This document discusses archaeological evidence related to the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire. It examines settlement patterns and pottery distributions to determine if there was economic and demographic collapse prior to the 5th century invasions. The evidence shows that settlement remained dense in the countryside up until invasions displaced people. Pottery distributions also remained widespread economically until the 5th century. Therefore, the archaeology suggests there was no significant decline or collapse in the late Roman Empire prior to the invasions and loss of security after 400 AD.
This document provides information on how to publish an article in a reputable international journal. It discusses the importance of publishing research papers and the different types of papers, including journal papers, conference papers, and working papers. It also describes the general IMRAD format used for most scientific papers and discusses where to submit journal articles. The document outlines the journal publication process and provides examples from Emerald Publishing. It discusses journal indices like Web of Science, Scopus, and ASEAN Citation Index. It also describes the differences between predatory, open access, and closed access journals.
This document provides an overview of research ethics and principles. It discusses the history of research ethics including the Nuremberg Code established in 1948 requiring voluntary consent. The Belmont Report issued in 1978 summarizes ethical principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. The report established informed consent requiring information, comprehension, and voluntariness. The document also discusses ethical guidelines in Nigeria and tips for conducting ethical research.
Ethical Issues in Medical Research_12 Jan 2017_Fortis Mulund.pptRitaLakhani2
This document discusses various ethical issues related to medical research. It begins with defining ethics and medical research. It then discusses older codes of medical ethics as well as seminal cases that shaped modern research ethics like the Nuremberg Code and Declaration of Helsinki. Core ethical principles like autonomy, beneficence and justice are explained. Issues like informed consent, vulnerable populations, conflicts of interest and misconduct are analyzed in depth. The document emphasizes protecting research participants while also promoting scientific progress.
This document discusses publication ethics and best practices for publishing research. It outlines what constitutes a good journal for publication, including being peer-reviewed and indexed in databases. It also warns about fake journal metrics and bogus journals. The document covers responsibilities of authors such as originality, transparency and retracting work if needed. Various forms of research misconduct like falsification, fabrication and plagiarism are described. Finally, the roles and responsibilities of editors, journal owners, publishers and reviewers are mentioned.
This document outlines the general process for conducting health research, including developing an idea, reviewing literature, formulating hypotheses, writing a research protocol, gaining ethical approval, implementing the study, analyzing and reporting results. It discusses key steps like developing a research question, searching literature, forming the null and alternative hypotheses, writing a protocol and proposal, obtaining necessary approvals, conducting a pilot study, implementing the main study, analyzing data, and publishing findings. The overall purpose is to systematically plan and conduct health research in an ethical manner.
This document outlines the objectives and content of a research methodology course. The course aims to enable students to understand the information needs of management, introduce scientific research methods, and statistical data analysis tools. The 5 units cover topics like research components, data collection methods, statistical analysis techniques, statistical applications, and structuring research reports. Key aspects discussed include the meaning of research, objectives of research, qualitative and quantitative approaches, types of research, and qualities of a good researcher.
This document provides information on how to publish an article in a reputable international journal. It discusses the importance of publishing research papers and the different types of papers, including journal papers, conference papers, and working papers. It also describes the general IMRAD format used for most scientific papers and discusses where to submit journal articles. The document outlines the journal publication process and provides examples from Emerald Publishing. It discusses journal indices like Web of Science, Scopus, and ASEAN Citation Index. It also describes the differences between predatory, open access, and closed access journals.
This document provides an overview of research ethics and principles. It discusses the history of research ethics including the Nuremberg Code established in 1948 requiring voluntary consent. The Belmont Report issued in 1978 summarizes ethical principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. The report established informed consent requiring information, comprehension, and voluntariness. The document also discusses ethical guidelines in Nigeria and tips for conducting ethical research.
Ethical Issues in Medical Research_12 Jan 2017_Fortis Mulund.pptRitaLakhani2
This document discusses various ethical issues related to medical research. It begins with defining ethics and medical research. It then discusses older codes of medical ethics as well as seminal cases that shaped modern research ethics like the Nuremberg Code and Declaration of Helsinki. Core ethical principles like autonomy, beneficence and justice are explained. Issues like informed consent, vulnerable populations, conflicts of interest and misconduct are analyzed in depth. The document emphasizes protecting research participants while also promoting scientific progress.
This document discusses publication ethics and best practices for publishing research. It outlines what constitutes a good journal for publication, including being peer-reviewed and indexed in databases. It also warns about fake journal metrics and bogus journals. The document covers responsibilities of authors such as originality, transparency and retracting work if needed. Various forms of research misconduct like falsification, fabrication and plagiarism are described. Finally, the roles and responsibilities of editors, journal owners, publishers and reviewers are mentioned.
This document outlines the general process for conducting health research, including developing an idea, reviewing literature, formulating hypotheses, writing a research protocol, gaining ethical approval, implementing the study, analyzing and reporting results. It discusses key steps like developing a research question, searching literature, forming the null and alternative hypotheses, writing a protocol and proposal, obtaining necessary approvals, conducting a pilot study, implementing the main study, analyzing data, and publishing findings. The overall purpose is to systematically plan and conduct health research in an ethical manner.
This document outlines the objectives and content of a research methodology course. The course aims to enable students to understand the information needs of management, introduce scientific research methods, and statistical data analysis tools. The 5 units cover topics like research components, data collection methods, statistical analysis techniques, statistical applications, and structuring research reports. Key aspects discussed include the meaning of research, objectives of research, qualitative and quantitative approaches, types of research, and qualities of a good researcher.
This document discusses scientific misconduct and responsible research practices. It defines scientific misconduct as fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in research. This includes making up data, manipulating research materials to misrepresent results, and using other's ideas without credit. Responsible research involves following approved protocols, protecting participants, accurately recording and sharing results, and publishing ethically. Maintaining integrity is important to ensure reliable research and public trust.
Research design involves planning how a research project will be conducted to ensure it is carried out in a systematic and organized manner. It helps researchers save time and resources by anticipating problems and decisions in advance. A good research design specifies the objectives of the study, how data will be collected and analyzed, and how findings will be reported. Key elements of research design include sampling, observations, statistics, and operational plans to implement the methodology. The design chosen depends on whether the goal is exploratory, descriptive, or causal research.
Autoethnography is a qualitative research method where researchers analyze and reflect on personal experiences to understand how those experiences relate to broader cultural or social phenomena. Researchers become the subject of their own analysis to provide insight into cultural topics. Autoethnographers have easier access to deeply contextualized personal experiences that can provide nuanced understandings of socio-cultural topics. The process of autoethnography involves selecting a topic related to personal experience, collecting data from memories and artifacts, analyzing and interpreting data thematically, and developing a narrative account.
For the second of the two seminars on Systematic Literature Review, here the tools useful for SLR are presented. The seminar is meant for PhD students and was given at the Computer Science PhD Program at the University of Salerno, Italy
This document discusses scientific misconduct and defines key related terms. It begins by defining science and scientific conduct, noting science involves establishing cause and effect relationships through logic. Scientific conduct requires objectivity, impartiality, willingness to change beliefs based on evidence, verification of findings, and precision. The document then defines scientific misconduct as fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism, noting these behaviors violate ethical standards and risk one's career. Several common types of misconduct are outlined, including falsification of data. Key organizations that define misconduct are also mentioned.
This document outlines key concepts related to research including the meaning, objectives, types, and significance of research. It also discusses research methods versus methodology, the research process, sample designs, criteria for good research, and common problems encountered by researchers in India. The objectives of research are described as exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, or to test causal relationships between variables. Research can be classified as descriptive or analytical, applied or fundamental, and quantitative or qualitative.
In writing the literature review:
your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
It is not just a descriptive list of the material available or a set of summaries."
This document provides guidance on conducting a literature review for a research proposal. It defines what a literature review is, discusses why it is important to include one in a research proposal, and outlines the steps to take in conducting an effective literature review. These steps include searching for and evaluating relevant literature, critically analyzing and synthesizing the literature, and writing the literature review in a clear and organized manner using appropriate citation styles. The document emphasizes that a good literature review is focused, concise, logical, integrative, and current. It also includes examples and templates to help structure the literature review.
The document discusses experimental research design. It covers key concepts like causality, conditions for causality, validity, and extraneous variables. It also describes different types of experimental designs including pre-experimental, true experimental, quasi-experimental, and statistical designs. Examples are provided to illustrate different designs like randomized block and Latin square designs. Limitations of experimentation are also briefly discussed.
The document discusses research design and the use of secondary data in research. It defines research design as a framework that details procedures for collecting, measuring, and analyzing information to structure business research problems. A good research design typically includes selecting a design type, identifying needed information, specifying measurement and scaling, and determining data collection and analysis methods. The document also discusses exploratory research design and the advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data sources.
The document provides guidance on developing an effective literature search strategy. It discusses starting a literature search through keywords, references, or journals. The main steps are defined as: defining the topic, turning it into a question, choosing search terms, selecting appropriate databases, running the search, and evaluating results. Specific databases are also outlined, including PubMed, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, and others. Guidance is given on using keywords, Boolean operators, and search history to refine results.
Sole reliance on citation data provides an incomplete understanding of research. Although citation analysis may be simple to apply, it should be used with caution to avoid it coming under disrepute through uncritical use. Ideally, citation analysis should be performed to supplement, not replace, a robust system of expert review to determine the actual quality and impact of published research.
Research Integrity: Philosophical Perspectives Robert Farrow
A short presentation exploring the concept of research integrity from a philosophical perspective and discussing some of the advice and frameworks that support research integrity.
Its a paper presentation that tries to explore in detail, the ethical issues in research. The ethical issues presented cut across almost all the discipline; education, sociology, social science, humanities, e.t.c. In other words a multidisciplinary approach has been used to present these ethical issues in research.
Ethics in academic research: avoiding plagiarismDr. Utpal Das
This document discusses ethics in academic research and avoiding plagiarism. It defines academic research as time-bound, investigative in nature, leading to an academic degree or enhancing knowledge. Exploratory research is described as limitless in time and leading to path breaking discoveries. The document outlines characteristics of facts, opinions, and beliefs and how to distinguish between them. It also discusses research misconduct, principles of research ethics, and some key ethical considerations in conducting academic research.
This document provides an agenda for a one week faculty development program on research methodology and intellectual property rights. It includes an introduction to research concepts like problem definition, setting research objectives, research design, and sampling techniques. The document defines what research is, discusses the key components of a research process and different research strategies like surveys, experiments, case studies, etc. It also explains the difference between research methods and methodology, and highlights the importance of properly defining the research problem and setting clear objectives.
The document provides an introduction to research methodology. It defines research and discusses the main types of research: exploratory research, descriptive research, explanatory research, basic research, and applied research. It also discusses types of applied research and the time dimension of research, including cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cohort analysis. Finally, it outlines different types of research approaches such as empirical research, qualitative research, quantitative research, and historical research, and discusses the key characteristics of research.
Intro to Biomedical Research - Basic Concepts
- How to be a good doctor - A step in Health promotion
- By Ibrahim A. Abdelhaleem - Zagazig Medical Research Society (ZMRS)
A research design is a plan or blueprint that guides how research will be conducted, including what data will be collected and how it will be analyzed. It aims to address the research question in an efficient way. A good research design facilitates the research process, makes it more effective and efficient, and yields useful results with minimal time and costs. It helps control for unwanted variables and errors to obtain valid and objective conclusions about the relationship between variables. The key components of a research design include sampling, observations, statistics, and operational aspects.
This document discusses opportunities for archaeology organizations to transition to open source digital tools for on-site data collection and archiving. It acknowledges challenges like resistance to change, differing expectations, and software dependencies. However, it argues that open source can work for professional geospatial applications and examines potential opportunities like better staff engagement, cost savings, and greater control over data. The conclusion is that organizations should examine their current workflows and software to evaluate the true costs of not investigating open source alternatives.
Consuming open and linked data with open source toolsJoanne Cook
This document discusses consuming and using open and linked data with open source tools. It outlines the available data and distribution technologies like RDF, SPARQL and linked data. It then explains the typical software stack used including tools for querying, storing and visualizing the data. The document provides an example of actually retrieving data and doing something useful with it. It also notes some potential issues or "gotchas" and provides further resources for working with open data.
This document discusses scientific misconduct and responsible research practices. It defines scientific misconduct as fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in research. This includes making up data, manipulating research materials to misrepresent results, and using other's ideas without credit. Responsible research involves following approved protocols, protecting participants, accurately recording and sharing results, and publishing ethically. Maintaining integrity is important to ensure reliable research and public trust.
Research design involves planning how a research project will be conducted to ensure it is carried out in a systematic and organized manner. It helps researchers save time and resources by anticipating problems and decisions in advance. A good research design specifies the objectives of the study, how data will be collected and analyzed, and how findings will be reported. Key elements of research design include sampling, observations, statistics, and operational plans to implement the methodology. The design chosen depends on whether the goal is exploratory, descriptive, or causal research.
Autoethnography is a qualitative research method where researchers analyze and reflect on personal experiences to understand how those experiences relate to broader cultural or social phenomena. Researchers become the subject of their own analysis to provide insight into cultural topics. Autoethnographers have easier access to deeply contextualized personal experiences that can provide nuanced understandings of socio-cultural topics. The process of autoethnography involves selecting a topic related to personal experience, collecting data from memories and artifacts, analyzing and interpreting data thematically, and developing a narrative account.
For the second of the two seminars on Systematic Literature Review, here the tools useful for SLR are presented. The seminar is meant for PhD students and was given at the Computer Science PhD Program at the University of Salerno, Italy
This document discusses scientific misconduct and defines key related terms. It begins by defining science and scientific conduct, noting science involves establishing cause and effect relationships through logic. Scientific conduct requires objectivity, impartiality, willingness to change beliefs based on evidence, verification of findings, and precision. The document then defines scientific misconduct as fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism, noting these behaviors violate ethical standards and risk one's career. Several common types of misconduct are outlined, including falsification of data. Key organizations that define misconduct are also mentioned.
This document outlines key concepts related to research including the meaning, objectives, types, and significance of research. It also discusses research methods versus methodology, the research process, sample designs, criteria for good research, and common problems encountered by researchers in India. The objectives of research are described as exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, or to test causal relationships between variables. Research can be classified as descriptive or analytical, applied or fundamental, and quantitative or qualitative.
In writing the literature review:
your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
It is not just a descriptive list of the material available or a set of summaries."
This document provides guidance on conducting a literature review for a research proposal. It defines what a literature review is, discusses why it is important to include one in a research proposal, and outlines the steps to take in conducting an effective literature review. These steps include searching for and evaluating relevant literature, critically analyzing and synthesizing the literature, and writing the literature review in a clear and organized manner using appropriate citation styles. The document emphasizes that a good literature review is focused, concise, logical, integrative, and current. It also includes examples and templates to help structure the literature review.
The document discusses experimental research design. It covers key concepts like causality, conditions for causality, validity, and extraneous variables. It also describes different types of experimental designs including pre-experimental, true experimental, quasi-experimental, and statistical designs. Examples are provided to illustrate different designs like randomized block and Latin square designs. Limitations of experimentation are also briefly discussed.
The document discusses research design and the use of secondary data in research. It defines research design as a framework that details procedures for collecting, measuring, and analyzing information to structure business research problems. A good research design typically includes selecting a design type, identifying needed information, specifying measurement and scaling, and determining data collection and analysis methods. The document also discusses exploratory research design and the advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data sources.
The document provides guidance on developing an effective literature search strategy. It discusses starting a literature search through keywords, references, or journals. The main steps are defined as: defining the topic, turning it into a question, choosing search terms, selecting appropriate databases, running the search, and evaluating results. Specific databases are also outlined, including PubMed, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, and others. Guidance is given on using keywords, Boolean operators, and search history to refine results.
Sole reliance on citation data provides an incomplete understanding of research. Although citation analysis may be simple to apply, it should be used with caution to avoid it coming under disrepute through uncritical use. Ideally, citation analysis should be performed to supplement, not replace, a robust system of expert review to determine the actual quality and impact of published research.
Research Integrity: Philosophical Perspectives Robert Farrow
A short presentation exploring the concept of research integrity from a philosophical perspective and discussing some of the advice and frameworks that support research integrity.
Its a paper presentation that tries to explore in detail, the ethical issues in research. The ethical issues presented cut across almost all the discipline; education, sociology, social science, humanities, e.t.c. In other words a multidisciplinary approach has been used to present these ethical issues in research.
Ethics in academic research: avoiding plagiarismDr. Utpal Das
This document discusses ethics in academic research and avoiding plagiarism. It defines academic research as time-bound, investigative in nature, leading to an academic degree or enhancing knowledge. Exploratory research is described as limitless in time and leading to path breaking discoveries. The document outlines characteristics of facts, opinions, and beliefs and how to distinguish between them. It also discusses research misconduct, principles of research ethics, and some key ethical considerations in conducting academic research.
This document provides an agenda for a one week faculty development program on research methodology and intellectual property rights. It includes an introduction to research concepts like problem definition, setting research objectives, research design, and sampling techniques. The document defines what research is, discusses the key components of a research process and different research strategies like surveys, experiments, case studies, etc. It also explains the difference between research methods and methodology, and highlights the importance of properly defining the research problem and setting clear objectives.
The document provides an introduction to research methodology. It defines research and discusses the main types of research: exploratory research, descriptive research, explanatory research, basic research, and applied research. It also discusses types of applied research and the time dimension of research, including cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cohort analysis. Finally, it outlines different types of research approaches such as empirical research, qualitative research, quantitative research, and historical research, and discusses the key characteristics of research.
Intro to Biomedical Research - Basic Concepts
- How to be a good doctor - A step in Health promotion
- By Ibrahim A. Abdelhaleem - Zagazig Medical Research Society (ZMRS)
A research design is a plan or blueprint that guides how research will be conducted, including what data will be collected and how it will be analyzed. It aims to address the research question in an efficient way. A good research design facilitates the research process, makes it more effective and efficient, and yields useful results with minimal time and costs. It helps control for unwanted variables and errors to obtain valid and objective conclusions about the relationship between variables. The key components of a research design include sampling, observations, statistics, and operational aspects.
This document discusses opportunities for archaeology organizations to transition to open source digital tools for on-site data collection and archiving. It acknowledges challenges like resistance to change, differing expectations, and software dependencies. However, it argues that open source can work for professional geospatial applications and examines potential opportunities like better staff engagement, cost savings, and greater control over data. The conclusion is that organizations should examine their current workflows and software to evaluate the true costs of not investigating open source alternatives.
Consuming open and linked data with open source toolsJoanne Cook
This document discusses consuming and using open and linked data with open source tools. It outlines the available data and distribution technologies like RDF, SPARQL and linked data. It then explains the typical software stack used including tools for querying, storing and visualizing the data. The document provides an example of actually retrieving data and doing something useful with it. It also notes some potential issues or "gotchas" and provides further resources for working with open data.
This document discusses how Oxford Archaeology uses open source software throughout the archaeological process. They have adopted an "open ethos" of open access to data, open standards, and open source software. Some challenges in transitioning to open source included changing workflows and overcoming misconceptions, but benefits include greater staff engagement, opportunities for innovation, and the ability to better meet company goals. Overall, the open source approach has helped the company survive difficult economic times and find new opportunities.
1. The document discusses creating a portable GIS system on a USB stick to make GIS tools more accessible for beginners without requiring complex installation or setup.
2. The USB stick would contain desktop GIS programs like GRASS and QGIS, as well as tools, databases, and web mapping programs to allow for a complete GIS system.
3. Challenges in creating the portable GIS system included difficulties installing and upgrading some programs when the USB drive letter changed and issues with Windows restrictions, but the document proposes ways to address these such as improved documentation and versions for other platforms.
This document provides an overview of using open source tools for web mapping, including databases, map servers, and web servers. It discusses setting up a PostgreSQL/PostGIS database and loading spatial data. It then covers using a map server to display the spatial data on a web page and perform spatial queries. Hands-on tasks guide working with these open source tools to create a basic web mapping application.
Jo Cook gives a presentation on open source GIS in the UK, with a focus on archaeology. She notes that open source use is growing in universities and heritage organizations. Preconceptions about open source include beliefs that it is only for home use and lacks support, but open source offers advantages like transparency, interoperability, and sustainability. For archaeology specifically, open source is attractive due to needs for long-term data preservation and limited budgets. She highlights the open source GIS tools gvSIG, PostgreSQL/PostGIS, and OpenLayers/Mapfish. Overall, she encourages giving open source GIS a chance.
The document discusses open source GIS software and data in the UK. It introduces some popular open source GIS programs like gvSIG and PostgreSQL/PostGIS, highlights data sources from the Ordnance Survey and OpenStreetMap, and encourages giving open source GIS a chance for its advantages like being modular and free. The document promotes more use and sharing of open geospatial data and software.
This document provides an overview of using open source GIS tools like Quantum GIS, PostgreSQL, and MapServer to work with spatial data. It discusses downloading and installing plugins, connecting QGIS to a PostgreSQL database, loading shapefiles into PostgreSQL using tools like OGR2OGR and SPIT, performing spatial queries, creating map files to display data in MapServer, and using OpenLayers to display maps in a web browser. The goal is to demonstrate practical open source tools for working with spatial data.
The document discusses classical frameworks for understanding society and how ideas have evolved over time. It examines perspectives from figures like Vitruvius, Darwin, and others on topics like human evolution, proportions, and the development of social theories. The key frameworks discussed are:
1) Classical theories providing foundations for understanding society through lenses like nature and culture.
2) Ideas from Vitruvius and da Vinci on ideal human proportions and their influence on architecture.
3) Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and its revolutionary impact on understanding life's development.
Defining the humanities is no longer as simple as it once was. At .docxvickeryr87
Defining the humanities is no longer as simple as it once was. At one time, the word “humanities,” which grew out of the term “ humanism,” simply meant the study of what the best minds of classical Greece and Rome—the great artists, writers, and
philosophers—had accomplished. During the Renaissance, the huge artistic and political revolution that swept over Western Europe beginning in the fourteenth century, interest revived in the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome—cultures that had been left largely unexamined during the thousand-year span following the fall of Rome. The intelligentsia of the Renaissance believed that only through a study of classical art, literature, and philosophy could a person become fully human.
These disciplines became known as the humanities. In time, the term grew beyond the study of Greek and Roman cultures to include those of major Western European countries: first Italy, then France and Spain, then Britain and, finally, Germany. As cultures multiplied, so did the disciplines people needed to study in pursuit of humanness. Music, theater, and dance began to flourish during the Renaissance, and scholars discovered that these disciplines were also part of the ancient world’s legacy.
More recently, this ethnocentric view of the humanities—the study of Western cultures—has expanded again to acknowledge the vast contributions of cultures beyond Europe. The art, music, theater, and literature of China, Japan, and other Asian nations, as well as those of Africa and the Americas, have become important additions to the study of the humanities.
In this book, we define the term humanities as broadly as possible. Yes, we still need to pay attention to extraordinary artistic and intellectual achievements that have been singled out for special praise and that now represent what is sometimes called the “humanistic tradition.” All of us belong to the human race and should want to know as much as possible about the distinguished contributions of those who have gone before. We may also find in our study of the humanities our response to the traditional mandate: Know thyself. By exploring the contributions of others, we begin to see how we ourselves might
contribute—not, perhaps, as great artists or writers or musicians, but as more thoughtful and critical human beings.
We do need to recognize that the “humanistic tradition” was for many centuries limited more or less to the contributions made by men of the classical and then the Western European worlds. Plato and Michelangelo and Shakespeare continue to deserve our admiration and reward our study. But our study should and does include those persons, both male and female, past and present, from around the globe, who may be little known or not known at all, who nevertheless left behind or who now offer a myriad of wonderful songs, poems, and provocative thoughts waiting to be appreciated.
The humanities are also the creative and intellectual expressions of each of us in momen.
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- The Pitts River Basin has been inhabited for thousands of years, with archaeological evidence showing changing patterns of human occupation and land use over time.
- Archaeological data from the region exhibits significant variability, with sites ranging widely in age, material culture, and features.
- There are several potential explanations for this variability, including environmental and climatic changes influencing settlement and subsistence patterns, changing technologies, and cultural and social developments among the indigenous populations.
- Thoroughly investigating the archaeological record of the basin and comparing evidence across sites can help archaeologists better understand the human histories of the region
This document is a commentary on progress in humanity from the perspective of World Goodwill. It discusses how humanity has progressed both materially and spiritually over time. Material progress includes scientific and technological advances, but this alone is not sufficient and can enable destructive behaviors if not balanced with spiritual evolution. Spiritual progress involves developing ethics, responsibility and inclusive thinking. The commentary analyzes past civilizations that rose and fell based on overexploiting their environments. It argues humanity is now facing a crisis of unsustainability but that lessons from history could guide a more harmonious relationship with nature. Overall, the document presents an optimistic view that humanity's inner spiritual awakening can help address current challenges and lead to a higher stage of civilization.
Historical method: Philosophy of history from Herodotus to Will DurantNadwanRosetta
1. The document discusses several philosophers and their approaches to writing and understanding history. It covers thinkers from Herodotus to Will Durant and their varying methodologies.
2. Key approaches discussed include Herodotus' reliance on first-hand witnesses, Augustine's theological "Ages of the World" theory, Ibn Khaldun's concept of "Asabiyyah" and cyclical theory, and Hegel's notions of the Zeitgeist and dialectical progression of history.
3. Later philosophers like Durant and Toynbee emphasized additional factors like religion, economics, politics and culture in analyzing civilizational rise and fall, moving beyond single-factor theories of the past.
The document discusses different paradigms in various fields of knowledge such as:
- Miasmatic theory of disease which held that diseases were caused by bad air, later replaced by germ theory.
- Euclid's deductive system in geometry which established logic and axioms.
- Newtonian physics which developed predictive laws through observation and experimentation.
- Cubism in art which moved from single perspective to exploring ideas.
- Religious opposition to heliocentric models of the solar system proposed by Copernicus and Galileo due to certain scriptural interpretations. The understanding of the Earth's motion was achieved gradually over centuries.
The document discusses Winston Churchill's significant impact on the world as England's prime minister during WWII and through his political career. It notes that Churchill helped lead England through WWII relatively unscathed and brought the Allies through the war as well. Churchill made radical changes to how England operated that impacted not just his home country but the wider world. The document asserts that Churchill was truly a great man and one of the best world leaders.
Best Narrative Essay. Free Narrative Essay Examples - Samples amp; Format - E...Bobbi Antonacci
Step-by-Step Guide How to Write Narrative Essay (2023 Update). 4 Easy Ways to Write a Personal Narrative (with Pictures). How to Write a Narrative Essay: 15 Steps (with Pictures) - wikiHow. How To Write A Personal Narrative Essay For College : The Personal .... 13 Best Narrative Essay Examples & Templates. 004 Thesis Statement For Narrative Essay Example ~ Thatsnotus. Narrative Essay - Narrative Essay. How to write a narrative essay?. Free Narrative Essay Examples - Samples & Format - Example of a good .... How to use Narrative Essay Examples - Essay Basics. Sample Narrative Essay. 011 Personal Narrative Essay Example High School Examples And Forms .... 001 Essays High School Personal Short Narrative Pdf 1048x1482 ~ Thatsnotus. Narrative Essay Examples For 8Th Grade. How to Write a Good Narrative Essay | Blog CheapEssay.net. Buy an essay online: Personal story essay.
Free Writing Paper With Borders - Google SearchPatty Buckley
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Being primarily a visual learner, I find that breaking information down and combining words with images helps me to learn and remember things more effectively. I made this ppt. to help me digest Foucault\'s \'Of Other Spaces\'. I hope it\'s of use to others.
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Anthropological Theories and Theoretical OrientationsBrax Reantillo
The document discusses the evolution of theories in anthropology from the 16th century encounters between Europeans and indigenous peoples, leading to the emergence of the field of anthropology. Early approaches included evolutionism, which viewed culture as progressing through universal stages from simple to complex. Race theory emerged which attributed behavioral and cultural differences to separate human subspecies. Diffusionism explained cultural traits and changes through spread from core areas. Modern anthropology developed historical particularism and functionalism to understand cultures through their unique histories and as systems that fulfill social needs. Later approaches included cultural ecology, sociobiology, structuralism, political economy, feminist perspectives and more recently postmodernism.
Anthropological Theories and Theoretical Orientations
Anthropology notes 14
1. Archaeology 4: Objective Facts v. Subjective View Garbage doesn’t lie The Fall of Rome Pottery and people Economic collapse Shifting settlements Amazing! Shrinking cows! A post-literate world Rubbish! A catalog of self-delusion Fats and meats Diapers: cloth v. disposable Are we running out of landfill space? Proportion of landfills Environmental science versus environmental perception The ascendance of chicken
2. ARCHAEOLOGY does four things very well 1: Providing a chronology for the “people without history.” 2: Providing objective fact to a subjective historical record 3: Reconstructing ancient lifepaths, how individuals in the remote past actually interacted with the physical environment. 4: Providing a window into potential patterns of long term human occupation and cultural variation through time (Sociocultural Evolution).
3. If you take my cultural class, one of the main points that I try to make is this: “People do not react to the world as it objectively exists, but rather as they perceive it to be.” This includes us. It includes all humans. The world around us is as we have been socially and culturally constructed to perceive it.. We see the world through a thick “perceptive lens” of culture. So, we’re going to talk about perception for a bit.
4. OBJECTIVE: of, relating to, or being an object, phenomenon, or condition in the realm of sensible experience independent of individual thought and perceptible by all observers. as opposed to SUBJECTIVE: (1) peculiar to a particular individual, (2) modified or affected by personal views, experience, or background. This is a Rorschach inkblot, of course. From a subjective perspective, it is course, anything one wants (I think it looks like a pelvis). From an objective perspective, it is a purposefully random object designed to allow individual interpretations. Objectively, it has no inherent meaning.
9. The goal here is to study human culture objectively, or as objectively as possible. This entails stripping away as much of our own cultural biases as possible- trying to see something for what it is, independently of our individualistic interpretation. Humans, without specific training, generally cannot think objectively. Hence the use of the scientific method, which allows an objectivity free from of individual bias.
10. Rationality, perception and response. Again, as humans, we don’t response to our surroundings as they actually exist, we respond to the world we imperfectly perceive. Given this imperfect understanding, and we make the most reasonable decision available, the result can be said to be RATIONAL, i.e. one that makes logical sense, regardless of how mad the decision might appear to others. Hence reason and response often depends heavily on perception. Perceptions crafted largely through enculturation. Prisoners’ dilemma Body dysmorphic disorder
11. A SUBJECTIVE REALITY is the worldview (cosmology) of any given ethnos, or population. It may or may not have any relationship to objective reality. If a group believes in an accessible, vibrant spirit realm, they will act accordingly. If a group believes in the intervention of powerful supernatural spirits, they will condition their response to take those spirits into account. If a group believes in a relatively inaccessible omnipotent patriarch, they will take his commands a the central guiding force in their lives and daily actions. Now, here’s the tricky bit. From an anthropological view, if one is studying this group, one MUST take their worldview into account. To systematically study human culture, the fact that their subjective reality may nor may not be provable in any manner- IS IRRELEVANT.
12. “Pointing the Bone” Australian Aborigines have a special “death curse” that they use on people who have broken taboos, especially the incest taboo. The oldest man of the village will take the largest bone of a human, emu or kangaroo and sharpen the end and attack a long stringed cord at the other end (some account have the cord soaked in the intended victim’s blood), this is the kundela. Then the “executioners,” called the Kadaicha Men, walk up to the victim and point the sharpened bone at him where everyone can see. They give the “kadaicha” chant, a high-pitched wail. They have now given the victim the “death curse. In the next few weeks, the victim will almost always weaken and die. Some have perished, in modern times, while in modern intensive care units in modern hospitals.
14. Now, as humans inhabit these subjective realities, their perception of the world is always skewed, and this includes us. Science, however, allows us the opportunity to study the world OBJECTIVELY, to test hypotheses through replicable experimentation and observation. Prior to Copernicus, scholars placed the Earth at the center of the universe, with all other heavenly objects, including the Sun, rotating around it. This is false, of course, and through careful observation, made mostly by Galileo, found that the Earth is itself in motion around the sun.
15. A scientific archaeology works in the same manner, providing objective fact about the human past, one that often unseats commonly lead theories and subjective perceptions on the human past. In other words, archaeology provides objective data, a corrective, to subjective perceptions as to how the human past unfolded. I don’t think this robs history of its wonder and splendor, indeed, reality is often odder and stranger than we could imagine….. We’re going to look, specifically, at two examples of this. 1: the archaeology of the Roman Collapse 2: the archaeology of modern American garbage.
16. The Roman Empire dominated the Mediterranean basin for some 700 years, from ~300B.C. to AD 400. By about 20 BC, it had reached its logistical limits, roughly being the map above. It was ruled by a landed elite, the Senatorial and Equestrian classes, in conjunction with the military, headed by an Emperor. The state functioned through a mix of militarism and government largesse, but unified through a flexible notion of “Roman-ness”
17. It was a highly complex ancient state with great cities, a complex commercial economy and enormous resources at its disposal. Yet between A.D. 400 and 500, the Roman Empire in the West rapidly unraveled. By 500, a German warlord ruled Rome itself, which had become an empty, ruined shell. Many reasons have been suggested, included Gibbon’s famous work (which blamed the Christians), but most have followed Will Durant’s oft-quoted line, “A great civilization is not conquered from without until it has destroyed itself from within.” Rome declined, grew decadent, collapsed.
18. The general consensus, for a goodly portion of the 20th century, was that Rome declined and collapsed. The Germanic armies entered the old empire and entered a land already laid waste. They didn’t so much conquer Rome as simply move in and occupy the ruins. This has lead to an even more modern synthesis that Rome didn’t really “fall” at all, but that Europe underwent a gradual and often peaceful transformation from Roman rule to the post-Roman world. The German armies were largely welcomed by the Roman citizenry, as they could maintain the peace and security that the declining Roman military could not. This “peaceful transformation” theory was proven quite popular, especially in a modern Europe desirous of a modern peaceful transformation of its own.
19. The timeline of the Roman Collapse 200-300 Transformation of Germania 234-284 “Crisis of the Third Century” 330 Capital moved to Constantinople 350 formation of the Hunnic Empire 378 Battle of Adrianople 380 Christianization of the Empire 405 The Three Invasions 405-408 Rhine Frontier collapses 410 Visigoths sack Rome 410-500 Permanent German states inside the empire 410-452 Military Rule in the West 451 Battle of the Catalaunian Plains 452-492 Political upheaval 455 Vandals sack of Rome 469 end of the Hunnic Empire 492 Ostrogothic Army seizes Italia, deposes the Emperor 535-554 The Gothic Wars, the 18 sacks of Rome
20. Some marks of Roman decline are well-known and include: -an explosive growth of central government -a general depopulation of the cities -a general depopulation of certain areas (particularly Italia) -gross inflation of the currency -endemic economic crises -unending military campaigns on the frontiers So, archaeologically, we are going to look at for indicators of economic and demographic (population studies) collapse.
21. A SCIENTIFIC ARCHAEOLOGY consists of the following three steps. 1: formulating a hypothesis 2: developing a methodology to answer the hypothesis 3: applying the methodology to the archaeological record. For the Roman collapse the question concerns the degree and scale of the indicators of decline, specifically, Late Imperial social structure, demography (depopulation) and economic crisis. For all of these we should see a prosperous past, indicators of problems, a declines, and then a collapse. Did it decline rapidly? Slowly? How widespread was it? The economic collapse? To what extent and how fast?
22. Specifically, as we are looking at the archaeology of the Roman Collapse, we’ll be employing large scale pattern analysis in two ways, looking at home the Romans related to the landscape itself, the patterning and mapping of sites and settlements, something called SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS, and looking at distributions of artifacts through time and space, something I call GEOCHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS.
23. We’ll start with settlement patterns. Settlement patterns are difficult for two main reasons. One, ancient sites often underlie modern sites and, two, they are very expensive in time and money. There is, however, a way to cheat. This is aerial photography (or aerial archaeology). When the wheat is ready to harvest, the slight difference in the tops of the wheat mean, one good day when the light is just right, the foundations of the Roman villa stand out.
24. Infrared film helps, too. At any rate, one complies a map of all these Roman sites, then goes out over the course of a few years and excavates small test-pits at each one, just to get a sense of when they were built and how long they were occupied. In this way, the entire Roman landscape slowly becomes evident.
25.
26. As settlement studies of the Roman landscape emerged after WW2, three things became increasingly clear. One, the Roman landscape was densely packed with farms (villas). Two, 80-90% of the villas were working single-family farms. Three, most dated to the 3rd to 5th centuries. Roman society was not a few wealthy families and a mass of slaves, but rather a very few wealthy farmers and a vast majority of free-holding family farms. And most of this growth occurred very late.
27. Except for the “hubs” all the black rectangles are small to medium sized Roman villas.
28. This large-scale occupation of the countryside occurs at the same time that the big cities underwent “depopulation.” From the settlement data, we can see that Rome underwent no significant drop in population at any point in the 3rd, 4th or 5th century. The people didn’t vanish, they moved out of the large cities and into the countryside and small cities. For a society that embraced an agricultural work ethic, this should not be surprising. As the Empire consolidated power into four “mega-cities” (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria and Carthage), the big cities held no attraction. As Roman society prospered, generally people bought a plot of land and moved onto it. So, when did the demographic collapse begin?
29. Here is the settlement pattern for the region of Metz. The black dots are villas and small villages occupied mostly in the 4th century. The rectangle is the fortified city of Metz itself (Divodurum was the Roman name). It is also the only occupied place on the map in the early 5th century. What happened here at the beginning of the 400s? In the late 5th century, the entire region is depopulated. There are zero human settlements. What happened in the mid 400s?
30. On the left is Roman settlement in Southern Tuscany in the 5th century. Note the density of small villas and farms- none of which are fortified. On the right is occupation in the 6th century. What happened in Italia at the beginning of the 6th century?
31. In other words, large-scale abandonment of the countryside do not occur until the barbarians show up, the Roman government loses control and is unable to maintain security outside of the fortified centers. Of course, people flee their small, isolated farms when they become vulnerable. If some small group of brigands or Germanic soldiers can show up anytime, burn you out, kill your family… you are gone. Especially as the warfare of the day, as barbarians and Roman legionnaires slug it out, grows more and more brutal. (The Hunnic armies simply kill anything they find.) Finally, in terms of demographic collapse, we can see that, prior to the collapse of the Rhine frontier- There was no demographic decline in the Late Roman Empire.
32. A SCIENTIFIC ARCHAEOLOGY consists of the following three steps. 1: formulating a hypothesis 2: developing a methodology to answer the hypothesis 3: applying the methodology to the archaeological record. Now, we’ll turn to the economy. To chart this, we’ll rely on geochronological patterns, the distribution of the artifacts across multiple sites. For the economic decline, we should expect to see increasing regionalization, a shrinkage of markets, and an end of currency as the Roman economy worsened. Particularly, we’re going to look at ceramics. Pottery endures for just about ever, it is found at virtually all sites in cultures that used it and is a highly reliable indicator of the economy health of a civilization. The Romans made very nice pottery on an industrial scale with a few large centers manufacturing vessels for the whole Empire.
33. Graufensque Pottery, manufactured at a single site in southern Gaul (France) and exported throughout the Empire. This was a highly advanced economy, but note the drop-off at the Rhine frontier.
34. Here are the distributions of Baetican amphora in the western Empire in the 4th century. Now, Baetica, southern Spain, wasn’t exporting amphora, but was exporting olive oil on a large scale and shipping the oil in the amphora. The Late Roman economy, while elaborate, tended to be rather regional in scale, so Spanish oil was limited to the Western Empire. At any rate, note that Spanish olive oil is reaching England and the Rhine frontier. Even in the 4th century, there seems to be little diminishment of economic activity.
36. The most common pottery in the Late Empire was AFRICAN RED SLIP, called, simply ARS. ARS was manufactured in colossal amounts. Indeed, Roman production of ARS would not be equaled in the world until the 17th century. ARS was manufactured in series of large, imperially-subsidized factories located just outside the city of Carthage in North Africa. It is very distinct, hard, well-fired and very well-made.
37. Light grey indicates distributions before 400, fairly widespread, mostly confined to the coast and the Empire. Black circles indicate distribution after 425, it is greatly diminished, largely absent in the Western Empire. What happened in the early 5th century in the West?
38. Moving forward in time, the 6th century distributions of ARS. It has virtually vanished completely in the West, but remains largely undiminished in the East. What happened in the 6th century west?
39. In other words, the pottery shows the degree of elaboration and complexity of the ancient Roman economy. It’s large, industrial in scale, and widely distributed from Britain to Egypt. It was cheap and virtually anyone could afford it. And it continued to be delivered until, and even after, Roman control ended throughout the West. Finally, in terms of economic decline and specifically in terms of production, we can see that, prior to the collapse of the Rhine frontier- There was no economic decline in the Late Roman Empire.
40. The Sevso Treasure- family silver buried in the iron cauldron on the left probably from a wealthy rural villa in either Noricom or Pannonia. It was likely buried as the Hunnic armies advanced and the Roman frontiers collapse. This was not an impoverished people in a state of marked economic decline.
41. The incredible shrinking cow. The scale of the Roman collapse was immense. Even the cows grew smaller. Roman ranchers bred their cows for slaughter at the market, so they progressively bred larger and larger cattle. Early Medieval farmers HAD no market to sell it, the early Medieval economy was largely non-commercial, and production was for local consumption. Hence the scale of the economic collapse is apparent even in the bones of cattle.
42. The end of literacy, graffiti by Roman citizenry- ordinary citizens.
43. 8th century graffiti. The “commoners” in the West had entered a post-literate world.
44. The reasons for the collapse of the Roman Empire are multifaceted and complex. But the archaeology is clear, at least demographically and economically, Rome was not in any state of decline. (Given that the Roman armies were still winning battles in the middle of the 5th century, probably not much of a military decline, either.) The Germanic tribes did not enter a unoccupied landscape of a civilization that had already collapsed. The end of Rome was in no way a peaceful transition from Roman to Germanic rule. It was a violent clash that the Romans lost. Claims to the contrary are, simply…
46. A SCIENTIFIC ARCHAEOLOGY consists of the following three steps. 1: formulating a hypothesis 2: developing a methodology to answer the hypothesis 3: applying the methodology to the archaeological record. Starting in 1973, William Rathje (Univerisyt of Arizona) became acutely interested in applying a scientific archaeology to the material assemblage of modern America. His research questions were: ->What exactly gets thrown away? ->What comprises, percentage-wise, our collective garbage? ->What happens to our garbage after it is thrown away? ->What changes occur in garbage patterns over time? He was surprised to find that no one had any idea what the answers to these questions were. He began with a series of garbage collection studies, but eventually realized that to get the data he needed, he would have to dig.
47. He realized that he would have to excavate inside landfills themselves. He got permission to begin core samples of landfills around Tuscon, but eventually, he got permission to excavate inside the largest, smellest, most continually used landfill in the United States- Fresh Kills- the municiple dump for the city of New York. In continual operation from 1948-2001 and covering 2200 acres.
48. Measuring by volume, Fresh Kills Landfill in comparison to the Great Pyramid at Giza. In fact, by volume, the Fresh Kills Landfill is the largest man-made object on Earth.
49. Traditional excavation techniques were out of the question. Rathje turned to taking core samples using industrial sized mobile augers.
54. Additionally, soft drink and beer bottles and pull-tabs fit into very temporally sensitive typologies, allowing individual years to be determined from each landfill layer.
55.
56. The results was that he invented and entirely new field of study, GARBOLOGY, the study of modern refuse, the archaeology of garbage.
58. So, what is the composition of a landfill? Before Rathje, no one really knew. A 1990 survey revealed the following estimates: estimates Disposable diapers 40% Plastic bottles 29% Large appliances 24% Newspapers 11% Paper 6% Food waste 3% Construction debris 0%
59. So, what is the composition of a landfill? Before Rathje, no one really knew. A 1990 survey revealed the following estimates: estimatesactual amount found Disposable diapers 40% <2% Plastic bottles 29% <1% Large appliances 24% <2% Newspapers 11% 13% Paper 6% 40% Food waste 3% 7% Construction debris 0% 12% The chief component of landfills is PAPER, mostly newspapers and telephone books.
60. Paper is the villain. And there’s so much of it, that even simple economics shows that recycling it on any worthwhile scale will never be profitable for anyone.
61. Alternate studies have revealed the same component over and over. Paper, by both volume and count. A side discovery was that, in landfills, styrofoam compressed down into a much smaller volume and is easier to retrieve and recycle.
62. > Hence, the shift from styrofoam to paper coffee cups and clamshells, actually generated MORE GARBAGE. And more garbage by volume. Styrofoam, especially if recycled, is friendlier to the environment than paper.
63. Disposable diapers crush down to virtually nothing, comprising less than 2% of a landfill by volume. They contribute very little to landfills. Hence, in comparison to the energy expended by washing and reusing cloth diapers…
64. …there is no significant environmental difference between using disposable over cloth. If anything, disposable diapers seem slightly friendlier to the environment, as cloth diapers are eventually thrown away anyway. Now, they do contain human waste, but compared to the other stuff in the landfill, that’s small potatoes. Landfills are highly toxic, but not from nuclear waste or industrial by-products, but from…
65. Makeup. Trace amounts left in bottles, especially nail polish, leach out when the bottle breaks and enters the overall leachate of any given landfill. The leachate is the liquid sludge present in any landfill that sinks to the bottom. When you lift up a full garbage bag and there’s this odd, gross stuff dripping from the bottom? Same thing. Except in a landfill, that liquid, leachate, contains the accumulated make-up from millions and millions of make-up containers. Highly toxic.
66. These mistaken ideas about what we consume and discard are what Rathje called “a sad catalog of self-delusion.” Garbage doesn’t lie. We do, even to ourselves. In comparing what people reported consuming and discarding with their actual trash, he found that people over-report healthy foods and dramatically under-report unhealthy foods. Overreported cottage cheese (-311%) Liver (-200%) Tuna (-184%) Skim milk (-57%) Unreported Sausage (+56%) Ice cream (+63%) Bacon (+80%) Potato Chips (+81%) Sugar (+94%)
67. So, what goes on INSIDE the landfill? It’s been long known that landfill produce a lot of methane gas. Landfill companies have to place long tubes and periodically burn off the methane to keep the ground from bubbling and buckling. They also knew that the methane production diminishes after a few years. But they didn’t know why. By taking chemical samples of each of the dated layers, Rathje accurately reconstructed a landfill’s internal processes.
68. Garbage in a landfill goes through four stages, giving off carbon dioxide and methane is uneven pockets. The degree of chemical activity depends on available oxygen and water (H2O). After two years, all available oxygen has been depleted in a given layer and the water has leached down. The result is, after two years, an anaerobic, water-poor environment in which virtually nothing can live. After two years, all chemical processes come to a halt.
69. Everything stops. Everything is preserved inside the landfill. Rathje uses the term “mummification,” which is so say that all organics are mummified and preserved, probably forever. What rots in a landfill? Almost nothing.
71. The good news is, that once sealed, landfills seem pretty safe, they’re fairly self-contained. So, are we running out of landfill space? What happens to landfills once they’re sealed? The sealed-over site of Fresh Kills.
72. Historically, once sealed, people move on top of them, build houses. Modern people are no different. Here is a map of New York City. Everything in black is “madeland,” i.e. former garbage landfills turned into part of the city. We live on top of our own garbage. So, taking that into account, we will never run out of landfill space.
73. How about trends over time? Rathje and his garbologists documented major changes in the American diet over the last fifty years, in particular, this included the shift from distinct cuts of meat (shanks, steaks, & chops) to processed meats (sausages, hot dogs). The shift marks two things, 1: the decline of the neighborhood butcher in favor of the supermarket meat counter, and 2: a movement where one can see the fat of the meat to one in which the fat is invisible.
74. They also noted a major shift in the American diet, a shift away from pork and beef to chicken. In layers from the 1950s, chicken occupied less than 20% of the meats. By the late ‘70s, is occupied almost 80% of the meat. This is again for two reasons. One, it notes the rise of massive poultry farms and subsequent drop in chicken prices. Two, it noted an increased concern with health, chicken generally being a healthier and leaner meat than beef or pork (as long as you don’t eat the skin).
75. Also, they noted an oddity in the data. In 1973, in an effort to control inflation, President Nixon announced a series of price freezes of certain products. One of these was beef. Major newspapers and magazines predicted an impending beef shortage and, soon enough, beef vanished from markets and the price skyrocketed. However, in the landfills, the year with the highest amount of wasted beef? 1973. Because of the meat shortage, people purchased unfamiliar cuts of meat. They didn’t know how to cook it and ended up burning it or throwing it away. Hence the meat shortage was exacerbated by a sense of panic from the media and people rushing out to purchase meat they didn’t need or know how to cook.
76. Lastly, it found that the average amount of garbage produced per day by the average American (per capita basis) has been DECREASING since 1950. 1950 1970 2009 This was largely attributed to increases in packing design technology. To drive costs down, companies have been trying to use less and less packaging. The result has been the steady trend of source reduction of material entering the landfills. Secondarily, there has also been a trend of increasing use of garbage disposals in kitchens.
77. So, in environmental terms, the garbage disposal has a greater positive impact, generally, than any degree of recycling. (But organics only please.)
78. The best way to handle paper is not to recycle it. It’s expensive and has not proven profitable. Paper recycling efforts are generally feel- good, money-losing operations. It’s wasteful. Paper, if you want to be environmentally friendly about it, should be SHREDDED and COMPOSTED. That way it never enters to waste stream at all and turns into a nice potting soil. Which IS recycling it, in a matter of speaking…
79. Rathje summed up his work in what he called ”The five myths of American Garbage.” The Five Myths of American Garbage 1. Fast-food packaging, polystyrene foam and disposable diapers are major constituents of American garbage. 2. Plastic is a big problem. 3. A lot of biodegradation takes place in landfills 4. America is running out of safe places to put landfills. 5. On a per capita basis, Americans are producing garbage at a rapidly accelerating rate. All of these statements are empirically false. So, is there a Garbage Problem? Yes, but only to the extent that all societies have a garbage problem. To the extent that Americans are excessively wasteful? Not really, our “garbage problem” is much less serious than in other societies or countries in the world. Most alarming to me, is that before garbology (and even today) both industry, environmental groups and the government, in terms of trash, were not doing the research, but still publishing studies. In short, all three groups were simply INVENTING DATA to support whatever perspective they wanted to push.
80. So, to recap. ARCHAEOLOGY is the methodology for the exploration of the human past through the medium of the archaeological record. A SCIENTIFIC ARCHAEOLOGY consists of the following three steps. 1: formulating a hypothesis 2: developing a methodology to answer the hypothesis 3: applying the methodology to the archaeological record. ARCHAEOLOGY does four things very well 1: Providing a chronology for the “people without history.” 2: Providing objective fact to a subjective historical record 3: Reconstructing ancient lifepaths, how individuals in the remote past actually interacting with the physical environment. 4: Providing a window into potential patterns of long term human occupation and cultural variation through time (Sociocultural Evolution).
81. Archaeology MeadowcroftRockshelter Archaeological Record Blackwater Draw Laws of Stratigraphy Clovis Archaeological Culture Folsom Population the overkill hypothesis Cultural Region the nudge theory Material Assemblage atlatl Site Poverty Point Feature teosinte Architecture nixtamalization Deposit xocolātl Artifact Mesoamerica Ecofact Objective The Pompeii Premise Subjective Thomsen and Worsaae Subjective reality The Three-Age System Settlement Analysis Heinrich Schliemann Geochronology Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers Garbology Typology Ascendance of chicken Henge Complex Anthropology Physical Anthropology Linguistics Cultural Anthropology Epiphysial Union Arthritic lipping Strontium analysis Puppe’s Rule Forensic Entomology Perimortem trauma MNI Crow Creek Makin Atoll El Mozote