUNCTIONS OF ANTIBODIES
26
IgG provides long term protection because it persists for
months and years after the presence of the antigen that has
triggered their production
IgG protect against bacterias, viruses, neutralise bacterial
toxins, trigger compliment protein systems and bind antigens
to enhance the effectiveness of phagocytosis.
Main function of IgA is to bind antigens on microbes before
they invade tissues. It aggregates the antigens and keeps them
in the secretions so when the secretion is expelled, so is the
antigen.
IgA are also first defense for mucosal surfaces such as the
intestines, nose, and lungs.
27. CONTD…
27
IgM is involved in the ABO blood group antigens
on the surface of RBCs.
IgM enhance ingestions of cells by phagocytosis.
IgE bind to mast cells and basophils which
participate in the immune response.
Some scientists think that IgE’s purpose is to stop
parasites.
Helps in allergic reactions.
IgD is present on the surface of B cells and plays a
role in the induction of antibody production.
28. Know more…
28
Concentration order of immunoglobulin is
IgG>IgA>IgM>IgD>IgE
Half life order:
IgG>IgA>IgM>IgD>IgE
Molecular weight order:
IgM>IgA>IgE>IgD>IgG