This document discusses various analog modulation techniques used to transmit analog and digital signals. It begins by explaining digital-to-analog conversion which involves modulating an analog carrier signal by changing aspects like amplitude, frequency or phase based on digital data. Then it describes different digital modulation techniques like amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK) and phase shift keying (PSK). It also discusses more advanced modulations like quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). The document then covers analog-to-analog conversion, explaining modulation techniques used when the medium is bandpass, like amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). Key aspects like bandwidth requirements are also summarized.
Digital Communication System
Communication Channels
AWGN: Universal channel model
Band Limited Channel: Channel BW <Signal BW, ISI
Fading Channel: multipath waves
Basic Modulation Methods
Criteria for choosing Modulation Schemes
Power Efficiency: Required Eb/N for certain error probability over AWGN channel
Bandwidth Efficiency: no. of bits per second that can be transmitted on system bandwidth.
System Complexity: Amount of circuit involved and complexity
System Performance Parameters
Average SNR
Outage Probability: instantaneous prob. Exceed certain limit
Average BEP
Amount of Fading/severity of fading
Average Outage duration: O/P SNR fall below certain SNR
Analog Transmission, data communication
Digital-to-analog conversion, analog-to-analog conversion, Digital to Digital conversion, Analog to Digital Conversion, Amplitude Shift Keying , Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying,Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), Phase Modulation (PM)
Digital Communication System
Communication Channels
AWGN: Universal channel model
Band Limited Channel: Channel BW <Signal BW, ISI
Fading Channel: multipath waves
Basic Modulation Methods
Criteria for choosing Modulation Schemes
Power Efficiency: Required Eb/N for certain error probability over AWGN channel
Bandwidth Efficiency: no. of bits per second that can be transmitted on system bandwidth.
System Complexity: Amount of circuit involved and complexity
System Performance Parameters
Average SNR
Outage Probability: instantaneous prob. Exceed certain limit
Average BEP
Amount of Fading/severity of fading
Average Outage duration: O/P SNR fall below certain SNR
Analog Transmission, data communication
Digital-to-analog conversion, analog-to-analog conversion, Digital to Digital conversion, Analog to Digital Conversion, Amplitude Shift Keying , Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying,Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), Phase Modulation (PM)
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Event Management System Vb Net Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
In present era, the scopes of information technology growing with a very fast .We do not see any are untouched from this industry. The scope of information technology has become wider includes: Business and industry. Household Business, Communication, Education, Entertainment, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Distance Learning, Weather Forecasting. Carrier Searching and so on.
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In my system we have to make a system by which a user can record all events coordinated by a particular faculty. In our proposed system some more featured are added which differs it from the existing system such as security.
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Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
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Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
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Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
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2. 5.2
5-1 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of
changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data.
Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Topics discussed in this section:
3. 5.3
Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog conversion
◼ Digital-to-analog modulation (or shift keying): changing one of the
characteristics of the analog signal based on the information of the
digital signal (carrying digital information onto analog signals)
◼ Remember: changing any of the characteristics of the simple signal
(amplitude, frequency, or phase) would change the nature of the signal
to become a composite signal
◼ The digital information can be carried as predefined changes to one or
more of the characteristics (e.g. no-change = 0 and some-change = 1)
7. 5.7
Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
◼ Data Element vs. Signal Element
◼ Data Rate vs. Signal Rate
◼ S = N/r
◼ r = log2 L, where L is the number of signal elements
◼ Bandwidth:
◼ The required bandwidth for analog transmission of
digital data is proportional to the signal rate
◼ Carrier Signal:
◼ The digital data changes the carrier signal by
modifying one of its characteristics
◼ This is called modulation (or Shift Keying)
◼ The receiver is tuned to the carrier signal’s frequency
8. 5.8
• Bit rate is the number of bits per
second.
• Baud rate is the number of signal
elements per second.
• In the analog transmission of digital
data, baud rate <= bit rate.
Note
9. 5.9
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If
1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit
rate.
Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can
find the value of N from
Example 5.1
10. 5.10
Example 5.2
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a
baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements
are carried by each signal element? How many
signal elements do we need?
Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are
unknown. We find first the value of r and then the value
of L.
11. 5.11
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
◼ ASK: varying the peak amplitude of the carrier signal to represent
binary 1 or 0
◼ Other signal characteristics remain constant as the amplitude
changes
◼ During each bit duration, the peak amplitude remains constant
◼ Transmission medium noise is usually additive (i.e.; affects the
amplitude), therefore, ASK is very susceptible to noise
interference
12. 5.12
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
◼ E.g of ASK is BASK (simplest form)
◼ Binary ASK (BASK) or On/Off Keying (OOK) modulation technique:
◼ One of the binary bits is represented by no voltage
◼ Advantage: requires less transmission energy compared to two-level techniques
◼ BASK spectrum is most significantly between [fc - S/2, fc + S/2], where fc is
frequency of the carrier signal and S is the baud rate
◼ The ASK bandwidth is BBASK = (1+d) S , where d is a factor related to the
modulation process (channel Condition), d is between 0 and 1
◼ The minimum bandwidth required to transmit an ASK is equal to the baud rate
◼ The baud rate is the same as the bit rate ➔ N = S
15. 5.15
Example 5.3
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the
bit rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means
that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz. We can use the
formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).
16. 5.16
Example 5.4
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links
with communication in both directions. We need to divide the
bandwidth into two with two carrier frequencies, as shown in
Figure 5.5. The figure shows the positions of two carrier
frequencies and the bandwidths. The available bandwidth for
each direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate
of 25 kbps in each direction.
Figure 5.5 Bandwidth of full-duplex ASK used in Example 5.4
17. 5.17
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
◼ FSK: varying the frequency of the carrier signal to represent
binary 1 or 0
◼ Other signal characteristics remain constant as the frequency
changes
◼ During each bit duration, the frequency remains constant
◼ FSK is mostly immune to the transmission medium additive noise
interference since FSK only cares about Frequency changes
18. 5.18
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
◼ The Binary FSK (BFSK) can be thought of as two ASK signals,
each with its own carrier frequency f1 and f2
◼ f1 and f2 are 2f apart
◼ The BFSK required bandwidth is BBFSK = (1+d) S + 2f
◼ What is the minimum value of 2f ?
◼ The baud rate is the same as the bit rate ➔ N = S
21. 5.21
Example 5.5
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from
200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the bit
rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?
Solution
This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are modulating
by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose
2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means
f1 f2
23. 5.23
Multi-Level FSK (MFSK)
◼ More than two frequencies can be used to represent
more than one bit each
◼ For example: four different frequencies can be used to send
2 bits at a time
◼ However, each adjacent pair of frequencies must be
2f apart
◼ The MFSK required bandwidth is
BMFSK = (1+d) S + (L-1) 2f
◼ When d=0, the minimum Bandwidth BMFSK = L x S
24. 5.24
Example 5.6
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3
Mbps. The carrier center frequency is 10 MHz.
Calculate the number of levels (different frequencies),
the baud rate, and the minimum bandwidth.
Solution
We have L = 23 = 8. The baud rate is S = 3 MHz/3 = 1
Mbaud ➔ the carrier frequencies must be 1 MHz
apart (2Δf = 1 MHz).
The bandwidth is B = 8 × 1MHz = 8 MHz
Figure 5.8 shows the allocation of frequencies and
bandwidth.
27. 5.27
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
◼ PSK: varying the phase of carrier signal to represent binary 1 or 0
◼ Other signal characteristics remain constant as the phase changes
◼ During each bit duration, the phase remains constant
◼ PSK is mostly immune to the transmission medium additive noise
interference since PSK only cares about phase changes
◼ PSK spectrum and bandwidth requirements are similar to ASK
◼ PSK is better than both ASK and FSK. Why?
28. 5.28
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
◼ 2-PSK or Binary PSK (BPSK): uses 2 different phases (usually 0
and 180) each representing 1 bit of data ➔ N = S
◼ 4-PSK or Quad PSK (QPSK): uses 4 different phases (e.g.; 45, -
45, 135, and -135) each representing 2 bits of data ➔ N = 2 S
◼ PSK is represented by a Constellation (or Phase-State) diagram
◼ PSK is limited by the ability of the receiver to distinguish small
phase difference, therefore, limiting the potential bit rate
31. 5.31
Figure 5.11 QPSK and its implementation
Phase=0
Phase=180
Phase=270
Phase=108+270=225=-135
32. 5.32
Example 5.7
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12
Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.
Solution
For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element. This
means that r = 2.
signal rate (baud rate) =S = N × (1/r) = 6 Mbaud.
B=(1+d)S
For d = 0, → B = S = 6 MHz.
34. 5.34
Figure 5.12 Concept of a constellation diagram
◼ Used to define the amplitude and phase of a signal element when using two
carriers or when dealing with multi-level shift keying
◼ A signal element is represented by a dot in the diagram, of which:
◼ The projection on the X axis defines the peak amplitude of the in-phase component
◼ The projection on the Y axis defines the peak amplitude of the quadrature component
◼ The length of the line connecting the point to the origin is the peak amplitude of the
signal element
◼ The angle the line makes with the X axis is the phase of the signal element
35. 5.35
Example 5.8
Show the constellation diagrams for an ASK (OOK),
BPSK, and QPSK signals.
Solution
Figure 5.13 shows the three constellation diagrams.
Figure 5.13 Three constellation diagrams
36. 5.36
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
◼ QAM: varying both the peak amplitude and the phase of the
carrier signal to represent binary combination
◼ During each bit duration, the phase and amplitude remain constant
◼ Theoretically, any number of measurable changes in phase and
amplitude can be combined to give several variations in the signal
◼ The number of phase shifts is always greater than the amplitude
shifts. Why?
◼ The greater the ratio of phase to amplitude shifts, the better the
noise immunity
◼ QAM spectrum and bandwidth requirements are similar to ASK
and PSK
41. 5.41
Example:
A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced points on a
circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the baud rate?
Solution:
The constellation indicates
*8-PSK with the points 45 degrees apart.
Since 23 = 8, → 3 bits are transmitted with each signal unit.
→baud rate= S=N/r= 4800 / 3 = 1600 baud
000
001
010
111
8-QAM
=8-PSK
42. 5.42
Example
Compute the bit rate (N) for a 1000-baud 16-QAM signal.
Solution
A 16-QAM signal has r=4 bits per signal unit since
log216 = 4.
Thus,
N=S*r=(1000)(4) = 4000 bps
43. 5.43
Example
Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal.
Solution
A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since
r= log2 64 = 6.
Thus,
S=N/r=72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud
45. 5.45
5-2 ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of
analog information by an analog signal. One may
ask why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is
already analog. Modulation is needed if the medium
is bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass channel
is available to us.
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
Topics discussed in this section:
47. 5.47
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
◼ The amplitude of the carrier (or modulated) signal changes with
the amplitude changes of the modulating signal
◼ The frequency and phase of the modulated signal remain constant
◼ The modulating signal becomes the envelope (i.e.; the outer shape)
of the modulated signal
48. 5.48
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
◼ The bandwidth of the AM signal is equal to twice the bandwidth
of the modulating signal (BAM = 2B)
◼ The bandwidth of an audio signal (voice and music) is (B=5) kHz
◼ AM radio stations are assigned signal (BAM=10) kHz band per
channel
◼ Every other band is used as a guard band to prevent interference
among adjacent channels
53. 5.53
Frequency Modulation (FM)
◼ The frequency of the carrier (or modulated) signal changes
with the amplitude changes of the modulating signal
◼ The peak amplitude and phase of the modulated signal remain
constant
54. 5.54
Frequency Modulation (FM)
◼ The bandwidth of the FM signal is usually about 10 times the
bandwidth of the modulating signal
◼ BFM = 2(1 + β)B
◼ The bandwidth of a stereo audio signal (voice and music) is
about 15 kHz
◼ FM radio stations are assigned 200 kHz band per channel
◼ Every other band is used as a guard band to prevent
interference among adjacent channels
55. 5.55
is the Modulation index which is the ratio of frequency deviation
to highest frequency in the modulating signal
57. 5.57
The total bandwidth required for FM can
be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B.
β= 4
Note
β is the Modulation index which is the ratio of frequency
deviation to highest frequency in the modulating signal
the modulation index indicates by how
much the modulated variable varies
around its unmodulated level.
60. 5.60
Phase Modulation (PM)
◼ The phase of the carrier (or modulated) signal
changes with the amplitude changes of the
modulating signal
◼ The peak amplitude and frequency of the modulated
signal remain constant
◼ PM is the same as FM except that in FM, the
instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal, while in PM it is proportional to the rate of
change of the amplitude
◼ The bandwidth of the PM signal is usually abut 6
times the bandwidth of the modulating signal
63. 5.63
The total bandwidth required for PM can
be determined from the bandwidth
and maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + β)B.
Note