Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of these medicines. A growing number of infections – such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, gonorrhoea, and salmonellosis – are becoming harder to treat as the antibiotics used to treat them become less effective. Antibiotic resistance leads to longer hospital stays,higher medical costs and increased mortality.
Antibiotic resistance is the ability of bacteria to resist the effects of antibiotics, a type of drug - such as penicillin or ciprofloxacin - that kills or stops the growth of bacteria. When bacteria become resistant to antibiotics, it makes it more difficult to treat diseases caused by those bacteria and limits the treatment options. Alternative treatments may be costly and, in some cases, toxic.
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
BY- RICHA KRISHNA
(M.PHARMACY)
Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of these medicines. Bacteria, not humans or animals, become antibiotic-resistant. These bacteria may infect humans and animals, and the infections they cause are harder to treat than those caused by non-resistant bacteria.
Humoral immunity is defined as the immunity mediated by antibodies, which are secreted by B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes secrete the antibodies into the blood and lymph
IMMUNE RESPONSE - Humoral Immune Response
As the channel name suggests, our channel will be a perfect lounge for the malayali medicos..we wil be covering videos which will be like lecture classes related to the subjects biochemistry and microbiology in which we are specialised.. It will be a better learning experience for the students especially for those who are not able to understand and follow the normal classes in college..we assure the students that you will get a basic idea regarding the topic and extra reading can be done from the reference textbooks..
Qualification
AHLAD T O
MSc MLT (Biochemistry)
Assistant Professor
Baby memorial college of allied Health science
Kozhikode
Maneesha M Joseph
MSc MLT (Microbiology)
Assistant Professor
Baby memorial college of allied Health science
Kozhikode
Our Partner Channel
Health & Voyage channel link - https://youtu.be/nzKqRVjlwc0
#IMMUNE RESPONSE microbiology
#Medical
#Microbiology
#Biochemistry
#Mallu Medicos Lounge
##MalluMedicosLounge
#MLT
#Channel introduction
#HealthAndVoyage
#New Youtube Channel introduction
#Gram-negative
#Enterobactericea
#Weil Felix Test
#Humoral Immune Response
#Humoral Immune Response Tutorial
Antibiotic resistance a global concern part iiRohan Jagdale
Bacteria, not humans or animals, become antibiotic-resistant. These bacteria may infect humans and animals, and the infections they cause are harder to treat than those caused by non-resistant bacteria.
Antibiotic resistance leads to higher medical costs, prolonged hospital stays, and increased mortality.
The world urgently needs to change the way it prescribes and uses antibiotics. Even if new medicines are developed, without behaviour change, antibiotic resistance will remain a major threat. Behaviour changes must also include actions to reduce the spread of infections through vaccination, hand washing, practising safer sex, and good food hygiene.
Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of these medicines. A growing number of infections – such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, gonorrhoea, and salmonellosis – are becoming harder to treat as the antibiotics used to treat them become less effective. Antibiotic resistance leads to longer hospital stays,higher medical costs and increased mortality.
Antibiotic resistance is the ability of bacteria to resist the effects of antibiotics, a type of drug - such as penicillin or ciprofloxacin - that kills or stops the growth of bacteria. When bacteria become resistant to antibiotics, it makes it more difficult to treat diseases caused by those bacteria and limits the treatment options. Alternative treatments may be costly and, in some cases, toxic.
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
BY- RICHA KRISHNA
(M.PHARMACY)
Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of these medicines. Bacteria, not humans or animals, become antibiotic-resistant. These bacteria may infect humans and animals, and the infections they cause are harder to treat than those caused by non-resistant bacteria.
Humoral immunity is defined as the immunity mediated by antibodies, which are secreted by B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes secrete the antibodies into the blood and lymph
IMMUNE RESPONSE - Humoral Immune Response
As the channel name suggests, our channel will be a perfect lounge for the malayali medicos..we wil be covering videos which will be like lecture classes related to the subjects biochemistry and microbiology in which we are specialised.. It will be a better learning experience for the students especially for those who are not able to understand and follow the normal classes in college..we assure the students that you will get a basic idea regarding the topic and extra reading can be done from the reference textbooks..
Qualification
AHLAD T O
MSc MLT (Biochemistry)
Assistant Professor
Baby memorial college of allied Health science
Kozhikode
Maneesha M Joseph
MSc MLT (Microbiology)
Assistant Professor
Baby memorial college of allied Health science
Kozhikode
Our Partner Channel
Health & Voyage channel link - https://youtu.be/nzKqRVjlwc0
#IMMUNE RESPONSE microbiology
#Medical
#Microbiology
#Biochemistry
#Mallu Medicos Lounge
##MalluMedicosLounge
#MLT
#Channel introduction
#HealthAndVoyage
#New Youtube Channel introduction
#Gram-negative
#Enterobactericea
#Weil Felix Test
#Humoral Immune Response
#Humoral Immune Response Tutorial
Antibiotic resistance a global concern part iiRohan Jagdale
Bacteria, not humans or animals, become antibiotic-resistant. These bacteria may infect humans and animals, and the infections they cause are harder to treat than those caused by non-resistant bacteria.
Antibiotic resistance leads to higher medical costs, prolonged hospital stays, and increased mortality.
The world urgently needs to change the way it prescribes and uses antibiotics. Even if new medicines are developed, without behaviour change, antibiotic resistance will remain a major threat. Behaviour changes must also include actions to reduce the spread of infections through vaccination, hand washing, practising safer sex, and good food hygiene.
monoclonal antibodies are prepared in laboratories through hybridoma technique, which have their own significance in treating and diagnosing diseases like cancer detection and treatment, pregnancy test, locating blood clots, screening blood for HIU and diagnosing of various other diseases.
It includes general introduction to antibodies; Monoclonal antibodies; comparison between Polyclonal & Monoclonal antibodies; Hybridoma Technology & Hyridoma Selection; advantages & disadvantages of mABs; Applications of mABs; Recombinant Monoclonal antibodies production through Antibody Engineering.
Clonal selection theory is a scientific theory in immunology that explains the functions of cells (lymphocytes) of the immune system in response to specific antigens invading the body.
Antibiotic resistance : A global concern Rohan Jagdale
As we belongs to pharma field., I curiously presented this slide for better understanding about this problem. As the world running out of antibiotics., we need to see this as one of a serious issue right now. So we need to overcome this by knowing bacterial mechanisms. They are well adapted and complicated. We as future pharmacist need to develop new antibiotics and hence we again need to look into the soils and environment in search of new bacterias for producing new antibiotic drugs.
In recent years, antibodies have become increasingly accepted as therapeutics for human diseases, particularly for cancer, viral infection and autoimmune disorders.
Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) have been used as diagnostic and analytical reagents since hybridoma technology was invented in 1975.
“man-made antibodies.” was named by Cesar Milstein, who was one of the inventors of monoclonal antibody technology.
Until the late 1980’s, antibody technology relied primarily on animal immunization and the expression of engineered antibodies.
T cells are one of the important white blood cells of the immune system and play a central role in the adaptive immune response and are distinguished from other lymphocytes by the presence of a T-cell receptor (TCR) on their cell surface.
B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype. They function in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system.. B cells produce antibody molecules.
In mammals, B cells mature in the bone marrow, which is at the core of most bones. In birds, B cells mature in the bursa of Fabricus.
B cells present antigens (they are also classified as professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs)) and secrete cytokines.
Antibiotic resistance, Various mechanisms of antibiotic resistance,Factors contributing for antibiotic resistance and Impacts of the antibiotic resistance in society
Difference between humoral and cell mediated immunity Dr. ihsan edan abdulkar...dr.Ihsan alsaimary
Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary
PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY
ihsanalsaimary@gmail.com
mobile : 009647801410838
university of basrah - college of medicine - basrah -IRAQ
Resistance to antibiotics is one of the main important facts that most nations are working on. Actually, in USA, it is considered as a health problem to solve. Why it happens? Here is a review to answer this.
monoclonal antibodies are prepared in laboratories through hybridoma technique, which have their own significance in treating and diagnosing diseases like cancer detection and treatment, pregnancy test, locating blood clots, screening blood for HIU and diagnosing of various other diseases.
It includes general introduction to antibodies; Monoclonal antibodies; comparison between Polyclonal & Monoclonal antibodies; Hybridoma Technology & Hyridoma Selection; advantages & disadvantages of mABs; Applications of mABs; Recombinant Monoclonal antibodies production through Antibody Engineering.
Clonal selection theory is a scientific theory in immunology that explains the functions of cells (lymphocytes) of the immune system in response to specific antigens invading the body.
Antibiotic resistance : A global concern Rohan Jagdale
As we belongs to pharma field., I curiously presented this slide for better understanding about this problem. As the world running out of antibiotics., we need to see this as one of a serious issue right now. So we need to overcome this by knowing bacterial mechanisms. They are well adapted and complicated. We as future pharmacist need to develop new antibiotics and hence we again need to look into the soils and environment in search of new bacterias for producing new antibiotic drugs.
In recent years, antibodies have become increasingly accepted as therapeutics for human diseases, particularly for cancer, viral infection and autoimmune disorders.
Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) have been used as diagnostic and analytical reagents since hybridoma technology was invented in 1975.
“man-made antibodies.” was named by Cesar Milstein, who was one of the inventors of monoclonal antibody technology.
Until the late 1980’s, antibody technology relied primarily on animal immunization and the expression of engineered antibodies.
T cells are one of the important white blood cells of the immune system and play a central role in the adaptive immune response and are distinguished from other lymphocytes by the presence of a T-cell receptor (TCR) on their cell surface.
B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype. They function in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system.. B cells produce antibody molecules.
In mammals, B cells mature in the bone marrow, which is at the core of most bones. In birds, B cells mature in the bursa of Fabricus.
B cells present antigens (they are also classified as professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs)) and secrete cytokines.
Antibiotic resistance, Various mechanisms of antibiotic resistance,Factors contributing for antibiotic resistance and Impacts of the antibiotic resistance in society
Difference between humoral and cell mediated immunity Dr. ihsan edan abdulkar...dr.Ihsan alsaimary
Dr. ihsan edan abdulkareem alsaimary
PROFESSOR IN MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY
ihsanalsaimary@gmail.com
mobile : 009647801410838
university of basrah - college of medicine - basrah -IRAQ
Resistance to antibiotics is one of the main important facts that most nations are working on. Actually, in USA, it is considered as a health problem to solve. Why it happens? Here is a review to answer this.
Antibiotic resistance I Mechanism I Types I Contributing factors.kausarneha
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a global threat of 21st century. Here is a brief discussion of Antimicrobial resistance or Drug resistance disease. If you want to study via video lecture on this visit on my YouTube channel : Microbiology WISDOM:
Here you can find further more such interesting topics.
Question was in my mind how the bacteria learn the biochemical mechanisms of defense against antibiotics , l know it should have gens that produce defense ways , but how they have thes gens , how antibiotics produce resistance in bacteria for them self and another's ?
All that I tried to answer in this seminar and how can be treated or minimized .
Bacterial antibiotic resistance is a topic that is causing increasing concern in the health community. Antibiotics are a necessary drug to help protect and heal us from pathogenic infections that our immune system is unable to successfully combat on its own. However, bacteria are very adept at utilizing evolutionary processes to develop antibiotic resistance in order to promote their own survival, reproduction and persistence. The development of antibiotic resistant bacteria is occurring at an alarming rate. Researchers are investigating the mechanisms that confer resistance on bacteria. With techniques for genomic sequencing now readily available, understanding of genetic mechanisms of resistance and evolution as a whole has been advancing rapidly. Researchers have found that bacteria are very adept at gene mutation and horizontal gene transfer. New insights regarding pleiotrophy and epistasis have been provided through these techniques. A possible result of this research will be the discovery of new antibiotic therapies. However, as the research is demonstrating, even if we develop new antibiotics, bacteria will develop resistance to them. Thus, important considerations to be taken from the research include finding ways to slow the development of resistance as we will most likely never be able to stop it entirely.
Antibiotics resistance by bacteria and transmission of resistance
This file will tell about how antibiotics resistance is occurred and how it get transmitted from one bacterium to another.
In recent years, the increase in the number of multi-drug resistant pathogens and food safety have become serious global problems, and it is increasingly important to find or develop a new generation of antibacterial drugs or preservatives. Scientists have discovered that bacteria-produced bacteriocins can control clinically relevant susceptible and resistant bacteria, and purified bacteriocins can be added to foods as natural preservatives. Bacteriocins can be added to animal feeds as anti-pathogen additives to protect livestock from pathogen damage. In medicine, bacteriocin has the potential to replace antibiotics as antibacterial drugs and is a new type of anticancer drug.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
2. *
One of the best examples of natural selection &
Adaptation is the evolution of genetic resistance in
pathogens.
Pathogenic bacteria rapidly develops resistance to
antibiotics.
This results in an evolutionary race between the bacteria
& humans, in which the participants are engaged in a
continuous struggle against each other with no long term
4. *
An antibiotic is given for the treatment of an
infection or a disease caused by bacteria.
Antibiotics target microorganisms such as
bacteria, fungi & parasites. However, they are
not effective against viruses.
5. *
It was thought that the battle against disease
would be won with the use of antibiotics
But….
Bacteria that cause disease rapidly develop
resistance to antibiotics
As quickly as we evolve mechanisms to
combat pathogens, they evolve new methods
of overcoming our immune system.
6. *
Mutations cause resistance to antibiotics:
The bacteria may produce an enzyme that
enable the cell to break down the antibiotic
They may change the structure of it’s protein so
antibiotics no longer have an effect
It might code for a protein pump that removed
the antibiotic from the bacterial cell.
Genes for
antibiotic
resistance
may be
transferred to
other non-
resistant
bacteria by
conjugation,
transformatio
n or
transduction.
8. *
The presence of antibiotics produces a selection
pressure
Those bacteria which does not have the gene for the
resistance are selected against & are likely to be
destroyed
Those with the gene are selected for, they survive,
grow & reproduce.
The gene frequency for resistance increases within
the population
10. *
Transformation
The problem further continues as bacteria transfers
resistant genes between species. They spread by;
Bacteria take up fragments of DNA from a lysed
bacterial cell & incorporates to its own DNA.
12. *
Conjugation
Genes for resistance are commonly kept on bacterial plasmids.
Bacteria can share plasmids through conjugation. It forms
cytoplasmic bridges (pili) between their cytoplasms. Once the
pili is formed, plasmids are replicated & one copy of the
plasmid passes from one bacteria to another via the pili.
14. *
Antibiotic
A used
Antibiotic
B used
Antibiotic
C used
Bacteria are now
resistant to
Antibiotic A, B & C
X Y Z
Bacterialpopulation
Time
X- Antibiotic A kills the non resistant
bacteria. The survivors are mutant
bacteria which are resistant to antibiotic
A. These resistant ones are now selected
by nature to survive & in no., as they
cannot be killed by antibiotic A
Y- Antibiotic B kills the bacteria that are non
resistant to antibiotic B, but does not kill all the
bacteria. The survivors are mutant bacteria
which are resistant to Antibiotic A & B. the
resistant ones are selected by nature to survive
& in no. as they cannot be killed by both
antibiotic A & B. The survivors are mutant
bacteria which now have genes for resistance
to antibiotic A & B.
Z- exposure to antibiotic C will now select & favor the
survival of mutant bacteria which have genes for
resistance to antibiotic A, B & C. These are called as
superbugs or multiple drug resistant bacteria. They
are commonly found in hospitals, where many
antibiotics are frequently used. Thus, natural
selection is responsible for the in abundance of
resistant bacteria.
15. *
1. Bactericidal: antibiotics destroy bacteria. E.g.
Penicillin is a bactericidal.
2. Bacteriostatic: antibiotics prevent the multiplication of
the bacteria. The hosts own immune system then
destroy the bacteria
16. Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis
Disruption of the cell membrane causing changes
in permeability
Inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis & replication
Inhibition of protein synthesis
Inhibition of specific enzymes found in bacterial
cell wall
Editor's Notes
More than 3000 years ago, the Egyptians, Chinese & central Americans Indians used mold to treat rashes & infected wounds. They did not understand what caused the diseases or how the mold help to treat them, in same cases they believed that mold drove evil sprits that caused the disease.
In 1928, Alexandra Fleming was working in a hospital in London, he was studying bacterium staphylococcus aureus. One day he spot a green growing on his agar plates. He noticed that there was a clear area ……
Why do some microorganisms make antibiotics?
Antibiotics help microorganisms to compete in the envt. …….but produce large quantities as they r ageing,,,,shud be produced when they r young, if for that reason….
Bacteria mutate frequently. Every now & again one of the mutation is beneficial.
The problem Is that these resistant bacteria are selected for through the use of antibiotics. This comp kills everything apart from the resistant bacterium, so its free to preproduce without any competition.
Unfortunately this is half of the problem
The economic implication of drug resistance is immense. In 1992, the treatment of non-resistant Tb cost $12,000 & the treatment of multiple-drug resistant TB cost $180,000. it is estimated that till date more than 5 million tons of antibiotics have been used on humans & domestic animals, thus exerting massive selection on the world's bacteria, resulting in resistance. The pharmaceutical companies makes immense profit, but humans are at risk.
Bactericidal drugs are those that kill target organisms.
Bacteriostatic drugs inhibit or delay bacterial growth and replication.
There are 5 common prokaryotic cellular processes which antibiotic target;
Inhibition of CW synthesis: binds to proteins in the CW, prevent development of the peptidoglycan layer of CW – bacteria cant grow properly eventually causing lysis .
Disruption of CM: binds to the cell membrane & alter its structure, making it more permeable– leads to lysis & cell death --- can affect the host cell to some extent & are only used as last resort against heavily resistant bacteria.
DNA replication inhibitors: stop DNA coiling during binary fission,,, meaning bacteria cannot replicate DNA & cannot reproduce.
Inhibition of protein synthesis: binds to 70s ribosomes & inhibit protein synthesis.
