This document discusses various methods of digital-to-analog conversion for analog transmission of digital data. It describes techniques such as amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). For each method, it discusses how the digital data modulates an analog carrier signal, provides examples of implementation, and examines bandwidth requirements. It also introduces constellation diagrams to depict signal amplitudes and phases for modulation schemes involving multiple carriers.
Here is the presentation for Physical Layer Numericals from the book Andrew S. Tanenbaum (Computer Networks) and B A Forouzan ( Data Communication and Networking)
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Comparative Study and Performance Analysis of different Modulation Techniques...Souvik Das
A comparative study and performance analysis of different modulation
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About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
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Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
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Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
2. 5.2
5-1 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION5-1 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Digital-to-analogDigital-to-analog conversion is the process ofconversion is the process of
changing one of the characteristics of an analogchanging one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data.signal based on the information in digital data.
Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Topics discussed in this section:Topics discussed in this section:
3. 5.3
Digital to Analog Conversion
Digital data needs to be carried on an
analog signal.
A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs
the function of transporting the digital
data in an analog waveform.
The analog carrier signal is manipulated
to uniquely identify the digital data being
carried.
6. 5.6
Bit rate, N, is the number of bits per
second (bps). Baud rate is the number
of signal
elements per second (bauds).
In the analog transmission of digital
data, the signal or baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.
S=Nx1/r bauds
Where r is the number of data bits per
signal element.
Note
7. 5.7
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If
1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit
rate.
Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can
find the value of N from
Example 5.1
8. 5.8
Example 5.2
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud
rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are
carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?
Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are
unknown. We find first the value of r and then the value
of L.
9. 5.9
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ASK is implemented by changing the
amplitude of a carrier signal to reflect
amplitude levels in the digital signal.
For example: a digital “1” could not affect the
signal, whereas a digital “0” would, by making
it zero.
The line encoding will determine the values of
the analog waveform to reflect the digital data
being carried.
10. 5.10
Bandwidth of ASK
The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional
to the signal rate S.
B = (1+d)S
“d” is due to modulation and filtering,
lies between 0 and 1.
13. 5.13
Example 5.3
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This
means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz.
We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate
(with d = 1 and r = 1).
14. 5.14
Example 5.4
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex
links with communication in both directions. We need
to divide the bandwidth into two with two carrier
frequencies, as shown in Figure 5.5. The figure shows
the positions of two carrier frequencies and the
bandwidths. The available bandwidth for each
direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data
rate of 25 kbps in each direction.
16. 5.16
Frequency Shift Keying
The digital data stream changes the
frequency of the carrier signal, fc.
For example, a “1” could be
represented by f1=fc +∆f, and a “0” could
be represented by f2=fc-∆f.
18. 5.18
Bandwidth of FSK
If the difference between the two
frequencies (f1 and f2) is 2∆f, then the
required BW B will be:
B = (1+d)xS +2∆f
19. 5.19
Example 5.5
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using FSK with d = 1?
Solution
This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are
modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is at
250 kHz. We choose 2 f to be 50 kHz; this meansΔ
20. 5.20
Coherent and Non Coherent
In a non-coherent FSK scheme, when
we change from one frequency to the
other, we do not adhere to the current
phase of the signal.
In coherent FSK, the switch from one
frequency signal to the other only
occurs at the same phase in the signal.
21. 5.21
Multi level FSK
Similarly to ASK, FSK can use multiple
bits per signal element.
That means we need to provision for
multiple frequencies, each one to
represent a group of data bits.
The bandwidth for FSK can be higher
B = (1+d)xS + (L-1)/2∆f = LxS
23. 5.23
Example 5.6
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3
Mbps. The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the
number of levels (different frequencies), the baud rate,
and the bandwidth.
Solution
We can have L = 23
= 8. The baud rate is S = 3 Mbps/3 =
1 Mbaud. This means that the carrier frequencies must be
1 MHz apart (2 f = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B = 8 ×Δ
1M = 8M. Figure 5.8 shows the allocation of frequencies
and bandwidth.
25. 5.25
Phase Shift Keyeing
We vary the phase shift of the carrier
signal to represent digital data.
The bandwidth requirement, B is:
B = (1+d)xS
PSK is much more robust than ASK as
it is not that vulnerable to noise, which
changes amplitude of the signal.
28. 5.28
Quadrature PSK
To increase the bit rate, we can code 2 or
more bits onto one signal element.
In QPSK, we parallelize the bit stream so that
every two incoming bits are split up and PSK
a carrier frequency. One carrier frequency is
phase shifted 90o
from the other - in
quadrature.
The two PSKed signals are then added to
produce one of 4 signal elements. L = 4 here.
30. 5.30
Example 5.7
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12
Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.
Solution
For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element. This
means that r = 2. So the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N ×
(1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6
MHz.
31. 5.31
Constellation Diagrams
A constellation diagram helps us to
define the amplitude and phase of a
signal when we are using two carriers,
one in quadrature of the other.
The X-axis represents the in-phase
carrier and the Y-axis represents
quadrature carrier.
33. 5.33
Example 5.8
Show the constellation diagrams for an ASK (OOK),
BPSK, and QPSK signals.
Solution
Figure 5.13 shows the three constellation diagrams.