This document discusses a study that assessed the impact of mass drug administration (MDA) on the transmission of lymphatic filariasis in Tono Irrigation Area in Navrongo, Ghana. The study involved collecting and dissecting mosquitoes from two communities to determine infection levels. A total of 3,650 Anopheles mosquitoes and 386 Culex mosquitoes were collected and examined. Only 3 Anopheles mosquitoes were found to be infected with filarial parasites, but no infective L3 stage larvae were detected. This suggests that ongoing transmission of lymphatic filariasis had been interrupted in the study sites following over nine years of MDA, though continued surveillance is still needed.
Entomological and parasitological indices of malaria transmission in minna ni...Chidiebere Otuu
This study evaluated the entomological and parasitological indices of malaria transmission in two communities, Mekunkele and Gidan Kwano, in Minna, Nigeria. Mosquitoes were collected using pyrethrum spray catches and dissected to determine species, parity rates, and sporozoite rates. A total of 867 mosquitoes were collected, with 62.51% being Anopheles mosquitoes. The female Anopheles mosquito samples had a 55.26% sporozoite and parity rate. Blood samples from 425 individuals were also examined, with 65.20% testing positive for malaria parasites. The results provide baseline data on the transmission of malaria in these communities to help design effective control
Malaria Control & the RTS,S Vaccine-under-trial: Matters Arising by Dr. IdokokoAbraham Idokoko
The document discusses malaria control and the RTS,S vaccine currently under trial. It provides an overview of the global malaria situation, the situation in sub-Saharan Africa and Nigeria specifically. It outlines the key components of malaria control including case management, vector control methods, and monitoring and evaluation. Progress made in malaria control from 2000-2011 is highlighted, along with current challenges such as funding shortages and insecticide and drug resistance. The development of malaria vaccines including the RTS,S vaccine currently undergoing trials is also discussed.
Brief Overview of Global and Regional HPAI Situation 2011Tata Naipospos
The document provides an overview of the global and regional situation of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1. It discusses how the virus has been circulating in poultry and wild birds in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Middle East since 2003. While some countries have regained HPAI-free status, the virus remains endemic in poultry in 5 countries and there are still sporadic outbreaks occurring. Human cases also continue to occur sporadically wherever the virus is present in poultry. The majority of poultry outbreaks and human cases have been concentrated in a few Southeast Asian countries. Live bird markets and cross-border trade are risk factors contributing to the virus's persistence in
Malaria status & challenges of the epidemicGreenFacts
Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and a great public health problem worldwide. About one million people die each year from malaria, and half of the world's population lives in areas where there is a risk of getting the disease through the bites of infected mosquitoes.
What is being done to control the spread of malaria? Can the disease be eradicated?
Malaria is still considered globally as a leading cause of morbidity with Nigeria carrying the highest burden of 19%. Coinfection of malaria and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) accelerate disease progression of HIV/AIDS subjects. This study investigated the prevalence and predictors of malaria among HIV infected subjects attending the antiretroviral therapy Clinic at Federal the Medical Centre, Keffi, Nigeria. After ethical clearance, 200 whole blood specimens were collected from patients who gave informed consent and completed a self-structured questionnaire. The specimens were examined for malarial parasite using rapid kits and microscopy. The overall prevalence of the infection was 78/200 (39.0%). The prevalence was higher in male (44.7%) than female (34.0%) subjects. Those subjects aged < 20 years (54.5), male gender (44.7%), non-formal education holders (61.5%), farmers (62.5%), stream water users (48.1%), those that lives in rural setting (43.6%), those that do not use Insecticides Treated Nets (ITNs) (39.4%) and swampy environment dwellers (41.7%) were identified predictors for malaria infection in the area. All the predictors studied did not show any statistically significant difference with the infection but some arithmetic difference exists (P > 0.05). The 39.0% prevalence of malaria in HIV infected subjects is a public health concern. Therefore, Public health surveillance and health education among HIV population should be advocated to help eradicate malaria comes 2030. Further study that will characterize the genes of the parasite should be carried out.
One health Perspective and Vector Borne DiseasesNanyingi Mark
Vector borne diseases like malaria and Rift Valley fever pose significant risks to human and animal health in Africa. One Health approaches that consider the environmental, animal, and human factors are needed to develop early warning systems. The document discusses developing tools to detect climate sensitive disease outbreaks and assessing environmental and vector characteristics. It also presents models of Rift Valley fever transmission dynamics and the importance of vertical transmission between outbreaks. Spatial distribution models of Rift Valley fever vectors in Kenya were developed using climatic and ecological variables. The results can help target surveillance and control in high-risk areas.
In a study of 17,035 malaria cases in Maira Surizai Payan District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan from May 2018 to April 2019, 7.83% (1,334) were Plasmodium vivax and 0% were Plasmodium falciparum, with no mixed infections. The highest rates occurred in August-October (11.8% of cases) due to the monsoon season. Rates were lowest in January-February (2.52%) when temperatures are cooler. Plasmodium vivax was the dominant malaria parasite present throughout the study period.
emerging and re-emerging vector borne diseasesAnil kumar
this presentation in about emerging and re-emerging vector borne diseases and their spatial spread with reference to time, surveillance, monitoring and management program and other difficulties and suggestions for program
Entomological and parasitological indices of malaria transmission in minna ni...Chidiebere Otuu
This study evaluated the entomological and parasitological indices of malaria transmission in two communities, Mekunkele and Gidan Kwano, in Minna, Nigeria. Mosquitoes were collected using pyrethrum spray catches and dissected to determine species, parity rates, and sporozoite rates. A total of 867 mosquitoes were collected, with 62.51% being Anopheles mosquitoes. The female Anopheles mosquito samples had a 55.26% sporozoite and parity rate. Blood samples from 425 individuals were also examined, with 65.20% testing positive for malaria parasites. The results provide baseline data on the transmission of malaria in these communities to help design effective control
Malaria Control & the RTS,S Vaccine-under-trial: Matters Arising by Dr. IdokokoAbraham Idokoko
The document discusses malaria control and the RTS,S vaccine currently under trial. It provides an overview of the global malaria situation, the situation in sub-Saharan Africa and Nigeria specifically. It outlines the key components of malaria control including case management, vector control methods, and monitoring and evaluation. Progress made in malaria control from 2000-2011 is highlighted, along with current challenges such as funding shortages and insecticide and drug resistance. The development of malaria vaccines including the RTS,S vaccine currently undergoing trials is also discussed.
Brief Overview of Global and Regional HPAI Situation 2011Tata Naipospos
The document provides an overview of the global and regional situation of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1. It discusses how the virus has been circulating in poultry and wild birds in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Middle East since 2003. While some countries have regained HPAI-free status, the virus remains endemic in poultry in 5 countries and there are still sporadic outbreaks occurring. Human cases also continue to occur sporadically wherever the virus is present in poultry. The majority of poultry outbreaks and human cases have been concentrated in a few Southeast Asian countries. Live bird markets and cross-border trade are risk factors contributing to the virus's persistence in
Malaria status & challenges of the epidemicGreenFacts
Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and a great public health problem worldwide. About one million people die each year from malaria, and half of the world's population lives in areas where there is a risk of getting the disease through the bites of infected mosquitoes.
What is being done to control the spread of malaria? Can the disease be eradicated?
Malaria is still considered globally as a leading cause of morbidity with Nigeria carrying the highest burden of 19%. Coinfection of malaria and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) accelerate disease progression of HIV/AIDS subjects. This study investigated the prevalence and predictors of malaria among HIV infected subjects attending the antiretroviral therapy Clinic at Federal the Medical Centre, Keffi, Nigeria. After ethical clearance, 200 whole blood specimens were collected from patients who gave informed consent and completed a self-structured questionnaire. The specimens were examined for malarial parasite using rapid kits and microscopy. The overall prevalence of the infection was 78/200 (39.0%). The prevalence was higher in male (44.7%) than female (34.0%) subjects. Those subjects aged < 20 years (54.5), male gender (44.7%), non-formal education holders (61.5%), farmers (62.5%), stream water users (48.1%), those that lives in rural setting (43.6%), those that do not use Insecticides Treated Nets (ITNs) (39.4%) and swampy environment dwellers (41.7%) were identified predictors for malaria infection in the area. All the predictors studied did not show any statistically significant difference with the infection but some arithmetic difference exists (P > 0.05). The 39.0% prevalence of malaria in HIV infected subjects is a public health concern. Therefore, Public health surveillance and health education among HIV population should be advocated to help eradicate malaria comes 2030. Further study that will characterize the genes of the parasite should be carried out.
One health Perspective and Vector Borne DiseasesNanyingi Mark
Vector borne diseases like malaria and Rift Valley fever pose significant risks to human and animal health in Africa. One Health approaches that consider the environmental, animal, and human factors are needed to develop early warning systems. The document discusses developing tools to detect climate sensitive disease outbreaks and assessing environmental and vector characteristics. It also presents models of Rift Valley fever transmission dynamics and the importance of vertical transmission between outbreaks. Spatial distribution models of Rift Valley fever vectors in Kenya were developed using climatic and ecological variables. The results can help target surveillance and control in high-risk areas.
In a study of 17,035 malaria cases in Maira Surizai Payan District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan from May 2018 to April 2019, 7.83% (1,334) were Plasmodium vivax and 0% were Plasmodium falciparum, with no mixed infections. The highest rates occurred in August-October (11.8% of cases) due to the monsoon season. Rates were lowest in January-February (2.52%) when temperatures are cooler. Plasmodium vivax was the dominant malaria parasite present throughout the study period.
emerging and re-emerging vector borne diseasesAnil kumar
this presentation in about emerging and re-emerging vector borne diseases and their spatial spread with reference to time, surveillance, monitoring and management program and other difficulties and suggestions for program
Analysis of H5N1 Influenza Data in Indonesia and the Needs for Improvement - ...Tata Naipospos
Indonesia has experienced widespread H5N1 avian influenza in poultry and 100 human cases. The virus is endemic in birds across 31 of 33 provinces. Three distinct viral sublineages circulate in different regions of Indonesia. Analysis of viral genetics shows the virus spread across the archipelago along trade routes and evolved distinct regional groups. Improved control of poultry movement and vaccination are needed to reduce virus spread and environmental load.
The epidemiology of tuberculosis in Kenya, a high TB/HIV burden country (2000...Premier Publishers
Interest in the epidemiology of TB was triggered by the re-emergence of tuberculosis in the early 1990’s with the advent of HIV and falling economic status of many people which subjected them to poverty. The dual lethal combination of HIV and poverty triggered an unprecedented TB epidemic. In this study, we focused on the period 2000-2013 and all the notified data in Kenya was included. Data on estimates of TB incidence, prevalence and mortality was extracted from the WHO global Tuberculosis database. Data was analysed to produce trends for each of the years and descriptive statistics were calculated. The results showed that there was an average decline of 5% over the last 8 years with the highest decline being reported in the year 2012/13. TB continues to disproportionately affect the male gender with 58% being male and 42% being female. Kenya has made significant efforts to address the burden of HIV among TB patients with cotrimoxazole preventive therapy (CPT) uptake reaching 98% AND ART at 74% by the end of 2013. Kenya’s TB epidemic has evolved over time and it has been characterised by a period where there was increase in the TB cases reaching a peak in the year 2007 after which there was a decline which began to accelerate in the year 2011. The gains in the decline of TB could be attributed in part to the outcomes of integrating TB and HIV services and these gains should be sustained. What is equally notable is the clear epidemiologic shift in age indicating reduced transmission in the younger age groups.
The prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum in children below 12 years presenting...inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document discusses recent advances in filariasis. It provides an outline of the topics to be covered, including the microbiology, lifecycle, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnostics, global and Indian scenarios of lymphatic filariasis, the National Filariasis Control Program in India, and new strategies and tools for elimination. Lymphatic filariasis affects over 120 million people globally and remains a major public health problem in India, where it is endemic in 20 states and impacts over 600 million people at risk of infection.
Use of radio as a tool for promoting integrated pest management among farmers...Premier Publishers
This study took a look at the place of radio in the improvement of farming practices among the farmers in Shika community in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The focus of the study was the use of radio for sensitizing farmers on integrated pest management. The objectives of the study were; examining the importance of radio as a source of agricultural information to farmers in Shika, ascertaining the level of farmers’ awareness of chemical pest control and determining how Radio can be used as a communication channel for promoting chemical pest control among farmers in Shika. Survey research method was used for the study, while copies of structured questionnaire were administered to 60 respondents purposively selected and descriptive data analysis technique was used to present and analyze the data. The findings included the fact that people of Shika do not have requisite agricultural information needed for pest control hence, there is high rate of pest attacks on their farms, the radio stations in the area rarely broadcast issues related to pest control, while there is low extension attention to the community. Improved access to agricultural information on Radio, through the Hausa language could lead to pest control needed for improved agricultural productivity in Shika community.
The document summarizes Africa's response to the COVID-19 pandemic in 3 main points:
1) Africa saw a relatively lower number of COVID-19 cases and deaths compared to other regions, due in part to early intervention and containment measures taken by African governments.
2) While lockdowns and restrictions helped curb the spread of the virus, they also negatively impacted economies and exacerbated issues like food insecurity, gender inequality, and access to healthcare for other diseases.
3) Moving forward, the document recommends strategies like increasing local manufacturing and supply chains, strengthening public health systems, expanding social protections, and pursuing digital transformation to build resilience against future crises.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The document discusses lymphatic filariasis (LF), a parasitic disease spread by mosquitoes. It outlines the National Filariasis Control Programme in India, including control strategies like mass drug administration, vector control, and morbidity management. The key goals are to eliminate LF as a public health problem in India by 2021 through annual treatment of at-risk populations and managing symptoms for infected individuals. Significant progress has been made, with over 94 districts qualifying for stopping mass drug administration after validation surveys.
Malaria is one of the major public health problems in Bangladesh. Out of 64 districts in the country 13 border districts in the east and northeast facing the eastern states of India and a small territory of Myanmar are in high endemic malaria zones, reporting about 98% of the total malaria cases every year.
The document discusses vector borne diseases in Bangladesh. It begins by defining vectors and common vector borne diseases globally and in Bangladesh, including malaria, filariasis, dengue, and leishmaniasis. It then covers the prevalence and burden of these key diseases. The final sections discuss prevention and control strategies like integrated vector management, environmental control, chemical and biological control, and recommendations to apply multiple approaches to strengthen control through collaboration between government and organizations.
This document discusses malaria, including its history, global and Indian epidemiology, life cycle, vectors, prevention methods, and control programs. It notes that malaria affected 216 million people and killed 660,000 globally in 2011, with most cases and deaths occurring in Africa and India. The life cycle involves the Plasmodium parasite infecting humans through the bites of infected Anopheles mosquitoes. Prevention strategies include vector control, early diagnosis and treatment, and surveillance programs.
The document summarizes malaria incidence data from Bangladesh from 2008-2014. Cases decreased from 2008 to 2013 due to widespread ACT use and bednet distribution, but then increased in 2014, with a doubling of cases in some eastern districts. The increase was likely due to multiple factors, including possible ACT stockouts, reduced bednet efficacy, and importation from neighboring countries. Further studies are underway to investigate the causes and inform malaria elimination efforts in Bangladesh.
Gravity model, Epidemiology and Real-time reproduction number (Rt) estimation...Bhoj Raj Singh
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) originated in China during the mid of December 2019 caused global havoc. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 as an International Public Health Emergency on 30th January 2020 and subsequently as a pandemic on 11th March 2020. The disease has affected almost all the countries of the world and as on 30th July 2020 there were 16.5 million cases and 0.65 million deaths are reported. The members of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka sharing 3% of the world's area and 21% of the world's population. We analysed the COVID-19 data as on 1st July 2020 retrieved from publically available databases. The gravity model is primarily used in the transportation industry and gaining importance in the modelling of the spread of infectious diseases. In this analysis, we observed that higher personal freedom or movement of people is having the greatest effect on the spread of COVID-19 (coefficient = 2.1). The correlation analysis was carried out with COVID-19 cases, health expenditure, poverty, and BCG vaccination, literacy, and population density of the SAARC countries. The COVID-19 positive cases showed a significant (p<0.001) positive correlation (r=0.99) with mortality rate. Similarly, the COVID-19 deaths showed a significant positive correlation with health expenditure (% GDP) (r = 0.58, p<0.05). The other epidemiological factors such as population density/sq km, literacy %, adult population %, and poverty % didn’t show any significant correlation with COVID-19 cases and deaths. The estimation of weekly Real-time reproduction number (Rt) among SAARC countries showed the highest Rt in India (Rt =2.1; 95% CI 2.05 – 2.2) followed by Bangladesh (Rt =1.6; 95% CI 1.5– 1.6). The comparison of Rt indicated that a decrease in the Rt value was noticed in the later stage of the period (past few weeks) among all the SAARC countries compared with the initial stage of infection except Nepal. The analysis indicates that implementation of restrictions, large scale screening and intensive monitoring is mandatory in all countries in order to reduce the Covid-19 spread.
Statistical analysis on household factors influencing annual episodes of malariacimran15
Malaria is responsible for about 66 per cent of all clinic visits in Nigeria. It accounts for 25% of under-5 mortality, 30% childhood mortality and 11% maternal mortality. At least 50% of the population will have at least one episode of malaria annually. Moreover, environment dictates the incidence and prevalence of diseases all over the world and if timely action is not taken, it may lead to diseases. Three (3) out of six (6) major towns in Ido local government area are considered and accumulated one hundred and ninety one (191) individuals as respondents using haphazard non probability sampling technique for selection. The obtained data through questionnaire was presented on frequency table and charts while inferential statistics were analysed using dummy variables in regression. It was revealed that majority of the respondents suffered from one or more incidences of malaria in a year, where female had the higher percentage of the incidence and there was high incidence of malaria among the adult ages 30years and above. The qualitative predictor variable in regression analysis revealed significant relationship between annual episode of malaria and number of members of household, toilet type, absent ceiling, building type, disposable site and source of domestic water. The ANOVA, F – test was significant for all predicted factors. Conclusively, in the view of the discovery, it was therefore recommended that people need awareness on densely populated area / household are more prone to experience more episodes of malaria incidence than sparsely populated one, encouragement on utilization of closed domestic water system instead of open system to avoid reservoir for mosquito, enlightenment on type toilet used and avoid absence ceiling to prevent being a breeding site for mosquitoes, government to stage more campaign against malaria especially for adult not for children under 5year alone and create a task force officer/ sanitary inspectors to checkmate sanitation of our environment to avoid unkempt toilet habit which serves as breeding site for mosquitoes.
1. The document summarizes an analysis of the 2014 Ebola outbreak in three regions of Guinea - Gueckedou, Macenta, and Conakry. It provides background on Ebola virus characteristics and transmission.
2. Epidemic modeling was conducted using the regions' case data from April to November 2014. The modeling found Gueckedou's outbreak appeared to be stabilizing while Macenta and Conakry's cases continued rising sharply.
3. Further modeling for Gueckedou predicted the outbreak could stabilize there by the end of the year if transmission from outside was prevented and care ratios did not change.
This study evaluated the direct and indirect protective effects of malaria interventions ITNs and IRS using data from 7 countries in Africa. A crude analysis found that ITN use significantly decreased odds of malaria in 2 countries and increased odds in 2 others, while IRS use significantly decreased odds in 1 country and increased odds in another. An adjusted analysis found no indirect protection for non-ITN users as coverage increased, but indirect protection was offered to ITN users as coverage increased in their neighborhood. IRS use did not provide individual or community-level protection against malaria. The contradictory findings highlight a need for further research on mechanisms driving these observed patterns.
Lymphatic filariasis is caused by parasitic roundworms that are transmitted through mosquito bites. The worms can cause lymphatic damage and severe swelling in limbs and genitals. The disease is most commonly caused by Wuchereria bancrofti or Brugia malayi parasites and spread via Culex and Mansonia mosquito species. India's National Filaria Control Programme aims to eliminate the disease by 2015 through annual mass drug administration and management of symptoms.
Modeling the Consequence of Multi Intervention Campaigns for the Spread of Ma...ijtsrd
This document summarizes a research paper that developed a mathematical model called SPITR to study the transmission dynamics of malaria and the impact of multiple intervention strategies. The SPITR model divides the human population into 5 groups - susceptible, protected, infected, treatment, and recovered. It also includes 2 mosquito groups - susceptible and infected. The model aims to assess how interventions like insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor residual spraying can increase mosquito mortality and help control the spread of malaria. Simulation results suggest combining these interventions with prompt treatment and vaccination can more effectively reduce malaria cases and transmission.
Anopheles stephensi: The emerging vector of malaria in the Republic of Djibou...Open Access Research Paper
The present study investigated mosquito species composition and phenotypic insecticide resistance profile to support decision-making in vector control in the Republic of Djibouti at the Horn of Africa. Adult mosquitoes were collected between December 2016 and December 2017 across 20 sentinel sites established in the 6 regions of the country using both Centers for Disease Control (CDC) miniature light traps and pyrethrum spray catches (PSC). Female mosquitoes were kept aside, for morphological identification to species by an expert entomologist using appropriate taxonomic keys by Gillies & Coetzee and Glick. Bioassays were also conducted in An. stephensi from Djibouti-ville against nine insecticides used in public health. A total number of 12,538 host-seeking mosquitoes belonging to four genera (Anopheles, Culex, Aedes, Uranotaenia) comprising 12 species were collected. Among these, A. gambiae S.L. and A. stephensi were the two major malaria vectors identified while secondary malaria vectors such as A. nili somalicus, A. dthali and A. azaniae were also collected. Culex quinquefasciatus was the most abundant mosquito species in the 6 regions. WHO susceptibility tests performed on A. stephensi population from Djibouti-ville showed resistance to pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates and DDT. The resistance intensity bioassays indicated low to moderate intensity of resistance with pyrethroid insecticides and the organophosphate pirimiphos methyl. Meanwhile pre-exposure to PBO suggested involvement of P450 detoxification enzymes in pyrethroid resistance. These findings revealed the urgent need to develop and implement a programme for monitoring and managing insecticide resistance in local vector populations with efficient control strategies in Djibouti.
Malaria is a major health problem in Nigeria, affecting 97% of the population. Each year there are an estimated 100 million cases of malaria in Nigeria, resulting in over 300,000 deaths. Malaria prevalence is highest in children ages 5-59 months in southern, central, and western Nigeria. Repeated malaria infections contribute to severe anemia and increased risk of death in children under 5 years old. This study aims to understand the current prevalence of malaria in Nigeria, environmental factors that allow transmission, and behaviors regarding treatment seeking for the disease. It also aims to educate the public about the effectiveness of insecticide-treated bed nets in preventing malaria transmission.
Malaria is a major health problem in Nigeria, affecting 97% of the population. Each year there are an estimated 100 million cases of malaria in Nigeria, resulting in over 300,000 deaths. Malaria prevalence is highest in children ages 5-59 months in southern, central, and western Nigeria. The socioeconomic burden of malaria on Nigeria is high, with billions of naira spent annually on prevention and treatment. Repeated malaria infections can have long-term health impacts for children, including anemia, lower birth weights, learning impairments, and higher risk of other illnesses. This study aims to understand the current malaria prevalence in Nigeria and examine behaviors related to treatment seeking as well as educate the public on the effective use of
Analysis of H5N1 Influenza Data in Indonesia and the Needs for Improvement - ...Tata Naipospos
Indonesia has experienced widespread H5N1 avian influenza in poultry and 100 human cases. The virus is endemic in birds across 31 of 33 provinces. Three distinct viral sublineages circulate in different regions of Indonesia. Analysis of viral genetics shows the virus spread across the archipelago along trade routes and evolved distinct regional groups. Improved control of poultry movement and vaccination are needed to reduce virus spread and environmental load.
The epidemiology of tuberculosis in Kenya, a high TB/HIV burden country (2000...Premier Publishers
Interest in the epidemiology of TB was triggered by the re-emergence of tuberculosis in the early 1990’s with the advent of HIV and falling economic status of many people which subjected them to poverty. The dual lethal combination of HIV and poverty triggered an unprecedented TB epidemic. In this study, we focused on the period 2000-2013 and all the notified data in Kenya was included. Data on estimates of TB incidence, prevalence and mortality was extracted from the WHO global Tuberculosis database. Data was analysed to produce trends for each of the years and descriptive statistics were calculated. The results showed that there was an average decline of 5% over the last 8 years with the highest decline being reported in the year 2012/13. TB continues to disproportionately affect the male gender with 58% being male and 42% being female. Kenya has made significant efforts to address the burden of HIV among TB patients with cotrimoxazole preventive therapy (CPT) uptake reaching 98% AND ART at 74% by the end of 2013. Kenya’s TB epidemic has evolved over time and it has been characterised by a period where there was increase in the TB cases reaching a peak in the year 2007 after which there was a decline which began to accelerate in the year 2011. The gains in the decline of TB could be attributed in part to the outcomes of integrating TB and HIV services and these gains should be sustained. What is equally notable is the clear epidemiologic shift in age indicating reduced transmission in the younger age groups.
The prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum in children below 12 years presenting...inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document discusses recent advances in filariasis. It provides an outline of the topics to be covered, including the microbiology, lifecycle, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnostics, global and Indian scenarios of lymphatic filariasis, the National Filariasis Control Program in India, and new strategies and tools for elimination. Lymphatic filariasis affects over 120 million people globally and remains a major public health problem in India, where it is endemic in 20 states and impacts over 600 million people at risk of infection.
Use of radio as a tool for promoting integrated pest management among farmers...Premier Publishers
This study took a look at the place of radio in the improvement of farming practices among the farmers in Shika community in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The focus of the study was the use of radio for sensitizing farmers on integrated pest management. The objectives of the study were; examining the importance of radio as a source of agricultural information to farmers in Shika, ascertaining the level of farmers’ awareness of chemical pest control and determining how Radio can be used as a communication channel for promoting chemical pest control among farmers in Shika. Survey research method was used for the study, while copies of structured questionnaire were administered to 60 respondents purposively selected and descriptive data analysis technique was used to present and analyze the data. The findings included the fact that people of Shika do not have requisite agricultural information needed for pest control hence, there is high rate of pest attacks on their farms, the radio stations in the area rarely broadcast issues related to pest control, while there is low extension attention to the community. Improved access to agricultural information on Radio, through the Hausa language could lead to pest control needed for improved agricultural productivity in Shika community.
The document summarizes Africa's response to the COVID-19 pandemic in 3 main points:
1) Africa saw a relatively lower number of COVID-19 cases and deaths compared to other regions, due in part to early intervention and containment measures taken by African governments.
2) While lockdowns and restrictions helped curb the spread of the virus, they also negatively impacted economies and exacerbated issues like food insecurity, gender inequality, and access to healthcare for other diseases.
3) Moving forward, the document recommends strategies like increasing local manufacturing and supply chains, strengthening public health systems, expanding social protections, and pursuing digital transformation to build resilience against future crises.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The document discusses lymphatic filariasis (LF), a parasitic disease spread by mosquitoes. It outlines the National Filariasis Control Programme in India, including control strategies like mass drug administration, vector control, and morbidity management. The key goals are to eliminate LF as a public health problem in India by 2021 through annual treatment of at-risk populations and managing symptoms for infected individuals. Significant progress has been made, with over 94 districts qualifying for stopping mass drug administration after validation surveys.
Malaria is one of the major public health problems in Bangladesh. Out of 64 districts in the country 13 border districts in the east and northeast facing the eastern states of India and a small territory of Myanmar are in high endemic malaria zones, reporting about 98% of the total malaria cases every year.
The document discusses vector borne diseases in Bangladesh. It begins by defining vectors and common vector borne diseases globally and in Bangladesh, including malaria, filariasis, dengue, and leishmaniasis. It then covers the prevalence and burden of these key diseases. The final sections discuss prevention and control strategies like integrated vector management, environmental control, chemical and biological control, and recommendations to apply multiple approaches to strengthen control through collaboration between government and organizations.
This document discusses malaria, including its history, global and Indian epidemiology, life cycle, vectors, prevention methods, and control programs. It notes that malaria affected 216 million people and killed 660,000 globally in 2011, with most cases and deaths occurring in Africa and India. The life cycle involves the Plasmodium parasite infecting humans through the bites of infected Anopheles mosquitoes. Prevention strategies include vector control, early diagnosis and treatment, and surveillance programs.
The document summarizes malaria incidence data from Bangladesh from 2008-2014. Cases decreased from 2008 to 2013 due to widespread ACT use and bednet distribution, but then increased in 2014, with a doubling of cases in some eastern districts. The increase was likely due to multiple factors, including possible ACT stockouts, reduced bednet efficacy, and importation from neighboring countries. Further studies are underway to investigate the causes and inform malaria elimination efforts in Bangladesh.
Gravity model, Epidemiology and Real-time reproduction number (Rt) estimation...Bhoj Raj Singh
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) originated in China during the mid of December 2019 caused global havoc. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 as an International Public Health Emergency on 30th January 2020 and subsequently as a pandemic on 11th March 2020. The disease has affected almost all the countries of the world and as on 30th July 2020 there were 16.5 million cases and 0.65 million deaths are reported. The members of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka sharing 3% of the world's area and 21% of the world's population. We analysed the COVID-19 data as on 1st July 2020 retrieved from publically available databases. The gravity model is primarily used in the transportation industry and gaining importance in the modelling of the spread of infectious diseases. In this analysis, we observed that higher personal freedom or movement of people is having the greatest effect on the spread of COVID-19 (coefficient = 2.1). The correlation analysis was carried out with COVID-19 cases, health expenditure, poverty, and BCG vaccination, literacy, and population density of the SAARC countries. The COVID-19 positive cases showed a significant (p<0.001) positive correlation (r=0.99) with mortality rate. Similarly, the COVID-19 deaths showed a significant positive correlation with health expenditure (% GDP) (r = 0.58, p<0.05). The other epidemiological factors such as population density/sq km, literacy %, adult population %, and poverty % didn’t show any significant correlation with COVID-19 cases and deaths. The estimation of weekly Real-time reproduction number (Rt) among SAARC countries showed the highest Rt in India (Rt =2.1; 95% CI 2.05 – 2.2) followed by Bangladesh (Rt =1.6; 95% CI 1.5– 1.6). The comparison of Rt indicated that a decrease in the Rt value was noticed in the later stage of the period (past few weeks) among all the SAARC countries compared with the initial stage of infection except Nepal. The analysis indicates that implementation of restrictions, large scale screening and intensive monitoring is mandatory in all countries in order to reduce the Covid-19 spread.
Statistical analysis on household factors influencing annual episodes of malariacimran15
Malaria is responsible for about 66 per cent of all clinic visits in Nigeria. It accounts for 25% of under-5 mortality, 30% childhood mortality and 11% maternal mortality. At least 50% of the population will have at least one episode of malaria annually. Moreover, environment dictates the incidence and prevalence of diseases all over the world and if timely action is not taken, it may lead to diseases. Three (3) out of six (6) major towns in Ido local government area are considered and accumulated one hundred and ninety one (191) individuals as respondents using haphazard non probability sampling technique for selection. The obtained data through questionnaire was presented on frequency table and charts while inferential statistics were analysed using dummy variables in regression. It was revealed that majority of the respondents suffered from one or more incidences of malaria in a year, where female had the higher percentage of the incidence and there was high incidence of malaria among the adult ages 30years and above. The qualitative predictor variable in regression analysis revealed significant relationship between annual episode of malaria and number of members of household, toilet type, absent ceiling, building type, disposable site and source of domestic water. The ANOVA, F – test was significant for all predicted factors. Conclusively, in the view of the discovery, it was therefore recommended that people need awareness on densely populated area / household are more prone to experience more episodes of malaria incidence than sparsely populated one, encouragement on utilization of closed domestic water system instead of open system to avoid reservoir for mosquito, enlightenment on type toilet used and avoid absence ceiling to prevent being a breeding site for mosquitoes, government to stage more campaign against malaria especially for adult not for children under 5year alone and create a task force officer/ sanitary inspectors to checkmate sanitation of our environment to avoid unkempt toilet habit which serves as breeding site for mosquitoes.
1. The document summarizes an analysis of the 2014 Ebola outbreak in three regions of Guinea - Gueckedou, Macenta, and Conakry. It provides background on Ebola virus characteristics and transmission.
2. Epidemic modeling was conducted using the regions' case data from April to November 2014. The modeling found Gueckedou's outbreak appeared to be stabilizing while Macenta and Conakry's cases continued rising sharply.
3. Further modeling for Gueckedou predicted the outbreak could stabilize there by the end of the year if transmission from outside was prevented and care ratios did not change.
This study evaluated the direct and indirect protective effects of malaria interventions ITNs and IRS using data from 7 countries in Africa. A crude analysis found that ITN use significantly decreased odds of malaria in 2 countries and increased odds in 2 others, while IRS use significantly decreased odds in 1 country and increased odds in another. An adjusted analysis found no indirect protection for non-ITN users as coverage increased, but indirect protection was offered to ITN users as coverage increased in their neighborhood. IRS use did not provide individual or community-level protection against malaria. The contradictory findings highlight a need for further research on mechanisms driving these observed patterns.
Lymphatic filariasis is caused by parasitic roundworms that are transmitted through mosquito bites. The worms can cause lymphatic damage and severe swelling in limbs and genitals. The disease is most commonly caused by Wuchereria bancrofti or Brugia malayi parasites and spread via Culex and Mansonia mosquito species. India's National Filaria Control Programme aims to eliminate the disease by 2015 through annual mass drug administration and management of symptoms.
Modeling the Consequence of Multi Intervention Campaigns for the Spread of Ma...ijtsrd
This document summarizes a research paper that developed a mathematical model called SPITR to study the transmission dynamics of malaria and the impact of multiple intervention strategies. The SPITR model divides the human population into 5 groups - susceptible, protected, infected, treatment, and recovered. It also includes 2 mosquito groups - susceptible and infected. The model aims to assess how interventions like insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor residual spraying can increase mosquito mortality and help control the spread of malaria. Simulation results suggest combining these interventions with prompt treatment and vaccination can more effectively reduce malaria cases and transmission.
Anopheles stephensi: The emerging vector of malaria in the Republic of Djibou...Open Access Research Paper
The present study investigated mosquito species composition and phenotypic insecticide resistance profile to support decision-making in vector control in the Republic of Djibouti at the Horn of Africa. Adult mosquitoes were collected between December 2016 and December 2017 across 20 sentinel sites established in the 6 regions of the country using both Centers for Disease Control (CDC) miniature light traps and pyrethrum spray catches (PSC). Female mosquitoes were kept aside, for morphological identification to species by an expert entomologist using appropriate taxonomic keys by Gillies & Coetzee and Glick. Bioassays were also conducted in An. stephensi from Djibouti-ville against nine insecticides used in public health. A total number of 12,538 host-seeking mosquitoes belonging to four genera (Anopheles, Culex, Aedes, Uranotaenia) comprising 12 species were collected. Among these, A. gambiae S.L. and A. stephensi were the two major malaria vectors identified while secondary malaria vectors such as A. nili somalicus, A. dthali and A. azaniae were also collected. Culex quinquefasciatus was the most abundant mosquito species in the 6 regions. WHO susceptibility tests performed on A. stephensi population from Djibouti-ville showed resistance to pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates and DDT. The resistance intensity bioassays indicated low to moderate intensity of resistance with pyrethroid insecticides and the organophosphate pirimiphos methyl. Meanwhile pre-exposure to PBO suggested involvement of P450 detoxification enzymes in pyrethroid resistance. These findings revealed the urgent need to develop and implement a programme for monitoring and managing insecticide resistance in local vector populations with efficient control strategies in Djibouti.
Malaria is a major health problem in Nigeria, affecting 97% of the population. Each year there are an estimated 100 million cases of malaria in Nigeria, resulting in over 300,000 deaths. Malaria prevalence is highest in children ages 5-59 months in southern, central, and western Nigeria. Repeated malaria infections contribute to severe anemia and increased risk of death in children under 5 years old. This study aims to understand the current prevalence of malaria in Nigeria, environmental factors that allow transmission, and behaviors regarding treatment seeking for the disease. It also aims to educate the public about the effectiveness of insecticide-treated bed nets in preventing malaria transmission.
Malaria is a major health problem in Nigeria, affecting 97% of the population. Each year there are an estimated 100 million cases of malaria in Nigeria, resulting in over 300,000 deaths. Malaria prevalence is highest in children ages 5-59 months in southern, central, and western Nigeria. The socioeconomic burden of malaria on Nigeria is high, with billions of naira spent annually on prevention and treatment. Repeated malaria infections can have long-term health impacts for children, including anemia, lower birth weights, learning impairments, and higher risk of other illnesses. This study aims to understand the current malaria prevalence in Nigeria and examine behaviors related to treatment seeking as well as educate the public on the effective use of
Use of Herbal Medicine in the Management of Malaria in------3669-5712-1-PBRazak Mohammed Gyasi
This study examined the use of herbal medicine in the management of malaria in Ghana. A survey was conducted of 189 malaria patients and 5 herbal medicine practitioners in the Kwabre East District. Results found that herbal therapy was common among malaria patients (95%), and a key part of malaria treatment strategies. However, 29.7% of patients also utilized modern healthcare. Herbal medicine use was significantly associated with perceptions of fewer side effects, lower cost, and better availability and efficacy than modern options. The study recommends further research on the safety, quality, and effectiveness of herbal treatments for malaria and other diseases.
Malaria Control Strategies among Rural Dwellers in a Typical Nigerian Settingasclepiuspdfs
Malaria is a major public health problem in sub-Saharan African, including Nigeria, causing 63% of total outpatient attendance in health facilities, 30% under-five mortality, and 11% of maternal mortality. Malaria control practices remain a major strategy in the combat of this menace. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the malaria control strategies utilized among rural dwellers in the Ezza North local government area (LGA) of Ebonyi state.
Entomological and parasitological indices of malaria transmission in minna ni...Chidiebere Otuu
This study evaluated the entomological and parasitological indices of malaria transmission in two communities, Mekunkele and Gidan Kwano, in Minna, Nigeria. Mosquitoes were collected using pyrethrum spray catches and dissected to determine species, parity rates, and sporozoite rates. A total of 867 mosquitoes were collected, with 62.51% being Anopheles mosquitoes. The female Anopheles mosquito samples had a 55.26% sporozoite and parity rate. Blood samples from 425 individuals were also examined, with 65.20% testing positive for malaria parasites. The results provide baseline data on the transmission of malaria in these communities to help design effective control
Chemoecological Management of Malaria MosquitoesSIANI
This study was presented during the conference “Production and Carbon Dynamics in Sustainable Agricultural and Forest Systems in Africa” held in September, 2010.
Use of herbal medicine in the management of malaria in the urban periphery, g...Razak Mohammed Gyasi
This document summarizes a study on the use of herbal medicine in the management of malaria in Ghana. The study analyzed data from 189 malaria patients and 5 herbal medicine practitioners in the Kwabre East District of Ghana. The results showed that 95 (50.3%) of patients used herbal therapy for malaria treatment. Factors significantly associated with herbal medicine use included perceived lower side effects, cost-effectiveness, efficacy, and availability. Herbal practitioners were experienced with treating malaria and had extensive knowledge of medicinal plants. The study recommends further research on the safety and quality of medicinal plants used to treat malaria and other diseases.
The context surrounding the emergence of infectious diseases and the need to ...ILRI
Presentation by Hung Nguyen-Viet at a Preventing Zoonotic Disease Emergence (PREZODE) side event at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Forum on Science and Innovation, 13 October 2022.
Eric Benjamin submitted his final project on malaria in Nigeria to Walden University. The 3 sentence summary is:
The project focused on malaria in Nigeria, where it is a major public health problem, with an estimated 100 million cases and 300,000 deaths per year. Malaria disproportionately affects children under 5 and the poor, and factors like poverty, lack of education, and cultural beliefs contribute to the high burden. Nigeria has implemented strategies like insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor residual spraying, as well as policies to improve prevention, treatment, and the public health system's response to malaria.
This study assessed the prevalence of trachoma and associated risk factors among children aged 1-9 years in villages in Ethiopia that had and had not implemented Community Led Total Sanitation and Hygiene (CLTSH). A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted on 644 children, with 322 from CLTSH villages and 322 from non-CLTSH villages. The overall prevalence of active trachoma was 27.8%, with no significant difference between the two village types. Variables associated with lower trachoma prevalence included living in an open defecation free village, lack of animal dung or rubbish nearby, and frequent hand and face washing. The study found no evidence that CLTSH implementation reduced trachoma
Determinants of Full Dose of Oral Cholera Vaccine Uptake in Tiko and Limbe He...ijtsrd
Cholera is an acute, profuse watery diarrhea “rice water stools” resulting from the consumption of food or water contaminated by toxigenic strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Due to frequent outbreaks of cholera in Cameroon, the government of Cameroon introduced the oral cholera vaccine OCV in 2015. The objective of this study was to assess the determinants of the full dose of OCV uptake in Tiko and Limbe Health Districts HDs . A cross sectional household based survey study was conducted in which a multistage sampling technique and simple random sampling SRS were used to select Health Areas Has , quarters and households respectively. In every household selected, data were collected on socio demographic characteristics and information about OCV, from a randomly selected household member of age 21 years and above. Data on socio demographic characteristics and information about OCV were collected using a modified standardized questionnaire. Oral cholera vaccine uptake was compared among different socio demographic characteristics using Chi squared test with significance level set at P 0.05. Overall, coverage rate of OCV was low, 48.6 180 370 , and it was based on those who were aware of OCV 85.1 435 370 and had their vaccination cards. The main source of information was health worker 62.2 . Some of the determinants of non acceptance of the first and second doses of OCV were respondents thought OCV was Covid 19 vaccine absent when the vaccination team visited the house no faith in the vaccine vaccination team did not visit households and no faith in Cameroon’s health system and government. The main determinants for OCV acceptance were the fact that participants considered cholera to be a serious disease, and their willingness to prevent it. The adverse events for the first and second doses were palpable, 18 and 11 respectively. Conclusively, determinants that contributed to the low uptake of OCV were identified and the most peculiar one was the fact that community members perceived the cholera vaccine to be a cover up for the coronavirus vaccine. Lepasia Arnold Fonge | Akoachere Jane-Francis | Esemu Seraphine "Determinants of Full Dose of Oral Cholera Vaccine Uptake in Tiko and Limbe Health Districts" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-5 , October 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd60062.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/immunobiology/60062/determinants-of-full-dose-of-oral-cholera-vaccine-uptake-in-tiko-and-limbe-health-districts/lepasia-arnold-fonge
The Parity Rate of Indoor-Resting Adult Female Anopheles and Culex Mosquitoes...IJEAB
This study examined the parity rates of indoor-resting Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes collected from female hostels at Nnamdi Azikiwe University in Nigeria. A total of 516 mosquitoes from 4 species were collected over 3 weeks. Culex quinquefasciatus was the most common species comprising 61.43% of the total, followed by Anopheles gambiae at 30.04%. The majority of mosquitoes collected were fed (42.05%) or gravid (15.12%). Parity rates were highest in C. quinquefasciatus (53.2%) and lowest in C. annulioris (0.5%). The high proportion of fed
This document proposes assessing lifestyles, public health measures, and their impact on containing COVID-19 transmission in communities in Horo Guduru Wollega, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study will survey 768 individuals across 4 districts on risk factors and prevention practices. Data will be analyzed to identify associations between exposures and infections. The study aims to increase awareness and limit rapid spread in the region through understanding transmission routes and improving prevention measures.
Seroprevalence and risk factors of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) infection amon...ILRI
Presentation by D.K. Mwololo, P.M. Kitala, S.K. Wanyoike and B. Bett at the 9th biennial scientific conference and exhibition of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, 3-5 September 2014.
Malaria is a major public health problem in Ethiopia, accounting for a significant portion of outpatient visits and hospital admissions. Transmission is seasonal and varies based on altitude, climate, and rainfall patterns. The government has implemented various prevention and control strategies over time, including insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying, and anti-malarial drug policies. While malaria morbidity and mortality have decreased in recent years due to these efforts, it remains a significant health issue, especially for rural agricultural communities.
Compliance to annual ivermectin treatment in abia state,Alexander Decker
The study assessed compliance with annual ivermectin treatment for onchocerciasis in Abia State, Nigeria over 14 years. A survey of 558 individuals found that 55.4% had previously taken ivermectin, but only 22.7% of those were "high compliers" who had taken it 8 or more times. The overall percentage of high compliers was 12.6%. Reasons for low compliance included lack of information, no reason for refusal, absence from village, and no distribution. The reasons given did not significantly affect general compliance levels.
Burden of Vector Borne Diseases Past, Present & FuturePradip Awate
Vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, and filariasis place a major disease burden in India. Over half of India's population is at risk of contracting these illnesses transmitted by mosquitoes and sandflies. Malaria in particular has had devastating epidemics throughout India's history. While interventions have reduced the burden of some diseases, others like dengue are on the rise due to factors such as rapid unplanned urbanization. Continued surveillance and public health measures are needed to address these challenging vector-borne diseases.
This document summarizes a study on acute adenolymphangitis (ADL) due to bancroftian filariasis in Rufiji district, Tanzania. The study monitored 3,000 individuals over 12 months and found an annual ADL incidence of 33 per 1,000 people. Incidence was higher in males and those over age 40. Individuals with lymphedema experienced more frequent ADL episodes than those with hydrocele or no symptoms. Most people experienced one ADL episode lasting an average of 8.6 days, during which 72.5% were incapacitated for 3.7 days on average.
SCIP_Factors Associated with Mosquito Bed Net Use_Malaria JMelanie Lopez
- The document summarizes two cross-sectional household surveys conducted in Zambézia Province, Mozambique in 2010 and 2014 to assess mosquito bed net possession and factors associated with their use.
- The surveys found that 64.3% of households possessed at least one mosquito bed net in 2010 and 2014, with higher possession in Namacurra district (90% in 2014) compared to Alto Molócuè (77%) and Morrumbala (34%).
- Use of mosquito nets increased from 2010 to 2014 among pregnant women (58.6% to 68.4%) and children under 5 (50% to 60%), but intensified focus is still needed to improve equity
SCIP_Factors Associated with Mosquito Bed Net Use_Malaria J
Angyiereyiri_et_al
1. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
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Impact of Mass Drug Administration (MDA) on the Transmission
of Lymphatic Filariasis in Tono Irrigation Area in Navrongo,
Ghana
Elijah Dakorah Angyiereyiri*
Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research,University of Ghana, P.O. Box
LG 581, Legon-Accra, Ghana
African Regional Programme for Insect Science (ARPPIS), University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
University for Development Studies, FAS, Dept. of Applied Biology, Box 24, Navrongo, Ghana
Maxwell Appawu1,3
Email: mappawu@noguchi.mimcom.org
Samuel Dadzie1,3
sdadzie@noguchi.mimcom.org
Daniel Adjei Boakye1,2, 3
yawbadjei@yahoo.co.uk ordboakye@noguchi.mimcom.org
Samuel Otoo1
1.Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research,University of Ghana, P.O. Box
LG 581, Legon-Accra, Ghana
2.African Regional Programme for Insect Science (ARPPIS), University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
3.Lymphatic Filariasis Support Centre for Africa, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University
of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon-Accra, Ghana
Abstract
Lymphatic filariasis is ranked as one of the leading causes of permanent and long-term disability and also oldest
and most debilitating neglected tropical disease worldwide. Filariasis is caused by nematode endoparasitic
worms transmitted to humans by various mosquito vectors. World Health Organization established Global
Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis as a public health problem by the year 2020. The strategies
employed are to interrupt transmission through mass drug administration (MDA) and to alleviate suffering and
disability via morbidity management; and vector control. It is expected that after implementation of the strategies
above, transmission assessment surveys are required to ascertain their progress, impact and efficacies. As MDA
was the main strategy, this work therefore determined impact of mass drug administration on the transmission of
lymphatic filariasis in Tono Irrigation area in Navrongo following more than nine years of its implementation.
Human landing and pyrethrum spray monthly collections of mosquitoes in Wuru and Saboro were dissected to
determine the transmission level in the study area. The mosquitoes collected in the study comprised 90.22%
(3,650) Anopheles species and 9.78% (386) Culex species with no Aedes or Mansonis species. The man biting
rate computed from (Human Landing Catch) HLC was 162.25 bites/man/night in Wuru and
143.75bites/man/night in Saboro. Only 3An. species were infected with filarial parasites; 2 in Saboro with 2mf,
and 1L2 in a mosquito in Wuru. However, there was no L3 stage recorded in any of the 3,560 mosquitoes
macerated implying that there was no ongoing transmission of LF in the study sites since no infective bites were
encountered. However, a follow up survey is required to assess the level of transmission since one survey is
inadequate to declare the place free of LF.
Keywords: Anopheles species, Wuchereria bancrofti, Mass Drug Administration, Lymphatic filariasis, Ghana
1. Background of lymphatic filariasis (LF)
Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a profoundly disfiguring parasitic disease caused by three species of tissue dwelling
filaroid nematodes, namely; Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi and Brugia timori. Wuchereria bancrofti is
responsible for 90% of all cases and is found throughout the tropics and in some sub-tropical areas world-wide
(WHO, 1997). Infection with W. bancrofti can result in elephantiasis or hydrocoele in males (Melrose, 2002;
Goldman et al., 2007). Lymphatic filariasis is one of the oldest and most debilitating neglected tropical diseases
(NTDs) next to malaria, and a major public health problem globally (Michael et al., 1996; WHO, 1997, 2010a,
b). The disease has a long history which dates back into antiquity but in 1997, the World Health Assembly
engaged member states to develop national plans to eliminate LF (WHO, 2010a). Currently the global burden of
LF is estimated at 120 million people with more than 40 million people in endemic communities incapacitated or
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disfigured by the disease. The most affected areas include Africa, Eastern Mediterranean, Asia and South
America (Melrose, 2002; WHO, 2010a, b) and that the burden of LF in Africa is approximately 30% (WHO,
2010). However, about 38% of all global cases occur in the continent with about 480 million people at risk of
being infected (Gyapong, 2012: in Press).
In Ghana, LF is mainly spread by Anopheles gambiae species complex (Sasa, 1976; Appawu et al.,
1994, 2001; Zakaria and Savioli, 2002; Boakye et al., 2004). However, Ughasi et al (2012) have found that some
Mansonia species were carrying the infective stages of W. bancrofti in two communities in the Western Region
of the country.
Research found that extensive dam-building for irrigation, especially of rice; waste-water
mismanagement, water storage, or waste accumulation generally lead to increased mosquito biting rates, higher
transmission potentials, and a higher proportion of vectors infective or infected with microfilaria as was
observed in Africa and Indonesia (Erlanger et al., 2005). However, separate control measures against LF are not
known to exist in most places in water resources development schemes, although China, India and Indonesia
have established mosquito control measures in some of their schemes (WHO, 1993).
Ghana is endemic for both LF and onchocerciasis by WHO classification with prevalence of
microfilaraemia or antigenaemia being greater than or equal to one percent (≥1%). Of the approximately
estimated 25 million people living in the country (Population and Housing Census, 2010), the risk population is
about 11,587,953 (WHO, 2010a, b).
In the year 2000, WHO established a Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF)
with the ultimate goal of eliminating LF as a public health problem by the year 2020 (WHO, 1997, 2000, 2010a,
b). The GPELF employed three strategies to achieve the above goal; first, to interrupt transmission using
combinations of two medicines in endemic communities as a single dose annually; combination of
Diethylcarbamazine citrate (DEC) and Albendazole (ALB) (DEC+ALB) or Ivermectin (IVM) and Albendazole
(IVM+ALB), administered to entire eligible populations, a strategy known as “mass drug administration
(MDA)”. Secondly, to alleviate suffering and disability by providing improved hygiene and skin care to people
with lymphoedema and surgery for men with hydrocoele; a strategy referred to as morbidity management; and
via vector control (WHO, 2000; WHO, 2010a, b). According to WHO report of 2012, MDA implementation in
Ghana is about 93.2% geographical coverage and targeting a population of 11,925,399 people. In 2009, Ghana’s
MDA implementation was about seven rounds, (WHO, 2010b; Appiah-Kubi, 2009).
Administration of these once-yearly, single-dose drug regimens to people in at-risk communities in all
endemic countries for 4 – 6years makes feasible the prospect of interrupting transmission and thereby
eliminating LF (Ismail, 1998; WHO, 2010a, b), largely because the reproductive life span of the adult worm is
estimated to be 4 – 6years (Ottesen, 2000). The control approaches of LF are now integrated and delivered as
multi-intervention packages at global, national and local levels in endemic areas.
It is however, important that after 4 or more rounds of annual MDA, the microfilariae in the human
system will be so low that the mosquito vectors will not be able to pick them up from infected people during
blood feeding and transmit to uninfected people. Hence, to ascertain the efficacy of MDA, transmission
assessment surveys are required following four or more years of its inception.
Boakye et al (2004) through transmission assessment survey found, that after 6 rounds of MDA
undertaken in Central Region of Ghana, LF infestation was still remaining at 10%. However, no studies have
been conducted in the KNEM to determine the impact of MDA in LF transmission since its inception in 2001.
There is therefore a need to establish whether the MDA’s implementation has resulted in reducing LF
transmission in the Kassena-Nankana East Municipal after more than7 years of MDA implementation hence the
significance of this study.
1.1 Materials and Methods
1.1.1 Description of study sites
Kassena-Nankana East Municipal Assembly (KNEMA) is located about 40 kilometres (km) away from
Bolgatanga, the regional capital. The population is about 160,000 (HPC, 2010). The annual average rainfall is
850 mm which occurs within July – September, with the rest of the year being relatively dry. The Tono dam is
one of the largest agricultural dams in West Africa and serves as a place for year round farming. The popular
cash crops being cultivated on the project are rice, soya bean, tomato and other vegetables.
There are approximately 6000 small scale farmers eligible to farm in the project. They come from the
communities around the project. Communities currently under Tono irrigation scheme include Bonia, Wuru,
Yigbwania, Yogbania, Korania, Gaani, Biu and Chuchuliga (ICOUR, 1985).
1.1.2 Field sampling of mosquitoes
Cross sectional survey was conducted in the municipal for sampling and data collection. This covered the rainy
season (October - November, 2011) and the dry season (January -February, 2012).
Adult Anopheles mosquitoes were sampled in two communities (Saboro and Wuru) in the KNEMA using human
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landing catches (HLC) and pyrethrum spray collections (PSC) to determine the level of LF parasitaemia in them.
1.1.3 Processing of mosquitoes
Each Anopheles mosquito was identified using the morphological keys of Gillies and De Meillon (1968) and
Gillies and Coetzee (1987) and sorted out into the different species of Anopheles gambiae complex and
Anopheles funestus. A total of 3,560 Anopheles mosquitoes collected from the study areas were processed for W.
bancrofti infections, while the Culexspecies were not processed for this study, because theCulex species obtained
there had not been incriminated as vectors in earlier studies (Appawu et al., 1994, 2001; Dzodzomenyo et al.,
1999).
1.1.4 Mosquito dissections
The head, thorax and abdomen of eachAnopheles gambiae complex were separated and each part placed in adrop
of water or (1% saline solution) on a pre-cleaned slide. The legs were removedand placed in 1.5 ml Eppendorf
tubes for molecular identification of the species complex.
Each of the body parts were dissected under a dissecting microscope and examined for the presence of W.
bancrofti.
1.1.5 Molecular identification of An. gambiae species complex
Genomic DNA was extracted from the legs of An. gambiae complex using the method of Scotetal. (1987).
Identification of the sibling species was done using the method of Scott et al. (1993)and that of Fanello et al.
(2002) used to determine the An. gambiae ss M and S molecularforms.
1.1.6 Molecular identification of W. bancrofti
The dried carcass of dissected mosquitoes together with any W. bancrofti larvae found on each slide was scraped
into a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube and then homogenized in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). The genomic DNA was
extracted using the DNeasy Tissue Kit (QIAGEN Inc., USA) following the manufacturer’s protocol. Polymerase
chain reaction to confirm that parasites observed were W. bancrofti was then carried out using the method of
Ramzy et al. (1997).
1.1.7 Ethical considerations
Ethical approval for both studies was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the
Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research and verbal/written consents were obtained from each local
volunteer who participated in the indoor human landing catches (HLC) during October to February which
correspond to the period of highest mosquito breeding in the area. Prior consents to conduct pyrethrum spray
catches (PSC) and HLC in rooms were also obtained from the occupants.
1.2 Results
A total of 3,946 mosquitoes comprising 90.22 % (N = 3,560) Anopheles species and 9.78 % (N = 386) Culex
species were collected and identified to the genus level (Figure 4.1). Of the Anopheles species, 28.23 % (1,005)
were from Saboroand31.74 % (1,130) from Wuru. Also, 42.11 % of Anopheles sp were collected using PSC and
57.89 % collected using HLC.
In all the Anopheles mosquitoes collected, Wuru recorded the least number of mosquitoes with a total of 1,130
(31.74 %) species while Saboro had the largest with 1,425 (28.23 %) Anopheles mosquitoes.
Table 1 (p.11) below presents the monthly distribution of Anopheles species collected during the study
in all three communities using PSC. A large number of mosquitoes were collected in October in each community
but the numbers began to decrease in the subsequent months with February recording the least.
Figure 1 (p. 12) presents the number of mosquitoes caught per room during PSC in Wuru and Saboro
in the study area.
A log-transformed HLC data subjected to Student’s t-Test analysis showed that mosquitoes in the
study areas are more endophilic than exophilic. In Wuru, there was a significant difference between the number
of mosquitoes caught indoors and outdoors (P < 0.05) but not Saboro.
1.2.1 Molecular species of Anopheles mosquitoes
When the Anopheles species were subjected to PCR analysis for species identification, they were all found to be
An. gambiae ss. Anopheles funestus found were not infected with filarial worms in this study.
1.2.2 Filarial infection status of Anopheles species in the study area
Upon the maceration of 3,560 Anopheles mosquito species, only 3 were found to be infected with various stages
of filarial worms. Four Anopheles species were infected with microfilariae. One microfilaria each were found in
the head and thorax of a mosquito each collected from HLC indoor and outdoor (Tables 4, 5; p. 12) respectively
but not in PSC. Also, only one L2 was recorded in the thorax of a mosquito collected during HLC (outdoor) in
Wuru (Table 4; p. 12) but none was found in mosquitoes macerated from HLC (indoor) and PSC collections
(Tables 3, 5; p. 12).
1.2.3 Transmission parameters in the area
1.2.3.1 Transmission parameters for HLC
At the end of the study, the man biting rate and infection rate of Anopheles species were computed for the study
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areas. For man biting rate (man contact rate), 162.2 bites/man/night (b/m/n) and 143.75 b/m/n were computed for
Wuru and Saboro respectively. The infection rates were 0.00154 worms/mosquito (w/m) in Wuru and 0.00348
w/m in Saboro. Generally however, there was no infective bites in any of the two communities hence the
infective rate, infective man biting rate, annual infective man biting rate, worm load and annual transmission
potential were all zero (Table 6; p. 13).
1.2.3.2 Transmission parameters for PSC
For pyrethrum spray catches (Table 7; p. 13), the man biting rate and infection rate were as follows: 108.25
b/m/n with zero worms/mosquito in Wuru, 96.75 b/m/n with zero worms/mosquito in Saboro and 132.25 b/m/n
with 0.00170 worms/mosquito in Korania. On the contrary, since no infective stage was found, the infective rate,
infective man biting rate, annual infective man biting rate, worm load and annual transmission potentials were
nil for all the three study sites.
2. Discussion
Monitoring of parasites transmission is an important component of any LF control programme, especially
following the implementation of the GPELF in 2000. Transmission assessment is required in order to assess the
efficacy of MDA, when to stop MDA and for the certification of elimination of the disease (WHO, 2011).
Therefore, monitoring the transmission pattern in insects is ideal since the mosquito vectors may offer real time
estimate of the transmission as reported by Goodman et al (2003). It, however, could be postulated that the
magnification of microfilariae may be marginally quicker in humans as indicated by Boakye et al (2007). On the
contrary, it is possible that very low level of microfilariae may not be easy to detect in human population. As a
result, the detection of infections in mosquito vectors is an indication that there may be positive individuals in
the area. Appawu et al. (2001) reported that in order to determine the efficacy of LF control programmes, the
required monitoring index of transmission is the infection rate which requires large numbers of mosquitoes
irrespective of the collection method. This study has shown that in terms of numbers and probably accurate
estimation of transmission indices, HLC alone can suffice in situations where the vector population densities are
high as conformed were nil. The high biting rate in the study areas is not surprising because the district is known
to be highly endemic for malaria to report of Boakye et al. (2007) (see Tables 2, 3, 4; p. 13).
However, the Man Biting Rate (MBR) in the study areas was high with low infection rates (Tables 6, 7;
p. 13) in all the study sites. The Infective Rate, Annual Infectivity Rate, Annual Infective Man-biting Rate,
Annual Transmission Potential and Worm Load in Wuru and Saboro respectively all year round. In all PSC and
HLC collections, Anopheles mosquitoes constituted over 90 % and many of them were blood-fed.
The absence of L3 after dissection and examination of sampled Anopheles mosquito vectors in the area
could be as a result of the impact of MDA in the area leading to a massive reduction of the worm load in the
human population.
After 10 years of MDA in some areas in Central Region, LF transmission was still ongoing with ATP
of 15.21 infective bites/person/year (Amuzu et al., 2010). Previous report from the Tono irrigation area (Appawu
et al., 2001) estimated ATP to be 14.30 infective bites/man/year, indicating that transmission was still ongoing.
However, 10 years on, the transmission has reduced considerably in the area after MDAs. In addition, the high
long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLNs) coverage and usage in the area might have reduced the man-vector contact
rates of the major vectors and sustains the gains from the MDAs. According to a report of the Upper East
Regional Health Directorate, LLNs coverage in the KND is 87% with 81% usage. Results of the HLC revealed
that the active biting hours were from 21:00 hours to 04:00 hours, a time in which many individuals will be
sleeping under their protected nets. In literature, vector control alone has been used successfully to eliminate LF
in many areas (Bockarie, 1994; Webber, 1977, 1979) and when integrated with MDA has helped to eliminate LF
in Papua New Guinea (Burkot et al., 2006).
Vector control also, successfully eliminated lymphatic filariasis when implemented alone or with mass
drug administration. For instance, vector control was the primary tool for controlling filariasis in the Pacific
before effective antifilarial drugs were available and even after effective antifilarials became available, vector
control was preferred by Pacific island ministries and departments of health because MDA campaigns were
considered too labour intensive (Burkot et al., 2002).
Where Anopheles species are the vectors of malaria and filariasis, filariasis was eliminated from areas
where indoor residual spraying (IRS) with DDT to control malaria was undertaken in areas of Papua New
Guinea (Bockarie, 1994) and throughout the Solomon Islands (Webber, 1977, 1979). Wuchereria bancrofti was
also eliminated from Australia by sanitation campaigns that controlled the major vector, Culex quinquefasciatus
(Boreham, 1986). Vector control, also, played a significant role in elimination of LF from Japan (Sasa, 1976).
National scale vector control programmes would have multiple potential benefits for LF elimination programmes.
These include (1) the ability to suppress LF transmission without the need to identify all individual 'foci of
infection'; (2) minimizing the risk of reestablishment of transmission from imported microfilaria positive
individuals; and (3) reducing the spread of any DEC or albendazole resistant W. bancrofti which might emerge.
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A similar parasitamiae study by Appiah-Kubi in 2009 to assess the effect of 7 years of community-
directed treatment (ComDT) in Biu, another endemic area in the Kassena-Nankana District, revealed that only
one positive case was detected in an 80-year old man out of 300 samples examined. These findings are in
congruence with the principle of MDA that after 4 or more years of its implementation in endemic areas, the
microfilariae in the human system should be low enough to reduce the chances of them being taken by blood
feeding female mosquito vectors (WHO, 2010a, b). Thus the interventions against lymphatic filariasis in the area
have protected neglected populations from infection, prevented disability and its related costs and could have
promoted economic productivity.
The study also identified An. gambiae ss as the dominant species, with some few members of Culex
species (Figure 1). Anopheles gambiae ss is the major vector of W. bancrofti in the study area which supports
the findings of Appawu et al (1994, 2001) in the same region as well as records of similar results in rural parts of
coastal Ghana (Dunyo et al., 1996, Ughasi et al., 2012) where An. melas and An. gambiae ss were incriminated
as a sibling species of An. gambiae complex that were infective.
The relatively somewhat higher vector densities in Wuru in particular probably led to the slightly high
microfilarial rates in the human population since thiscommunityis affected by the Tono irrigation project. This
could be due to the fact the opening of the canals for farming activities, the broken down canals, choked canals,
the numerous low lands which contain flooded pools coupled with the surrounding streams in these areas led to
dry season populations of vectors of LF to increase to levels of the wet season as reported by Dzodzomenyo et al
(1999). Hence the relative difference in vector density between Saboro and Wuru later in the dry season (Table 1,
2 and Figure 4). These findings agreed with previous reports of Hunter et al (1993) and Yewhalaw et al (2009)
that irrigated projects provide not only opportunities for growing crops throughout the year, but also create large
expansions of perennial water, ideal breeding sites with higher humidities for mosquitoes which may favour
vector survival to an age in which they can become infective. Apart from that, irrigated areas create new
opportunities for fishing activities and attract people, leading to overcrowding and slum settlements. Hence more
infective feeds for Anopheles mosquitoes that led to a high intensity of disease transmission (Appawu et al.,
1994, 2001) before the implementation of the MDA by the National LF Control as directed by the GPELF of
World Health Organization.
Although irrigation is relevant for food production to support the ever-increasing human population, to
augment the current plan of WHO to eliminate filariasis by the use of MDA with ivermectin plus albendazole
and morbidity management in the country, water resources development agencies and health policy makers need
to collaborate in the planning and execution of irrigation schemes in order to reduce vector breeding while
accruing the benefits of the scheme.
The fact that some An. gambiae ss were infected with filarial worms confirmed by molecular analysis
using PCR to be W. bancrofti could mean that there is possible transmission ongoing despite the absence of L3
infective mosquitoes. It is probable that L3 infective An. vectors were not captured during the collection or the
mosquitoes might have lost the infective stages during a previous blood meal before being caught since many of
the PSC and some HLC collections were blood-fed. This assertion stems from the fact that the reports of
Gyapong et al. (1994, 1996) and Appawu et al. (2001) indicated that the area was highly endemic before MDA
implementation.
Anopheles species are considered to exhibit the process of facilitation (Weber, 1991; Southgate and
Bryan, 1992; Snow et al., 2006); therefore it is assumed that low level microfilaraemia resulting from MDA
would lead to interruption of transmission and elimination of lymphatic filariasis in anopheline transmission
areas (Amuzu et al., 2010). Anopheles gambiae ss on the contrary exhibit facilitation while An. melas show
limitation in Ghana. The evidence that, at least in Ghana, not all Anopheles species may exhibit the process of
facilitation and that limitation and facilitation occurred in communities as close as 28 km suggested that vectorial
systems at the local level should be taken into account if LF elimination is to be achieved (Amuzu et al., 2010).
Moreover, the fact that limitation and facilitation occur in local mosquito vectorsimplies that vector
control should therefore be considered in addition to MDA for areas where the principal vectors exhibit
limitation as is found in the study for An. melasin Gomoa in Ghana.
In conformity with GPELF, all members in the studied communities are being treated with IVM/ALB
once a year through the Ghana National LF elimination programme (Boakye et al., 2004).
3. Conclusion and recommendations
Among the Anopheles mosquitoes, An. gambiae was the conspicuous species with a couple of An. funestus. A
thorough analysis of the results indicated that there is no active ongoing transmission of lymphatic filariasis
following 10 rounds of MDA in the area. On the contrary, the man biting rate in all the three communities was
high including some level of infection in some Anopheles species particularly in Korania. This calls for
vigilance in the area because it could be that no infective mosquito was collected during the study despite their
presence. The high presence of An. species in the area calls for intensified vector control strategies because apart
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from the fact that ongoing LF transmission was not detected in them, they are still vectors of both malaria and
LF and/or they could exhibit limitation in LF transmission. Vector control should also be integrated with MDA
in the southern sector where MDA alone is proved not to be efficient in the eradication campaign.
A follow up investigation is required to ascertain the findings of this research in the subsequent years since one
research assessment of transmission is inadequate as far as transmission assessment survey is required and if
elimination certification is to be considered. Also, similar research projects should be conducted in other
endemic regions of sub-Saharan Africa since some of the possible vectors can exhibit limitation in their vectorial
capacity.
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Tables and figures
Table 1: Total number of Anopheles sp collected during PSC
Community
Period
Total
2011 2012
October November January February
Wuru 198 115 94 74 481
Saboro 164 125 70 71 430
Total 852 364 305 248 1,499
Key: m/r = mosquitoes per room
Table 2: Total number of Anopheles sp collected from Wuru, Saboro and Korania using HLC
Community
Period
Total
2011 2012
October November January February
Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor
Wuru 132 116 76 68 68 60 68 61 649
Saboro 115 114 72 69 52 48 55 50 575
Total 384 358 263 227 193 180 243 213 2,061
Table 3: Anopheles gambiae positive for W. bancrofti and parasite stages (HLC: Indoor)
Site
Date Molecular ID:
An. sp
Number, Stage and Site of parasite in An. sp
Head Thorax Abdomen Total
Saboro 5/2/12 Ag. ss. 1Mf 0 0 1
Wuru Entire
Period
Ag. ss 0 0 0 0
Total 1 0 0 1
Key: Mf - Microfilaria, Ag. ss – Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto
Table 4: Anopheles gambiae positive for W. bancrofti and the stages of parasite (HLC: Outdoor)
Site
Date Molecular ID:
An. sp
Number, Stage and Site of parasite in An. sp
Head Thorax Abdomen Total
Saboro 5/2/12 Ag. ss 0 1Mf 0 1
Wuru 5/1/12 Ag. ss 0 1L2 0 1
Total 0 2 0 2
Key: Mf - Microfilaria, L2 - Second stage larva, L1 - First stage larva, Ag. ss – Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto
Table 5: Anopheles gambiae positive for W. bancrofti and the stages of parasite (PSC)
Site
Date Molecular ID:
An. sp
Number, Stage and Site of parasite in An. gambiae
Head Thorax Abdomen Total
Saboro Entire
Period
Ag. ss 0 0 0 0
Wuru Entire
Period
Ag. ss 0 0 0 0
Total 0 0 0 0
Key: L1 - First stage larva, Ag. ss: Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto
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Table 6: Transmission parameters estimated for HLC in the study area
Site Mosquito sp No.
caught
MBr
(b/m/n)
Ir (w/m) IR
(Ib/m/y)
IMBr
(%)
AIMBr
(%)
WL
(Ib/m)
ATP
(Ib/m/y)
Wuru An sp 649 162.25 0.00154 0 0 0 0 0
Saboro An sp 575 143.75 0.00348 0 0 0 0 0
Key: b/m/n: bites/man/night; W/m: worm/mosquito; Ib/m/m: infective bites/man/month; Ib/m: infective
bites/man; Ibm/y: Infective bites/man/year; WL: Worm load; MBr: man biting rate; Ir: infection rate; IR:
infective rate; IMBr: infective man biting rate; AIMBr: Annual infective man biting rate; ATP: Annual
transmission potential
Table 7: Transmission parameters for PSC in the study area
Site Mosquito
sp
No.
caught
No. of
blood-
fed
MBr
(b/m/n)
Ir
(w/m)
IR
(Ib/m/y)
IMBr
(%)
AIMBr
(%)
WL
(Ib/m)
ATP
(Ib/m/y)
Wuru An sp 481 433 108.25 0.000 0 0 0 0 0
Saboro An sp 430 387 96.75 0.000 0 0 0 0 0
Key: b/m/n: bites/man/night; W/m: worm/mosquito; Ib/m/m: infective bites/man/month; Ib/m: infective
bites/man; Ibm/y: Infective bites/man/year; WL: Worm load; MBr: man biting rate; Ir: infection rate; IR:
infective rate; IMBr: infective man biting rate; AIMBr: Annual infective man biting rate; ATP: Annual
transmission potential
Figure 1: Room density of Anopheles spp in Wuru and Saboro
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