Analysing and interpreting discipline based language

2017
Prasanth
[Type the company name]
10/15/2017

ANALYSING AND INTERPRETING DISCIPLINE BASED LANGUAGE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
English for specific purposes (ESP) is a sphere of teaching English language
including Business English, Technical English, Scientific English, English for
medical professionals, English for waiters, English for tourism, English for Art
Purposes, etc. Aviation English as ESP is taught to pilots, air traffic controllers and
civil aviation cadets who are going to use it in radio communications. ESP can be
also considered as an avatar of language for specific purposes.
English for Specific Purposes has been developed to meet the needs of those
learners who intend to use English in professional contexts and for professional
purposes. Languages for specific purposes, or, in this case, English for Specific
Purposes can be dealt with from at least two perspectives: on the one hand, from a
didactic perspective, as ESP is a sphere of language teaching. On the other hand,
we must approach the issue of specialized language(s) from a linguistic viewpoint,
as English for Specific Purposes is a peculiar segment of language, with its major
component – terminology, to which some authors add the science specific
grammar, i.e. linguistic issues and particularities
The first major issue is connected to the plurality of names given to what we call
here English for Specific Purposes. In English several terms are used, among
which specialized languages, special languages, specialized communication,
technical English, scientific English, English for special or specific purposes-ESP,
English for Occupational Purposes, Professional English or, more recently,
Academic and Professional Languages.
Historical Background Of English For Specific Purposes
The history of the ESP (English for Specific Purposes) movement can be
traced back to the 1960s, though several books and materials designed to teaching

English for specialists in different fields (especially business and economics) were
published even in the first decades of the 20th century. There are four important
phases in the history and development of the ESP movement.
The first phase covers the 1960s and 1970s, when teaching ESP focused on
the sentence-level. The needs analyses that were carried out concentrated on the
lexical and grammatical features of professional registers, such as the language of
engineering or the language of law. Researchers discovered, among the most
striking characteristics of EST (English for Science and Technology), for instance,
the extensive use of Present Tense Simple, of passive constructions and of noun
compounds. In what Business English was concerned, the focus was on the rules of
writing business letters, rules that stated the use of a set format, formulaic
expressions, a limited set of vocabulary and conjunctions. “After careful analyses
of identified spoken or written discourse, practitioners organized their grammar-
based curricula around the features of these special registers.
The late 1970s and early 1980s brought about the second phase in the career
of ESP, in which the sentence level analysis and the focus on grammatical forms
started to integrate rhetorical functions as well. In 1981 Tarone et alii (1981)
published a study that intended to examine the function and frequency of passive
voice within astrophysics. When comparing the functions of passive structures in
these astrophysics journal articles with active voice, they practically performed a
rhetorical analysis, stating that passive voice was used by the scientists/authors of
the articles when “a. they are following established procedures rather than
discussing their own procedural choices, b. they are discussing others’ work in
contrast to their own, c. they are referring to their own future research, or d. they
wish to front certain information in sentences.” Tarone et alii were pioneers of
rhetorical analysis in ESP, as they did not simply state that a particular feature
(namely the passive voice) was frequently used in a certain type of text, but they

also asked why this specific item was employed, identifying different rhetorical
functions. Moreover, they started to take into consideration the differences within
larger ESP registers, as they did not refer to the whole range of scientific
disciplines, to English for Science, but to a particular branch of it, i.e. astrophysics.
Thus, in this second phase the focus of register analysis became more rhetorical,
and, when talking about understanding language use in ESP, mere counting of
grammatical and/or lexical features was not enough any longer.
The third phase of the evolution of ESP integrated the discoveries of the previous
two phases (linguistic features and rhetorical elements), as the focus was on the
target situation and the oral communication students may need in different
professional contexts, which led to the implementation of the so-called notional-
functional curriculum. The main pillars of this notional-functional approach were:
the communicative purposes (or functions) of the speaker, the setting for language
use and the mode of communication and the keyword of the whole approach is the
functional nature of communication. Therefore in Notional-Functional Syllabuses,
instead of having textbook units which are organized grammatically.
The fourth phase started in the second half of the 1980s.If earlier the focus
had been on the discourse and its grammatical features, on the communicative
situation or the communicative purpose, now the attention shifted to the strategies
used by learners to acquire the language (the contribution of psycholinguistics).
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) were the first who claimed that the needs analysis
had to include issues like the measurement of the learners’ existing knowledge,
their interest in the materials presented, the learners’ modalities of storing and
retrieving information and their active involvement in curriculum design.
More recently, lexicographers and terminologists have started to focus less on
the didactic aspects and more on the problem of specialized languages, this time
the main question being not necessarily how to teach specialized languages, but

what such languages look like. Raquel Martinez Motos (2013) seems to opt for a
new term, Academic and Professional Languages.
The first decade of the 2000s can be called the society of knowledge, as “one
of the defining features of this society is interdisciplinarity. And (it) is also
characterized by a tendency toward specialization. As a result, both
interdisciplinarity and specialization have a great influence on what has been
named as Academic and Professional Languages. Thus, the term Academic and
Professional Languages is the most recent term with which we refer to what has
been called technical language, special language, specialized language, language
for specific purposes, professional language so far. “This term, coined by Alcaraz,
refers to the type of language used by specific knowledge communities or groups
of professionals, such as chemists, lawyers, physicians, etc. that share similar
values and institutions that use the same genres and terminology to communicate.
We are aware of the lack of consensus among scholars regarding the boundaries of
concepts transmitted by other terms such as ‘Language for Specific Purposes’ or
‘Specialized Language’. In order to avoid any controversy, the term `Academic
and Professional Language` will strictly be used here to refer to any type of
language used in specialized communication, in an academic or professional
setting and characterized as having a restricted number of users.”
Elements of An Effective ESP Classroom
ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching
grammar and language structures. It covers subjects varying from accounting or
computer science to tourism and business management. The ESP focal point is that
English is not taught as a subject separated from the students' real world (or
wishes); instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners.

ESP combines subject matter and English language teaching. Such a
combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they
learn in their English classes to their main field of study, whether it be accounting,
business management, economics, computer science or tourism. Being able to use
the vocabulary and structures that they learn in a meaningful context reinforces
what is taught and increases their motivation. The students' abilities in their
subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to acquire English. Subject-
matter knowledge gives them the context they need to understand the English of
the classroom. In the ESP class, students are shown how the subject-matter content
is expressed in English. The teacher can make the most of the students' knowledge
of the subject matter, thus helping them learn English faster. For effectively
implementing the programmes of ESP we should consider the following factors
too;
Setting Goals and Objectives
Arrange the conditions for learning in the classroom and set long-term goals
and short-term objectives for student’s achievement. Knowledge about students’
potential is central in designing a syllabus with realistic goals that takes into
account the students' concern in the learning situation.
The responsibility of the teacher
A teacher that already has experience in teaching English as a Second
Language (ESL), can exploit her background in language teaching. She should
recognize the ways in which her teaching skills can be adapted for the teaching of
English for Specific Purposes. Moreover, she will need to look for content
specialists for help in designing appropriate lessons in the subject matter field she
is teaching. As an ESP teacher, you must play many roles organize courses, set
learning objectives, establish a positive learning environment in the classroom, and
evaluate student s progress.

Organizing Courses
We have to set learning goals and then transform them into an instructional
program with the timing of activities. One of the main tasks will be selecting,
designing and organizing course materials, supporting the students in their efforts,
and providing them with feedback on their progress.
Creating a Learning Environment
Teacher’s skills for communication and mediation create the classroom
atmosphere. Students acquire language when they have opportunities to use the
language in interaction with other speakers. Teacher can structure effective
communication skills in the classroom. In order to do so, in teacher – pupil
interaction , try to listen carefully to what they are saying and give your
understanding or misunderstanding back at them through your replies. Good
language learners are also great risk-takers , since they must make many errors in
order to succeed: however, in ESP classes, they are handicapped because they are
unable to use their native language competence to present themselves as well-
informed adults. That is why the teacher should create an atmosphere in the
language classroom which supports the students. Learners must be self-confident
in order to communicate, and teacher have the responsibility to help build the
learner's confidence.
Evaluating Students
The teacher is a resource that helps students identify their language learning
problems and find solutions to them, find out the skills they need to focus on, and
take responsibility for making choices which determine what and how to learn. The
teacher will serve as a source of information to the students about how they are
progressing in their language learning.
The responsibility of the student

What is the role of the learner and what is the task he/she faces? The learners
come to the ESP class with a specific interest for learning, subject matter
knowledge, and well-built adult learning strategies. They are in charge of
developing English language skills to reflect their native-language knowledge and
skills.
Interest for Learning
People learn languages when they have opportunities to understand and
work with language in a context that they comprehend and find interesting. In this
view, ESP is a powerful means for such opportunities. Students will acquire
English as they work with materials which they find interesting and relevant and
which they can use in their professional work or further studies. The more learners
pay attention to the meaning of the language they hear or read, the more they are
successful; the more they have to focus on the linguistic input or isolated language
structures, the less they are motivated to attend their classes.
The ESP student is particularly well disposed to focus on meaning in the
subject-matter field. In ESP, English should be presented not as a subject to be
learned in isolation from real use, nor as a mechanical skill or habit to be
developed. On the contrary, English should be presented in authentic contexts to
make the learners acquainted with the particular ways in which the language is
used in functions that they will need to perform in their fields of specialty or jobs.
Subject-Content Knowledge
Learners in the ESP classes are generally aware of the purposes for which
they will need to use English. Having already oriented their education toward a
specific field, they see their English training as complementing this orientation.
Knowledge of the subject area enables the students to identify a real context for the
vocabulary and structures of the ESP classroom. In such way, the learners can take
advantage of what they already know about the subject matter to learn English.

Learning Strategies
Adults must work harder than children in order to learn a new language, but
the learning skills they bring to the task permit them to learn faster and more
efficiently. The skills they have already developed in using their native languages
will make learning English easier. Educated adults are continually learning new
language behaviour in their native languages, since language learning continues
naturally throughout our lives. They are constantly expanding vocabulary,
becoming more fluent in their fields, and adjusting their linguistic behaviour to
new situations or new roles. ESP students can exploit these innate competencies in
learning English.
LANGUAGE REGISTER
The term register was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in
1956, and brought into general currency in the 1960s by a group of linguists who
wanted to distinguish among variations in language according to the user (defined
by variables such as social background, geography, sex and age), and variations
according to use, "in the sense that each speaker has a range of varieties and
choices between them at different times" (Halliday et al., 1964). The focus is on
the way language is used in particular situations, such as legalese or motherese, the
language of a biology research lab, of a news report, or of the bedroom.Register, in
the view of M. A. K. Halliday and R. Hasan, is one of the two defining concepts of
text. "A text is a passage of discourse which is coherent in these two regards: it is
coherent with respect to the context of situation, and therefore consistent in
register; and it is coherent with respect to itself, and therefore cohesive."
In linguistics, a Register is a variety of language used for a particular
purpose or in a particular social setting. It also refers to the perceived attitude and
level of formality associated with a variety of language. The relationship between
the writer's attitude and the variety chosen is very important in the study of written

language. In face to face speech, the listener can easily interpret the attitude of the
speaker by examining the speaker's tone of voice, facial expressions and overall
body language. This is not possible in writing. The writer has to use speacialized
features of discourse to convey or mask attitudes. It is then the reader's
reponsibility to correctly interpret the writer's attitude, tone and level of
formality. Language Registers range on a scale from most formal to most informal.
For example, when speaking in a formal setting contrary to an informal setting,
an English speaker may be more likely to use features of prescribed grammar—
such as pronouncing words ending in -ing with a velar nasal instead of analveolar
nasal (e.g. "walking", not "walkin'"), choosing more formal words
(e.g. father vs. dad, child vs. kid, etc.), and refraining from using words considered
nonstandard, such asain't.
As with other types of language variation, there tends to be a spectrum of
registers rather than a discrete set of obviously distinct varieties – numerous
registers could be identified, with no clear boundaries between them. Discourse
categorisation is a complex problem, and even in the general definition of
"register" given above (language variation defined by use not user), there are cases
where other kinds of language variation, such as regional or age dialect, overlap.
Consequent to this complexity, scholarly consensus has not been reached for the
definitions of terms including "register", "field" or "tenor"; different scholars'
definitions of these terms are often in direct contradiction of each other. These
various approaches with their own "register", or set of terms and meanings, fall
under disciplines including sociolinguistics, stylistics, pragmatics or systemic
functional grammar.
Types of Language Registers
There are five language registers or styles. Each level has an appropriate use
that is determined by differing situations. It would certainly be inappropriate to use

language and vocabulary reserve for a boyfriend or girlfriend when speaking in the
classroom. Thus the appropriate language register depends upon the audience
(who), the topic (what), purpose (why) and location (where).
1. Static Register
This style of communications RARELY or NEVER changes. It is “frozen”
in time and content. e.g. the Pledge of Allegiance, the Lord’s Prayer, the Preamble
to the US Constitution, the Alma Mater, a bibliographic reference, laws .
2. Formal Register
This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature. This use
of language usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually impersonal
and formal. A common format for this register are speeches. e.g. sermons,
rhetorical statements and questions, speeches, pronouncements made by
judges, announcements.
3. Consultative Register
This is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually
accepted structure of communications. It is formal and societal expectations
accompany the users of this speech. It is professional discourse. e.g. when
strangers meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor &
patient, lawyer & client, lawyer & judge, teacher & student, counselor & client,
4. Casual Register
This is informal language used by peers and friends. Slang, vulgarities and
colloquialisms are normal. This is “group” language. One must be member to
engage in this register. e.g. buddies, teammates, chats and emails, and blogs, and
letters to friends.
5. Intimate Register

This communications is private. It is reserved for close family members or
intimate people. e.g. husband & wife, boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings, parent &
children.
TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
Technical language is any language that laypeople are not exposed to on a
regular basis. This includes legal, medical, taxation, financial language, etc. It
refers to both technical terminology and technical documents, thereby including
vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and document organization. Technical
language can be found in legislation, contracts, policy, consent forms, and even in
newspaper articles. Technical language have direct relationship with the machine
language and programming language.
Technical language is language that is difficult for most people to
understand because it is connected with one particular subject or used in one
particular job . Technical language refers to the skills or terminologies that are
typically best understood by people who specialize in that field or area. It is almost
impossible to separate strict technical language from colloquial language.
A scale has been made to classify the different levels of technical language in the
area of geography. We are clearly dealing with technical language when the sender
and the receiver have the same knowledge about a specific subject e.g.
communication between geographers.
It has been proven that technical language is very different in style and
structure from that of everyday literature,1 and to treat it as separate, therefore, is
appropriate in research. Much of the literature on technical language thus treats
technical terminology and structure as comprising a fully separate language from,
or subset of, everyday English. Technical language contains lengthy and unfamiliar
words composed into lengthy and complex sentences. The ability to understand
technical language is evidently linked to the ability to read and understand

literature in general. More specifically for technical language, however, are the
concepts of legal and health literacy, which postulate that the literacy skills needed
to understand legal and medical language are different from that of everyday
language. This seems probable, as it has already been proven that technical
language is different from everyday language. Use of Technical language is for
technical writing and technical communication.
Technical Writing
Technical writing is any written form of writing or drafting technical
communication used in a variety of technical and occupational fields, such as
computer, hardware and
software, engineering, chemistry, aeronautics, robotics, finance, consumer
electronics, and biotechnology. IT encompasses the largest sub-field within
technical communication. The Society for Technical
Communication defines technical communication as any form of communication
that exhibits one or more of the following characteristics:
(1) communicating about technical or specialized topics, such as computer
applications, medical procedures, or environmental regulations
(2) communicating through technology, such as web pages, help files, or
social media sites
(3) providing instructions about how to do something, regardless of the
task's technical nature.
Technical writing is performed by a technical writer and is the process of
writing and sharing information in a professional setting. A technical writer’s main
task is to convey information to another person or party in the most clear and
effective manner possible. The information that technical writers convey is often
complex, and it is one of their main tasks to analyze the information and present it
in a format that is easy to read and understand. A good technical writer needs

strong writing and communication skills. They do not only convey information
through text, and must be proficient with computers as well. They use a wide range
of programs like Adobe Photoshop to create and edit images, diagramming
programs like Microsoft Visio to create visual aids, and document
processors like Mad Cap Flare to design and format documents. While commonly
associated with online help and user manuals, technical writing covers a wide
range of genres and technologies. Press releases, memos, business proposals,
product descriptions and specifications, white papers, Résumés, and job
applications are but a few examples of documents that are considered forms of
technical writing.
Techniques of Technical Writing
Good technical writing is concise, focused, easy to understand, and free of
errors. Technical writers focus on making their documents as clear as possible,
avoiding overly technical phrases and stylistic choices like passive
voice and nominalizations. Because technical documents are used in real-world
situations, it should always be explicitly clear what the subject matter of a
technical document is and what should be done with the presented information. It
would be disastrous if, for example, a technical writer’s instructions on how to use
a high-powered X-ray machine were difficult to decipher.
Technical writing requires a writer to extensively examine his or her
audience. A technical writer needs to be aware of his or her audience’s existing
knowledge about the material he or she is discussing because the knowledge base
of the writer’s audience will determine the content and focus of a document. For
example, an evaluation report discussing a scientific study’s findings that is written
to a group of highly skilled scientists will be very differently constructed than one
intended for the general public. Technical writers do not have to be subject-matter

experts (SMEs) themselves and generally collaborate with SMEs to complete tasks
that require more knowledge about a subject than they possess.
Technical writing must be accurate. A technical writer, after analyzing his or
her audience, knows what they're trying to communicate. The goal from there is to
convey the message in an accurate and ethical manner. Physical, environmental, or
financial repercussions could result if a writer does this incorrectly. Knowing the
audience is important to accuracy because the language will be tailored according
to what they understand about the subject at hand. For example, instructions on
how to correctly and safely build a bookshelf are included when purchased. Those
instructions are constructed so that anyone could follow along, as well as accurate
details as to where every fastener goes. If those instructions were inaccurate, the
bookshelf could be unstable and result in falling, and possibly injure someone.
Document design and layout are also very important components of
technical writing. Technical writers spend much time ensuring their documents are
laid out in a fashion that makes readability easy, because a poorly designed
document hampers a reader’s comprehension. Technical document design stresses
proper usage of document design choices like bullet points, font-size, and bold
text. Images, diagrams, and videos are also commonly employed by technical
writers because these media can often convey complex information, like a
company’s annual earnings or a product’s design features, far more efficiently than
text.
Technical Documents
Technical writing covers many genres and writing styles depending on the
information and audience. Technical documents are not solely produced by
technical writers. Almost anyone who works in a professional setting produces
technical documents of some variety. Some examples of technical writing include:

 Instructions and procedures are documents that help either developers or
end users operate or configure a device or program. Examples of
instructional documents include user manuals and troubleshooting guides for
computer programs, household products, medical equipment, and
automobiles.
 Proposals : Most projects begin with a proposal—a document that describes
the purpose of a project, the tasks that will be performed in the project, the
methods used to complete the project, and finally the cost of the
project. Proposals cover a wide range of subjects. For example, a technical
writer may author a proposal that outlines how much it will cost to install a
new computer system, and a teacher may write a proposal that outlines how
a new biology class will be structured.
 Emails, letters, and memoranda are some of the most frequently written
documents in a business. Letters and emails can be constructed with a
variety of goals—some are aimed at simply communicating information
while others are designed to persuade the recipient to accomplish a certain
task. While letters are usually written to people outside of a
company, memoranda (memos) are documents written to other employees
within the business.
 Press releases : When a company wants to publicly reveal a new product or
service, they will have a technical writer author a press release, a document
that describes the product’s functions and value to the public.
 Specifications are design outlines that describe the structure, parts,
packaging, and delivery of an object or process in enough detail that another
party can reconstruct it. For example, a technical writer might diagram and
write the specifications for a smartphone or bicycle so that a manufacturer
can produce the object.

 Descriptions are shorter explanations of procedures and processes that help
readers understand how something works. For example, a technical writer
might author a document that shows the effects of greenhouse gases or
demonstrates how the braking system on a bike functions.
 Résumés and job applications are another example of technical documents.
They are documents that are used in a professional setting to inform readers
of the author’s credentials.
 Technical reports are written to provide readers with information,
instructions, and analysis on tasks. Reports come in many forms. For
example, a technical writer might evaluate a building that is for sale and
produce a trip report that highlights his or her findings and whether or not he
or she believes the building should be purchased. Another writer who works
for a non-profit company may publish an evaluation report that shows the
findings of the company’s research into air pollution.
 Case study is a published report about a person, group, or situation that has
been studied over time; also : a situation in real life that can be looked at or
studied to learn about something. For example, an individual's challenging
situation at his or her workplace and how he or she resolved it is a case
study.
 White papers are documents that are written for experts in a field and
typically describe a solution to a technological or business challenge or
problem. Examples of white papers include a piece that details how to make
a business stand out in the market or a piece explaining how to prevent
cyber-attacks on businesses.
 Web sites : The advent of hypertext has changed the way documents are
read, organized, and accessed. Technical writers of today are often

responsible for authoring pages on websites like “About Us” pages or
product pages and are expected to be proficient in web development tools.
Tools for Technical Writing
The following tools are used by technical writers to author and present
documents:
 Desktop publishing tools or word processors : Word processors such as
Scrivener, Microsoft Word, Apple Pages, and Open Office Writer are used
by technical writers to author, edit, design, and print documents. Since
technical writing is as much about the page’s layout as it is the written
language, Desktop Publishing tools such asAdobe FrameMaker and LyX are
also used by Technical Writers. These programs function similarly to word
processors but provide users with more options and features for the
document’s design and automate much of the formatting.
 Help authoring tools are used by technical writers to create the help
systems that are packaged with software products, delivered through web
browsers or provided as files users can view on their computers. When
writing instructional procedures for incredibly complex programs or
systems, technical writers will use these tools to assist them and simplify the
process. Adobe RoboHelp, MadCap Flare and HelpNDoc are a few
examples of Help Authoring Tools.
 Image editing software : Often, images and other visual elements can
portray information better than paragraphs of texts. In these instances, image
editing software like Adobe Photoshop and GIMP are used by technical
writers to create and edit the visual aspects of documents like photos, icons,
and diagrams.

 Collaborative software programs :.Because technical writing often
involves communication between multiple individuals who work for
different companies, it can be a collaborative affair. Thus, technical writers
use Wiki Systems like MediaWiki , eXo Platform and Atlassian
Confluence and shared document workspaces like Microsoft
SharePoint and Google Docs to work with other writers and parties to
construct technical documents.
 Web development tools : Technical writers’ jobs are no longer limited to
just producing documents. They must now also produce content for
company’s corporate and other professional web sites. Web Development
Tools like Adobe Dreamweaver are standard tools in the industry that
technical writers are expected to be proficient in.
 Graphing software : In order to portray statistical information like the
number of visits to a restaurant or the amount of money a university spends
on its sporting programs, technical writers will use graphs and
flowcharts. While programs like Microsoft Excel and Word can create basic
graphs and charts, sometimes technical writers must produce incredibly
complex and detailed graphs that require functions not available in these
programs. In these instances, powerful graphing and diagramming tools
like Microsoft Visio are used to effectively organize and design graphs and
diagrams.
 Screen capture tools : Technical writers commonly use Screen Capture
Tools like Camtasia Studio and Snagit to capture their desktops. When
creating instructions for computer software, it’s much easier for a technical
writer to simply record themselves completing a task than it is to write a
lengthy series of instructions that describe how the task must be performed.
Screen capture tools are also used to take screenshots of programs and

software running on user’s computers and then to create accompanying
diagrams.
LANGUAGE OF ICT RESOURCES
ICT (Information and Communication Technology) has been used in
almost all fields of life, including in education. In education, computer technology
has become so essential that the government put ICT as one of the curriculum
. The utilization of ICT in education has recently started to appeal the potential and
significant progress . It has become a major issue in education world and has been
used from preschool through to university that could facilitate students and teacher
in teaching and learning process. ICT has been publicized as potentially powerful
enabling tools for educational change and reform. The technology in this era has
been grown up not only from the quality but also the efficiency. They are moving
fast without any limit from every product. The need of technological innovation
has brought the communication revolution and rapid development of technological
application in teaching and learning. Language plays a dominant role in the
encoding of ICT enabled resources for learning. Language in the form of
programming language plays a significant for building platform for ICT resources.
The English language is sometimes described as the lingua franca of
computing. In comparison to other sciences, where Latin and Greek are the
principal sources of vocabulary, Computer science borrows more extensively from
English. Due to the technical limitations of early computers, and the lack of
international standards on the Internet, computer users were limited to using
English and the Latin alphabet. However, this historical limitation is less present
today. Most software products are localized in numerous languages and the use of
the Unicode character encoding has resolved problems with non-Latin alphabets.

Some limitations have only been changed recently, such as with domain names,
which previously allowed only ASCII characters.
The computing terminology of many languages borrows from English. Some
language communities resist actively to that trend, and in other cases English is
used extensively and more directly. The early computer software and hardware had
very little support for alphabets other than the Latin. As a result of this it was
difficult or impossible to represent languages based on other scripts.
The ASCII character encoding, created in the 1960s, only supported 128 different
characters. With the use of additional software it was possible to provide support
for some languages, for instance those based on the Cyrillic alphabet. However,
complex-script languages like Chinese or Japanese need more characters than the
256 limit imposed by 8-bit character encodings. Some computers created in the
former USSR had native support for the Cyrillic alphabet.
The wide adoption of Unicode, and UTF-8 on the web, resolved most of
these historical limitations. ASCII remains the de facto standard for command
interpreters, programming languages and text-based communication protocols. The
syntax of most programming languages uses English keywords, and therefore it
could be argued some knowledge of English is required in order to use them.
However, it is important to recognize all programming languages are in the class
of formal languages. They are very different from any natural language, including
English.
Many application protocols, especially those depending on widespread
standardisation to be effective, use text strings for requests and parameters, rather
than the binary values commonly used in lower layer protocols. The request strings
are generally based on English words, although in some cases the strings are
contractions or acronyms of English expressions, which renders them somewhat
cryptic to anyone not familiar with the protocol, whatever their proficiency in

English. Nevertheless, the use of word-like strings is a convenient mnemonic
device that allows a person skilled in the art (and with sufficient knowledge of
English) to execute the protocol manually from a keyboard, usually for the purpose
of finding a problem with the service.
Many personal computers have a BIOS chip, displaying text in English
during boot time. Keyboard shortcuts are usually defined in terms of English .
English is the largest language on the World Wide Web, with 27% of internet
users. Web user percentages usually focus on raw comparisons of the first
language of those who access the web. Just as important is a consideration of
second- and foreign-language users; i.e., the first language of a user does not
necessarily reflect which language he or she regularly employs when using the
web.
English-language users appear to be a plurality of web users, consistently
cited as around one-third of the overall (near one billion). This reflects the relative
affluence of English-speaking countries and high Internet penetration rates in them.
This lead may be eroding due mainly to a rapid increase of Chinese users. First-
language users among other relatively affluent countries appear generally stable,
the two largest being German and Japanese, which each have between 5% and
10% of the overall share. Given the enormous lead it already enjoys and its
increasing use as a lingua franca in other spheres, English web content may
continue to dominate even as English first-language Internet users decline. This is
a classic positive feedback loop: new Internet users find it helpful to learn English
and employ it on-line, thus reinforcing the language's prestige and forcing
subsequent new users to learn English as well.
Certain other factors (some predating the medium's appearance) have
propelled English into a majority web-content position. Most notable in this regard
is the tendency for researchers and professionals to publish in English to ensure

maximum exposure. The largest database of medical bibliographical information,
for example, shows English was the majority language choice for the past forty
years and its share has continually increased over the same period. The fact that
non-Anglophones regularly publish in English only reinforces the language's
dominance. English has a rich technical vocabulary and many IT and technical
professionals use English regardless of country of origin .
Generally speaking, English is the universal language on the Internet, but it
has no official status, and it will never have. The reasons for the position of
English are the imperialism and economical and political importance of English-
speaking countries. Linguistically, English is extremely unsuitable for international
communication, and the actual wide use of English tends to polarize the world into
Internet users and Internet illiterates. The position of English can only be altered
by major world-scale political and economical changes .
Role of English is an un avoidable one in the creation of different type of
educational websites and contents in electronic format. Modern classrooms were
evidenced by lots influence ICT and its facilities. Majority of the educators use
English for e-learning material preparation and transmission. English is the
language used for the preparation of tutorial lessons in CDs and DVDs. Majority of
the educational application softwares were also built in English because of its wide
usage. Though English is accepted as a universal language , every one prefer to
create and transmit ICT resources in English language. So the role of English
language is remarkable one in the construction and use of ICT resources .
SCHEMA THEORY
The term "schema" was first used in psychology with the meaning of
"an active organization of past reactions or experiences”. It assumes that written
text does not carry meaning by itself. Rather, a text only provides directions for
readers as to how they should retrieve or construct meaning from their own

previously acquired knowledge. The theory of Schema can be used to help guide
students to comprehend a text from the global point of view. Therefore, the roles of
Schema theory in comprehension cannot be ignored. According to schema theory,
people make sense of new experiences and the world by activating the mental
representations or schemata stored in their memory. New experiences and
information are interpreted according to how it fits into their schemata.
Information that does not fit may be misunderstood or miscomprehended.
Schema theory deals with the reading process, where readers are
expected to combine their previous experiences with the text they are reading.
Since each reader has different background knowledge, it is culture specific.
Schema theory was developed by the gestalt psychologist Bartlett who observed
how people, when asked to repeat a story from memory, filled in details which did
not occur in the original but conformed to their cultural norms” formalize the role
of background knowledge in language comprehension as schema theory, and claim
that any text either spoken or written does not itself carry meaning. The very
important role of background knowledge on reading comprehension is noted by
that a reader’s comprehension depends on her ability to relate the information that
she gets from the text with her pre-existing background knowledge.
Concept of Schema
A schema (plural: schemata) is an abstract structure of knowledge, a
mental representation stored in memory upon which all information processing
depends. It may represent knowledge at different levels, e.g. cultural truths,
linguistic knowledge or ideologies. They are mental templates that represent a
person’s knowledge about people, situations or objects, and which originate from
prior knowledge or experiences.
A schema may be perceived as a structure consisting of a series of
spaces, some of which are filled and others empty. When faced with a situation or

trying to comprehend something new, the appropriate schema is activated and used
to infer, produce or accommodate new information for the empty slots. If the input
is assimilated into existing schema without making any changes, it is called
“accretation”; “tuning” on the other hand takes place when the existing schema is
inadequate and needs to be modified; while “restructuring” is the process of
creating new schema. Activation of schema can take place from the whole to the
part, that is ‘’top-down’’ or it may be ‘’conceptually driven’’ from the parts to the
whole, that is "bottom-up" and also known as "data driven".
Types Of Schema
1. Social Schema
Social schema is generated by an event ,that consists of a script and scenes,
props ,enabling conditions , roles and outcomes . Social cognition researchers are
particularly interested in studying what happens when the schema activated
conflicts with existing norms.
2. Ideological Schema
Ideological schema is generated by attitudes or opinions on relevant
social or political issues, for example abortion and ecology.
3. Formal Schema
Formal schema is related to the rhetorical structure of a written text,
such as differences in genre or between narrative styles and their corresponding
structures. In other words, formal schema refers to the knowledge of the ways in
which different genres are presented, with reference to Richards et al. They point
out that schema or macro- structure refers to file underlying structure which
accounts for the organization of a text or discourse. Different kinds of texts and

discourse are distinguished by the ways in which the topic, propositions, and other
information are linked together to form a unit. This underlying structure is known
as formal schemata. For example, the schema underlying many stories is:
story=setting (state+state) +episodes (events) +reaction. That is, stories consist of a
setting in which the time, place, and characters are identified, followed by episodes
leading towards a reaction. Different genres have different structure. Lack of such
kind of knowledge also contributes considerably to the problems in reading
comprehension.
4. Linguistic schema
Linguistic schema includes the decoding features a person needs in order to
understand how words are organized and fit together in a sentence . Linguistic
schema refers to the knowledge about vocabulary and grammar. It plays a basic
role in a comprehensive understanding of the text. Eskey (1988) claims that "good
readers are both decoders and interpreters of texts, their decoding skills becoming
more automatic but no less important as their reading skill develops". This is
because that "Language is major problem in second language reading, and that
even educated guessing at meaning is no substitute for accurate decoding". In other
words, successful comprehension of any text is impossible without effective
decoding skills.
5. Content schema
Content schema refers to knowledge about the subject matter or content of a
text. Content schema refers to "background knowledge of the content area of the
text". It contains conceptual knowledge or information about what usually happens
within a certain topic, and how these happenings relate to each other to form a
coherent whole. It is an open-ended set of typical events and entities for a specific

occasion. For example, schema for going to a restaurant would include information
about services, menus, ordering dishes, paying the bill (giving a tip), and so on
.Content schema are largely culture-specific. Therefore, cultural schema is usually
categorized as content schema.
Schema Theory And Artificial Intelligence
The American cognivist scientist in artificial intelligence, Marvin Minskyis
credited for having re-introduced the schema construct into psychology in the
1970s when he came across Bartlett’s work while trying to simulate human
abilities, such as perceiving and understanding the world, with machines. He
developed the frame construct as a way of representing knowledge in machines
and conceived it as interacting with incoming knowledge from the world.
According to him, each frame consists of a series of slots that accept a certain
range of values; if none exist, these are filled with default values.
Modern Schema Theory
The greater understanding on thought processing and memory that evolved
with the appearance of computer programming and simulation of human cognition,
led to the resurgence of the concept of schema. It was later further developed in the
1980s into an explicit psychological theory of the mental representation of
complex knowledge by the cognitive psychologist David Rumelhart . The
educational researcher Kenneth Goodman (1967:127)also made important
contributions with his findings which led him to conclude that reading is a
“psycholinguistic guessing game” that involves interaction between thought and
language.
Schema Theory and Education
The educational psychologist Richard Anderson is accredited with having
introduced schema theory into the educational community in 1977. Research
carried out by him found that comprehension and in turn memory and learning

depend on the student recurring to or bringing to bear the appropriate schemata.
Following Piaget’s ideas, he argues schema can be thought of as assimilation, and
schema change as accommodation of knowledge. However, without some schema
into which the knowledge can be accommodated, the situation or experience is
incomprehensible and of little pedagogical use. These ideas were considered
revolutionary because reading ceased to be considered a matter of simple word
recognition; instead, attention was placed on the reader's role in the process of
comprehension. In current schema theory reading is considered an interactive
process between the reader's background knowledge and the text. Since these early
days, schema theory has proven useful in many other disciplines and has been used
for discourse analysis, marketing, music and more.
CONCEPT OF DISCOURSE
Originally Discourse has roots in the Latin language. The term assumes
slightly different meanings in different contexts but in literature discourse means
speech or writing normally longer than sentences which deals with a certain
subject formally in the form of writing or speech. In other words, discourse is the
presentation of language in its entirety while performing an intellectual inquiry in a
particular area or field i.e. theological discourse or cultural discourse.
According to Foucault “Systems of thoughts composed of ideas, attitudes,
and courses of action, beliefs and practices that systematically construct the
subjects and the worlds of which they speak.”
In linguistics, discourse refers to a unit of language longer than a
single sentence. More broadly, discourse is the use of spoken or written language
in a social context. It refers to "the discipline devoted to the investigation of the
relationship between form and function in verbal communication". Discourse is
one of the four systems of language, the others being vocabulary, grammar and
phonology. Discourse has various definitions but one way of thinking about it is as

any piece of extended language, written or spoken, that has unity and meaning and
purpose. One possible way of understanding 'extended' is as language that is more
than one sentence. In the classroom Areas of written and spoken discourse looked
at in language classrooms include various features of cohesion and coherence,
discourse markers, paralinguistic features (body language), conventions and ways
of taking turns.
Discourse denotes written and spoken communications. Discourse is a
conceptual generalization of conversation within each modality and context of
communication. As discourse, an enouncement (statement) is not a unit
of semiotic signs, but an abstract construct that allows the semiotic signs to assign
meaning, and so communicate specific, repeatable communications to, between,
and among objects, subjects, and statements. Therefore, a discourse is composed of
semiotic sequences (relations among signs that communicate meaning) between
and among objects, subjects, and statements.
Classification of Discourse
Discourse can be classified into four main categories namely:
1. Exposition
The main focus of this type of discourse is to make the audience aware about
the topic of the discussion. Definitions and comparative analysis of different ideas
and beliefs are examples of discourse exposition.
2. Narration
Narration is a type of discourse that relies on stories, folklore or a drama as a
medium of communication. Stage play, story, folklore etc. are narrative discourse
examples.
3. Description

It involves describing something in relation to the senses. Descriptive
discourse enables the audience to develop a mental picture of what is being
discussed. Descriptive parts of novel or essays are descriptive discourse examples.
4. Argument
This type of discourse is based on valid logic and, through correct reasoning
tries to motivate the audience. Examples of argumentative discourse
include lectures, essays, and prose.
5. Literary Discourses
It is a type of literary conversation which focuses on the expression of
feelings, ideas, imaginations, events and places through specific rhymes and
rhythms.
6. Poetic Discourse
Poetic discourse makes use of common words in appealing ways to presents
feelings and emotions. The mechanism of poetic discourse involves certain steps
starting from different sources, then entering mental process, mental realization
and then finally into a finished product as poetry.
7. Expressive Discourse
Expressive discourse does not involve the presentation of facts or the
motivating of others but is rather a reflection of our emotions which form the
foundation of our expressions. This is a form of basic or entry level discourse and
is beneficial for beginners in the field of literature or other fields. It primarily deals
with generating ideas with no concrete source. Examples are academic essays and
diaries.
8. Transactional Discourse
The basic aim in this kind of discourse is to convey the message in such a
way that it is clearly understood without any confusion. Whatever is said has

no ambiguity. Everything is clear for the reader. Usually this type of discourse is in
active voice.
DISCOURSES IN VARIETY CURRICULAR COMPONENTS
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
In order to help fulfil the educational goals and objectives of the school
system, the board strives to provide instructional materials that will enrich and
support the curriculum and enhance student learning. Instructional materials should
be representative of the rich diversity of our nation and appropriate for the maturity
levels and abilities of the students. Instructional materials constitute all materials,
whether print, non-print, digital or any combination thereof, used in the
instructional program. For purposes of this policy, instructional materials will be
divided into two categories: textbooks and supplementary materials.
TEXT BOOK
Learning materials control learning and teaching. Text book determines the
components and method of learning . They control the content, methods and class
room environment of teaching learning process. A text book is a specially written
book which contain selective and systematic knowledge. It is not a bare statement
of knowledge but is armed with various teaching learning devises to fulfill the
desired educational goals. The subject matter receives a rich collection of
pedagogy.
A text is an extended structure of syntactic units [i. e. text as super-sentence]
such as words, groups, and clauses and textual units that is marked by
both coherence among the elements and completion ... [Whereas] a non-text
consists of random sequences of linguistic units such as sentences, paragraphs, or
sections in any temporal and/or spatial extension. A naturally occurring
manifestation of language, i. e. as a communicative language event in a context.
The surface text is the set of expressions actually used; these expressions make

some knowledge explicit, while other knowledge remains implicit, though still
applied during processing. A text is a unit of language in use. It is not a
grammatical unit, like a clause or a sentence; and it is not defined by its size. A text
is best regarded as a semantic unit; a unit not of form but of meaning.
A text is made up of sentences, but there exist separate principles of text-
construction, beyond the rules for making sentences. Text is a set of mutually
relevant communicative functions, structured in such a way as to achieve an
overall rhetorical purpose. Most linguists agree on the classification into five text-
types: narrative, descriptive, argumentative, instructive, and comparison/contrast
(also called expositive). Some classifications divide the types of texts according to
their function. Others differ because they take into consideration the topic of the
texts, the producer and the addressee, or the style.
Selection Of Textbooks
Textbooks are systematically organized materials comprehensive enough to
cover the primary objectives outlined in the standard course of study for a grade or
course. Formats for textbooks may be print, non-print or digital media, including
hardbound books, softbound books, activity-oriented programs, classroom kits and
technology-based programs or materials that require the use of electronic
equipment in order to be used in the learning process. State-approved textbooks
will be used as the primary means to help students meet the goals and objectives of
the Common Core State and North Carolina Essential Standards, unless the board
approves alternative materials. The central curriculum committee or a school
through its school improvement plan may submit a request for the use of
alternative textbooks. The request should identify how the committee or school has
ensured that the curriculum will continue to be aligned with the standard course of
study and to meet the educational goals of the board.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Supplementary Materials are defined as, “any instructional materials which
relate to the curriculum and are available for teacher use and/or student selection.
Supplementary materials are used to provide extension, enrichment, and support to
the curriculum.” Supplementary materials are instructional and learning resources
which are selected to complement, enrich or extend the curriculum. Such resources
include, for example, specialized materials selected to meet diverse needs or
rapidly changing circumstances, library materials, digital resources, the school
system’s media collection, classroom collections and teacher-selected resources for
individual classes.
Objectives for Selection of Supplementary Materials
The objectives for the selection of supplementary materials are as follows:
 To provide a wide range of materials that will enrich and support the curriculum,
taking into consideration the individual needs and varied interests, abilities, socio-
economic backgrounds, learning styles and developmental levels of the students
served;
 To provide materials that will stimulate growth in factual knowledge, literary
appreciation, aesthetic values and ethical standards;
 To provide a background of information that will enable students to comprehend
their role as citizens in society and to make intelligent judgments in their daily
lives;
 To provide resources representing various points of view on controversial issues so
that students as young citizens may develop, under guidance, the skills of critical
thinking and critical analysis;

 To provide resources representative of the many religious, ethnic and cultural
groups in our nation and the contributions of these groups to our American
heritage; and
 To place principle above personal opinion and reason above prejudice in the
selection of material of the highest quality in order to ensure a comprehensive
collection appropriate for all users.
Process and Criteria for Selecting Supplementary Materials
The responsibility for the selection of supplementary materials is delegated to
the professional staff under the direction of the superintendent and will be made
primarily at the school level with the involvement of a school media and
technology advisory committee. The committee shall be appointed by the principal
and will include the school library media coordinator, the instructional technology
facilitator, teachers and instructional support personnel representing various
subject areas and grade levels, and parents. Students also should be involved when
feasible.
The selection process used by the committee will include: (1) an evaluation of
the existing collection; (2) an assessment of the available resource and curriculum
needs of the school; and (3) consideration of individual teaching and learning
styles. In coordinating the selection of resources, the committee should use
reputable, unbiased selection tools prepared by professional educators and should
arrange, when possible, for firsthand examination of resources to be purchased.
When examining proposed materials, the committee should consider the following
factors:
 The material’s overall purpose, educational significance and direct relationship to
instructional objectives and the curriculum and to the interests of the students;

 The material’s reliability, including the extent to which it is accurate, authentic,
authoritative, up-to-date, unbiased, comprehensive and well-balanced;
 The material’s technical quality, including the extent to which technical
components are relevant to content and consistent with state-of-the-art capabilities;
 The material’s artistic, literary and physical quality and format, including its
durability, manageability, clarity, appropriateness, skillfulness, organization and
attractiveness;
 The possible uses of the material, including suitability for individual, small group,
large group, introduction, in-depth study, remediation and/or enrichment;
 The contribution the material will make to the collection’s breadth and variety of
viewpoints;
 Recommendations of school personnel and students from all relevant departments
and grade levels;
 The reputation and significance of the material’s author, producer and publisher;
and
 The price of the material weighed against its value and/or the need for it.
JOURNALS
Journal is a daily record of events , occurrences, experiences, or
observations. It is also used in the sense of a newspaper or other periodicals. A
creative journal could just be a collection of ideas, observation, sketches, magazine
clippings that could be used to inspire creative work such as paintings, stories.
Journals store perceptions, ideas, emotions, actions--all future material for essays
or stories. Journals, magazines and newspapers are often referred to as periodicals
or serials because they are published on a regular (daily, weekly, monthly, or
quarterly) basis. These publications are great sources of current, up-to-date
information. Journals and electronic journals will normally contain well-researched

and up to date material. They will often provide more up-to-date research than text
books which take longer to publish. As with books, articles will often have
bibliographies which can direct you to further information.
Journals are collections of personal writing about or around a topic or
general theme. Entries should be made on a regular basis – daily or frequently -
and are usually kept together in a notebook or folder. The important thing is to
write, the only way for learners to improve their writing or to demonstrate to
themselves that they indeed can write. This is a general strategy for writers at all
levels but is particularly appropriate for beginning writers. Learners should date
each journal entry. Give learners strategies to use to get the words down when they
do not know how to spell; such as, write down the first letter of the word and draw
a line or write the word as best you can and underline it to remind yourself that it is
possibly misspelled. Model writing in your journal and be willing to share your
writing, but be aware that some learners’ entries may be too personal to share with
others. Journals are not writing assignments to be corrected or graded, but should
be used for communicating and writing practice. The writer may elect to revise and
extend some of the journal entries into more formal assignments rather than
starting from scratch.
Types of Journals
 Academic journals are often quite specialised and will be mainly composed of
long articles reporting upon research projects, possibly with some book reviews
or letters commenting on previous research. Articles appearing in academic
journals will often be peer-reviewed - this means the information you find will
often be more reliable as the information it contains will have been checked by
other professionals in the field.

 Professional journals are similar in most respects to academic journals, but
may be more practice oriented. Some may also be less formal than their
academic counterparts and may include updates and general information for
practitioners in the relevant field. Professional journals may also include some
job advertisements for professionals in that field. Some articles which appear in
professional journals may have been peer reviewed similar to those in more
academic journals.
 Trade journals will include a wide range of information specific to the trade
sector covered, including product and price information, job advertisements,
scientific or technical articles and reports and possibly directory information
 Magazines differ slightly to journals in that their intended audience is more
broad, and so the information they contain is often written for anyone to
understand and more general in scope. As with trade journals, they may include
a lot of advertisements. Their main purpose is to report on current or recent
affairs, but they can often have useful information or opinions expressed in
them.
 Ejournals or electronic journals and emagazines may be either electronic
versions of existing print journals, or may be journals which only exist in
electronic form and have no print counterpart (such journals may not be
refereed and so this is always worth checking). They have similar advantages
and disadvantages to those of printed journals, although may sometimes be
published quicker than their print counterpart.
 Dialogue Journals: Dialogue Journals are kept by two people (teacher and
learner, or child and parent) in which a written conversation over a variety of
topics takes place. Learners write informally about a topic of interest, a concern,
a book they are reading, or a topic they are studying.

 Response Journals/Reading Journals: In Reader-Response Journals, learners
are asked to respond to some experience and can take a variety of forms: ·
Noting new vocabulary words · Writing about the character they identified with
· Making predictions about what might happen next · Writing about the part
they liked · Writing about how the reading made them feel · Writing about what
they would have done in the particular situation described · Writing about how
they could use what they just read about Entries may be open ended or directed,
e.g. what advice would you give the character, what do you think will happen if
this story continued, or how the character is like me.
 Double-Entry Journals: For a Double-Entry Journal, learners divide their
journal paged into two parts. In the left-hand column, they write quotes or notes
from their reading. In the right-hand column, learners write their response or
reaction to the information they have written in the first column.
 Learning Logs: Learning Logs are journals in which students reflect on
learning experiences they take part in. They can respond to questions they have
about the experience or content, reflect on how well they understand the
presentation, connect the material to their own lives, or comment on their
interest in the content.
PERIODICAL
Periodical (also called a periodical publication or simply a periodical
literature) is a published work that appears in a new edition on a regular
schedule. The most familiar counter-examples are the newspaper, often published
daily, or weekly. The most familiar example is the magazine, typically published
weekly, monthly, or as a quarterly. Other examples are newsletters, literary
magazines(literary journals), academic journals (including scientific
journals), science magazines, and yearbooks. Periodicals can be classified into two

types: popular and scholarly. Popular periodicals are, usually magazines
(e.g., Ebony and Esquire). The scholarly journals are found in libraries and
databases. Examples are The Journal of Psychology and the Journal of Social
Work. Trade/professional magazine are also examples of periodicals. They are
written for an audience of professionals in the world.
NEWSPAPER
A newspaper is a serial publication containing news, other
informative articles and usually advertising. A newspaper is usually printed on
relatively inexpensive, low-grade paper such as newsprint. The news organizations
that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers.
Most newspapers are now published online as well as in print. The online versions
are called online newspapers or news sites. Newspapers are typically
published daily or weekly. News magazines are also weekly, but they have
a magazine format.
General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature
articles on national and international news as well as local news. The news
includes political events and personalities, business and finance, crime, severe
weather, and natural disasters; health and medicine, science, and
technology; sports; and entertainment, society, food and cooking, clothing and
home fashion, and the arts. Typically the paper is divided into sections for each of
those major groupings. A wide variety of material has been published in
newspapers. Besides the aforementioned news and opinions, they include weather
forecasts; criticism and reviews of the arts (including literature, film, television,
theater, fine arts, and architecture) and of local services such as
restaurants; obituaries; entertainment features such as crosswords,
horoscopes, editorial cartoons, gag cartoons, and comic strips; advice, food, and
other columns; and radio and television listings (program schedules).

BULLETIN
A brief report, especially an official statement on a matter of public interest i
ssued for immediate publication or broadcast. It is
a brief update or summary of current news, as on television or radio or in a newspa
per. It is periodical, especially one published by an organization or society. A short
official statement or broadcast summary of news. It may be a
regular newsletter or report issued by an organization. It is also in the form of
audio type information that enables for the language development of common
people. It is a way of passing important informations.
PICTURES
A picture paints a thousand words, it's true, and pictures are a great way of
improving your English, especially if you are a visual learner. According to the
‘Technical Advisory Service for Images’ (2004), the two sides of the brain “have
different attributes and respond to different stimuli”. The left side of the brain is
“analytical, verbal, sequential, and linear; while the right is visual, spatial, holistic
and relational”. Accordingly, the left is more logical and responds better to textual
material, whereas the right is imaginative, responding better to visual content. This
shows that different learners have different learning styles. There is no doubt that
images can be of great importance and relevance to second language teaching,
particularly for lower level students. Nevertheless, very few instructors seem to
make the best use of pictures in their classes. In a reading session where texts can
sometimes be complicated and uninspiring to students, pictures are one of very few
aids that teachers can use to grab their students’ attention as well as to motivate
them before starting the actual reading. Advantages of using pictures in language
teaching are :
 It motivates the learners.

 It develops self-confidence.
 It gives a comprehensive idea about concepts.
 It is a good tool for pre – teaching.
 It helps in expanding Students’ General Knowledge.
 It is more convenient for teachers in classroom.
 It enables for the mastery of different concepts.
 It helps the teacher for integrating multiple skills in children.
Techniques for Using Pictures
As mentioned earlier, pictures can be used in many ways. Here is a closer
look at some of the different techniques that can benefit from using pictures.
1. Reading
Before handing the students the text itself, a good warm-up activity is to
give them a handout containing several pictures related to the main idea of the
article. Students can work in groups and try to identify who the people or what the
objects in the pictures are. By so doing, students will be more attracted to the topic
of the reading and get involved in some speaking as well.
2. Vocabulary Building or Review
For lower level classes (i.e. elementary), teaching new vocabulary is not the
easiest thing to do unless a teacher translates the word in to the students’ first
language. Translating can be difficult if the students come from several linguistic
backgrounds. To minimize First Language speaking, a teacher can provide the
students with pictures that show the meaning of the words. This can make the class
more interesting and the students can remember the words better than merely
translating those words into their First Language.
3. Speaking and writing
Apart from reading, pictures can be used in teaching speaking and writing as
well. For speaking, you can arrange the students into pairs and give each pair two

different pictures and ask them to find 10 differences in the pictures. If you want to
focus more on accuracy, you can ask them to write the differences on a piece of
paper
4. Grammar
The language focus of this technique is the ‘Second Conditional’. Give the
students pictures of different locations such as: bar, landscape, hospital…etc. Then
ask the students what they would do if they were in that location .
5. All Four Skills:
This activity is very popular because it involves the students in all the
macro-skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Following are the steps that
make up the activity. Before coming to class, the teacher needs to select a short
text suitable for the level of the learners. For example ; There's an island in the
middle of a lake. In the middle of the island there's a house with a big door and
four windows on the ground floor, and six windows on the first floor. There're a lot
of big trees to the left of the house. On the lake, to the right of the island, there's a
boat with two men in it. One of them is fishing. To the left of the lake there's a hill
with a church on the top. It's midday and the sun is in the sky.
- Listening: The teacher then asks the students to draw a picture according to what
they hear. An alternative would be to ask two students to draw on the board.
- Speaking: The teacher asks a few students to look at their own pictures and retell
the story.
- Listening and Writing: After retelling the story, the teacher then uses the
traditional dictation method. The students listen with care and write down on a
sheet of paper the text they hear. This is also good for ‘Bottom up’ Listening
Skills.
- Reading: After the students have written down the text, the teacher asks them to

do peer editing. Students read their partner’s writing and try to locate and correct
the mistakes.
Principles in The Use of Pictures
We should consider the following principles while using pictures in the
classroom ;
 Selection of pictures should be according to the mental and age level of
learners.
 It should be used for the attainment of specific learning outcomes.
 Presentation of the picture should be large enough to watch all students.
 Picture should give comprehensive idea about the lesson.
 Teacher should explain loudly and clearly what each picture is indicating.
 Presentation of picture should be unambiguous and judicious.
 It should be clear and genuine.
DIAGRAMS
Diagrams are simplified drawing showing the appearance, structure, or
workings of something. Diagram is a schematic representation. It shows the inter
relationship primarily by means of lines and symbols. A good diagram is highly
simplified as only the most essential elements are shown . It is a plan, sketch,
drawing, or outline designed to demonstrate or explain how something works or to
clarify the relationship between the parts of a whole. Understanding information or
ideas presented in diagrams usually requires a back ground of direct experience. A
good diagram must be technically correct and neatly drawn with proper measures.
It is one of the important teaching aid that helps to present complex ideas in a
summarized manner.
GRAPHS

Graphs are pictures that help us to understand numerical or statistical data in
a simple manner. Classified data can be represented by a variety of graphs in order
to give a visual picture of the distribution. There are many kinds of graphs, each
having special parts. Graphical representation of data is the simplest tool of
communication to a layman. Types of Graphs provides in-depth information about
charts & graphs. Graphs are used in a variety of ways, and almost every industry,
such as engineering, search engine optimization, mathematics, and education.
Following are the different types of graphs;
Pictographs
Pictographs, also called pictograms, are diagrams that show and compare
data by using picture symbols. Each of these symbols corresponds to a specific
quantity and is repeated a number of times. The media often uses pictographs to
compare trends.
Organizational Chart
Organizational charts, also called organization charts or org charts, are
diagrams that reveal the overall structure of the workforce of a company. Through
an organizational chart, the formal indirect or direct relationships between the
positions in a company are presented. The chart also shows how different
departments are connected.
Organizational charts are types of graphs that depict four types of
relationships: line, lateral, staff, and functional. Line relationships exist between
superiors and subordinates. Lateral relationships exist between different
departments of similar rank. Staff relationships exist between a managerial
assistant and a line manager. Functional relationships exist between a specialist
and a line manager.
An organizational chart is usually shaped like a pyramid, with the President
or Chief Officer in the top rectangle and levels of subordinates in descending

rectangles according to rank listed below. Each rectangle size corresponds to the
level of authority. Thus, superiors have larger rectangles than subordinates. Peers
have equally sized rectangles. Solid lines between rectangles signify a direct
relationship, and dashed lines symbolize an indirect relationship. Arrows represent
the direction of communication flow between the components of organizational
charts.
An organizational chart has its advantages. It promotes structure in an
organization and defines the roles of the management. It also reveals the parts of a
company that need improvement and possibly more or less employees. An
organization chart also has disadvantages. It does not reveal anything about the
managerial style. Moreover, organizational charts needs to be changed every time
an employee leaves or joins the company.
Flowcharts
Flowcharts are types of graphs that display a schematic process.
Contemporary flow charts are modeled after the logic behind early computer
games. Businesses often use them to visually depict all the stages of a project.
Therefore, individuals working on a project refer to a flow chart to see the
breakdown of the process and understand the whole picture. A flowchart can
effectively be used as a training tool for employees who are being introduced to a
new project. It also helps in locating and correcting errors in a project. Even
though flow chart use is usually linked to the field of business, a flowchart can be
used for any purpose that involves a cross-functional process. It can even be used
to show driving directions from one location to another.
A flowchart consists of start points, end points, inputs, outputs, and routes
which are commonly represented by basic symbols that are labeled. Ovals
represent start and end points. Rectangles represent the steps of a process, and
diamonds represent decisions. Diamonds have two routes stemming from them;

one is a true or yes route and the other is a false or no route. Circles stand for
operations; arrow-shaped figures stand for transportation, while triangles represent
storage, and squares stand for inspection. Arrows linking symbols signify the
sequence of a process. While most flowcharts use shapes as symbols, others use
graphics instead.
Cosmo Graphs
A cosmograph is a graph which is used by a cosmographer to map the
general features of the universe. This representation of the heavens and earth tries
to explain the universe without crossing over into the science of astronomy or
geography. So a cosmograph is part of cosmography and what a cosmographer
would use as part of his work.
A cosmograph is commonly used to monitor finances. In this context, it is
used to track the input and output of a business or organization. Government
agencies, for instance, use cosmograph when they want to make a visual
presentation about the money that entered the agency and how the amounts were
used. Components of input, or income, are listed on the left side of the
cosmograph, and components of output, or expenditure, are listed on the right side.
The size of each component on a cosmograph corresponds to its value. Larger
dollar amounts mean physically larger components. Besides monetary value, an
input-output cosmograph can deal with quantity or percentage.
A cosmograph can also be used to show a comparison between geographical
regions. Publications frequently feature cosmographs that use different colors to
provide information about regions, in respect to a whole. An example of this type
of cosmograph is an illustration of the US map with each state in blue, red, or
purple, reflecting the dominant political party.
Bar Graphs

Bar graphs are used to present and compare data. There are two main types
of bar graphs: horizontal and vertical. They are easy to understand, because they
consist of rectangular bars that differ in height or length according to their value or
frequency. These types of graphs serve the same purpose as line graphs: they
represent time series data. However, bar graphs display a change in magnitude, and
not in direction like line graphs.
A horizontal bar graph consists of an x-axis, and a vertical bar graph consists
of a y-axis. The numbers on the axes are known as the scales. Each bar is
represents a numeric or categorical variable. Vertical bar graphs are best used for
the comparison of time series data and frequency distribution. Horizontal bar
graphs are particularly useful when category labels are long; vertical bar graphs do
not provide much space for text labels.
Line Graphs
Line graphs are the most popular types of graphs, because they are simple to
create and easy to understand. They organize and present data in a clear manner
and show relationships between the data. They are used for personal, educational,
and professional reasons. Particularly popular in the fields of science and statistics,
they can also forecast the results of data that is not yet gathered. While line graphs
and bar graphs share the same purpose, line graphs display a change in direction,
while bar graphs display a change in magnitude.
Line graphs are used to display the comparison between two variables which
are plotted on the horizontal x- and vertical y-axes of a grid. The x-axis usually
represents measures of time, while the y-axis usually represents percentage or
measures of quantity. Therefore, line graphs are commonly used as time series
graphs that show differences in direction.
Pie Charts

Pie charts are easy to make, easy to read, and very popular. They are used to
represent categorical data or values of variables. They are basically circles that are
divided into segments or categories which reflect the proportion of the variables in
relation to the whole. Percentages are used to compare the segments, with the
whole being equal to 100%.
To make a pie chart, draw a circle with a protractor. Then, convert the
measures of the variables into percentages, and divide the circle accordingly. It is
best to order the segments clockwise from biggest to smallest, so that the pie chart
looks neat and the variable are easy to compare. It is also recommended to write
percentage and category labels next to each segment, so that users are not required
to refer to the legend each time they want to identify a segment.
Advantages of Graphs
 It permits easy visualization.
 The data can be easily understood just by a glance over the graph.
 It helps in the observation of data with concentration.
 It facilitates comparative study of different aspects of a given data.
 It helps a great deal in the analysis of data .
 It helps to interpret the data and draw conclusions.
Limitations of Graphs
 Presentation of graph is time consuming.
 Its facility for comparative study is limited.
 Measures from the graph will not be accurate.
 The conclusion draws from the graph will not be precise.
MAPS

The word "map" comes from the medieval Latin Mappa mundi,
wherein mappa meant napkin or cloth and mundi the world. Thus, "map" became
the shortened term referring to a two-dimensional representation of the surface of
the world. A map is a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between
elements of some space, such as objects, regions, and themes. Many maps
are static two-dimensional, geometrically accurate (or approximately accurate)
representations of three-dimensional space, while others are dynamic or
interactive, even three-dimensional. Although most commonly used to depict
geography, maps may represent any space, real or imagined, without regard
to context or scale; e.g. brain mapping, DNA mapping and extraterrestrial
mapping. Cartography or map-making is the study and practice of crafting
representations of the Earth upon a flat surface (see History of cartography), and
one who makes maps is called a cartographer. In addition to location information
maps may also be used to portray contour lines indicating constant values
of elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc.
General-purpose maps provide many types of information on one map. Most
atlas maps, wall maps, and road maps fall into this category. The following are
some features that might be shown on a general-purpose maps: bodies of water,
roads, railway lines, parks, elevations, towns and cities, political boundaries,
latitude and longitude, national and provincial parks. These maps give a broad
understanding of location and features of an area. The reader may gain an
understanding of the type of landscape, the location of urban places, and the
location of major transportation routes all at once.

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